1

UNIT: ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING &
MANAGEMENT

COURSE: ARCHITECTURE

DEPT: ARCHITECTURE &

SPATIAL PLANNING

L. Arch. Eric M. Kinyua

Dept. of Architecture & spatial
planning.
Kabete National Polytechnic

ARCH. ERIC 1
 2

COURSE OUTLINE

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

1.1 Environment system theory
1.2 Types of environmental systems
1.3 Interrelationships among ecological, energy and hydrological systems

2.0 RESOURCE OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION

2.1 use of resources
2.2 technology and resources

3.0 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION

3.1 sustainable resource use concepts
3.2 forms of resource management
3.3 Resource protection and conservation
3.4 Regulations in resource management and conservation

4.0 PLANNING OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

4.1 definition of human settlements
4.2 Land use and zoning
4.3 Requirements for infrastructure services
4.4 Site layout plans
4.5 Environmental pollution problems

5.0 LAND ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

5.1 Forms of land tenure systems in Kenya

ARCH. ERIC 2
 3

5.2 Land administration process

5.3 Land use planning,legislation and regulations
5.4 Role of Local authority and central government

6.0 BUILDING THERMAL ENVIRONMENT

6.1 Definition of terms
6.2 Modes of heat transfer
6.3 Thermal physical properties of materials
6.4 Greenhouse effect
6.5 Thermal insulation
6.6 Sun protection

7.0 BUILDING ACCOUSTICS

7.1 Definition of terms
7.2 Nature and properties of sound
7.3 Noise pollution and control
7.4 Sound properties of common construction materials
7.5 Sound insulation

8.0 BUILDING LIGHTING

8.1 Definition of terms
8.2 Natural and artificial lighting
8.3 Daylight factors and design
8.4 Lighting design for internal and external spaces

ARCH. ERIC 3
 4

CHAPTER 4: PLANNING OF HUMAN

SETTLEMENTS
4.1 Human settlements

Human settlement is a place where people live. It refers to the totality of human community with
all the social, material, organizational, spiritual, and cultural elements that sustain it. Any form of
human dwelling, from the smallest house to the largest city, where group of people reside and
pursue their life goals, can be understood as settlement. Human settlements come in many forms
and can be permanent and temporary, rural and urban, mobile and sedentary, disseminated and
agglomerated.

4.2 Land use and zoning

Land use refers to the relationship between people and the land – more specifically, how the
physical world is adapted, modified, or put to use for human purposes. This includes even the
“non-use” of lands reserved as wilderness or protected from human impacts.

Decisions about land use are made by people from many walks of life. Examples from the private
sector include residents choosing where to live, business owners opening or expanding a business,
and farmers and ranchers raising crops and livestock. The public sector also makes important
decisions about land use. Legislatures and chief executives make policy and funding decisions that
have myriad effects on land use. Courts interpret how laws and policies apply in practice. Local
and state agencies then administer the laws and policies that govern the use and development of
land, both public and private. While many parties play a role, local agencies are at the center of
decisions regarding land use.

ARCH. ERIC 4
 5

4.2.1 Types of land uses

i) Residential

The residential category includes single-family residences, multiple-unit dwellings and mobile
homes. Also included is the mixed residential group, which is comprised of two or more of the
above groups. Residential areas are easily identified on aerial photographs by the shapes and
patterns of individual houses, housing developments and multiple dwelling (apartment or
condominium) complexes. They can also be identified by their proximity to urban centers or
roadways.

Residential areas which are integral parts of other land uses and located on the site of that land use
are included in that land use category. For example, residential units may be found on military
bases or on college campuses in the form of barracks, apartments or dormitories. These residences
would be mapped as their associated land use.

This type of land use Includes sub categories such as;

• Residential (High Density or Multiple dwelling)- This category contains either high-
density single units or multiple dwelling units on 1/8 to 1/5-acre lots. These areas are found
in the densely populated urban zones and generally are characterized by impervious surface
coverage of ~65%.
• Residential (Single Unit, Medium Density)- This category is comprised of residential
urban/suburban neighborhoods greater than 1/8 acre and up to and including ½ acre lots.
These areas generally contain impervious surface areas of ~30-35%
• Residential (Single Unit, Low Density)- This category contains single unit residential
neighborhoods with areas greater than ½ acre up to and including 1-acre lots. These areas
generally contain impervious surface areas of ~20-25%
• Residential (Rural, Single Unit)- This category contains single unit residential
neighborhoods with areas between 1 acre and up to and including 2-acre lots. These areas
ARCH. ERIC 5
 6

generally contain impervious surface areas of ~15-20% or less. This type is found in
sparsely populated regions surrounded by or adjacent to forested or agricultural lands. Also
included are estates or modern sub-divisions with large lot sizes providing a density less
than or equal to 1 dwelling unit per acre. Impervious surface areas in the more rural settings
can be as low as 5%.
• Mixed Residential- The mixed residential category is used for an area where various
residential uses occur and the individual uses cannot be separated at mapping scale (1 acre).
Where more than 1/3 intermixture of other residential use or uses occurs in a specific area,
it is classified as mixed residential. Where the inter-mixtures of other residential land use
or uses total less than 1/3 of the specified area, the dominant land use category is applied.
Impervious surface coverage in these areas can vary significantly.

ii) Industrial

This category encompasses a great variety of structure types and land uses. Light and heavy
industry are comprised of land uses where manufacturing, assembly or processing of products
takes place. Power generation is included here because of its similarity to heavy industry. These
areas generally have a high percentage of impervious surface coverage.

• Light Industrial- Light industry deals with design, assembly, finishing, packaging, and
storing of products or materials that have usually been processed at least once. These
activities are characterized as "clean", since they produce a relatively small amount of
smoke and other effluents, noise, and dust. Light industries include facilities for
administration, research, assembly, storage, warehousing, and shipping. Examples are
electronics firms, trucking companies, small textile mills, and auto assembly plants.
Characteristic features may include the nature of the buildings, parking and shipping
arrangements, the presence of outdoor storage facilities, trailer trucks, loading docks, rail
lines, power sources and smokestacks.

ARCH. ERIC 6
 7

• Heavy Industrial- Heavy industry involves the processing of raw materials such as iron
ore, timber, petroleum or coal, or the fabrication and assemblage of parts that are bulky
and heavy. Examples of heavy industry are steel, pulp, and lumber mills, oil refineries and
tank farms, chemical plants, and grain mills. Recognizable features include blast furnaces,
kilns, chemical processing towers, large chimneys or stacks, fuel tanks, boiler house,
transformer yards, silos, bins and piles and ponds of water. Also included in this category
are surface structures associated with mining operations: loading devices, trucks, access
roads processing facilities, stock piles, and storage sheds.
• Power Generation- There are three main types of power generators: thermal, nuclear and
hydroelectric. Features common to all three types are the presence of transmission lines
and transformer yards, and often, proximity to water. Both thermal and nuclear plants
usually have cooling towers for used water. Thermal plants often have associated coal
piles and conveyor belts leading to the main plants. Nuclear plants have a characteristic
nuclear reactor building. Hydroelectric plants are usually at the dams of large reservoirs
or impounded streams, or at an elevation break on a watercourse. Typical features include
a dam and trailraces.

iii) Commercial

Areas that contain structures predominantly used for the sale of products and services are
classified as Commercial and Services. The main building, secondary structures and supporting
areas such as parking lots, driveways and landscaped areas are also placed under this category,
(unless the landscaped areas are greater than 1 acre in size in which case they are put into a
separate category). Sometimes non-commercial uses such as residential or industrial intermix
with commercial uses making it difficult to identify the predominant land use.

• Central Business District (CBD)- These are the "downtown" banking and commercial
centers of cities or towns where land use is largely undifferentiated. Retail stores, banks, office

ARCH. ERIC 7
 8

buildings, post offices, libraries, firehouses and courthouses are examples of structures that
may comprise a CBD.
• Commercial Strip Development- This is the commercial activity developed along major
highway and access roads to cities and towns in a more or less single strip. Hotel
accommodations, car dealers, fast food services, gas stations and other similar goods and
services establishments are examples that may comprise a Commercial strip. Location of these
building along a main vehicular transportation route is the key criterion. Frequently, especially
in suburban areas, residential and industrial land uses intermix with Commercial Strip
Development.
• Isolated Commercial Establishments for Goods and/or Services- This category pertains to
commercial establishments providing goods and services for direct consumer use. Isolated
single commercial buildings or isolated cluster of commercial buildings that are not part of a
Commercial Strip Development or a well-defined CBD are included in this category.
• Shopping Centers- A Shopping Center is a group of retail stores and other commercial
establishments planned, developed, owned and managed as a unit, with off-street parking
provided on the property. Shopping centers range in size from those of just a few thousand
square feet to plazas covering acres. Key identification features are large and often
interconnecting buildings surrounded by well-paved parking lots located near interchanges and
highways.

iv) Recreational

Under this category are included those areas which have been specifically developed for
recreational activities, if these areas are open to the general public. Any facilities that are part of
a resort complex and open only to patrons of the hotel or motel are not mapped under this category,
but under Commercial and Services category. Facilities mapped as recreational land may charge
user fees to the public, such as public golf courses; or, they may be free to the public, such as ball
fields on public school grounds.

ARCH. ERIC 8
 9

Examples include; golf courses, public parks, athletic fields, swimming pools, arboretums etc.

v) Transportation

The presence of major transportation routes greatly influence both the present and potential uses
of an area. These areas generally have a high percentage of impervious surface coverage. Major
roadways include limited access highways that typically contain at least two lanes in each
direction, separated by a concrete barrier or median strip. There are usually no cross streets or
traffic lights, and access is limited to ramps.

Railway facilities include railroads and spurs as well as stations, parking lots, roundhouses, power
generators, and repair and switching yards. Spurs that connect industrial or extractive pick-up
points with main rail lines are included in the appropriate industrial or extractive category.

Airport facilities are characterized by the presence of long, linear runway surfaces and adjacent
areas cleared of vegetation and other obstructions. Typical moderate to large-sized airports contain
parallel primary runways, smaller parallel taxi strips, intervening land, aircraft parking aprons,
hangars, terminals, service buildings, navigation aids, fuel storage areas, parking lots, and limited
buffer zones. This category also include heliports and land associated with seaplane bases. It does
not include other built-up land of small airports.

Seaports are isolated areas of high utilization with no well-defined intervening connections.
Included in this category are docks, piers, shipyards, drydocks, locks, waterway control structures,
buildings, parking lots and adjacent water utilized by ships in the loading or unloading of cargo or
passengers.

vi) Agriculture

This category includes all lands used primarily for the production of food and fiber and some of
the structures associated with this production. These areas are easily distinguished from the other
categories and represent a significant land use in Kenya. Examples include; Cropland and
Pastureland; Orchards; Vineyards; Nurseries and Horticultural Areas; Confined Feeding
Operations; tea plantations; coffee farms; flower farms etc.
ARCH. ERIC 9
 10

• Experimental Agriculture Fields- contains experimental crop areas associated with

agriculture research stations, universities, or industries. These areas are for research
purposes and contain many different crops in one field.

vii) Forestry

This category contains any lands covered by woody vegetation other than wetlands. These areas
are capable of producing timber and other wood products, and of supporting many kinds of outdoor
recreation. Forestland is an important category environmentally, because it affects air quality,
water quality, wildlife habitat, climate, and many other aspects of the ecology of an area.

viii) Utilities

The presence of major utilities such as sewage treatment plants and power lines, power substations,
and communication facilities greatly influence both the present and potential uses of an area.
Power facilities include power substations associated with transmission line right-of-ways where
the right-of-way is clearly visible on aerial photography and not used for any other purpose. On
aerial photography, power substations appear as geometric configuration with associated
transformers and transmission lines extending outward. Those associated with an industrial,
commercial, or extractive land uses are included in this category.

ix) Education

This category includes all levels of public and private schools, colleges, universities and training
centers. All buildings, campus open space, dormitories and parking areas are included. Not
included are recreational facilities such as ball fields, tennis courts, stadiums and swimming pools.
These recreational facilities are included in Recreation if they are of a mappable size. Universities
can often be identified by a maze of walkways linking various buildings. Primary and secondary
schools are usually 1 or 2 story buildings surrounded by recreational fields and located in
residential areas away from high traffic volumes. Any educational activity associated with

ARCH. ERIC 10
 11

religious institutions involving parish schools, seminaries, orphanages and novitiates, if of a

mappable size, are included in this category.

Land use coding

4.2.2 Zoning structure

Zoning laws regulate the use of land within a municipality. It controls the ways in which the land
can be developed and what purposes the zoned land can serve. Zoning dictates what types of
properties can co-exist in a particular area within a municipality. For example, some areas are
zoned strictly for single-family homes (possibly with exceptions for things like religious buildings
or community centers), while certain mixed-used or transitional zoning districts may allow for
select businesses and some single and multifamily homes to exist in the same area. On the other

ARCH. ERIC 11
 12

end of the spectrum, structures used for heavy industry will be consigned to specifically zoned
areas that are purposely kept far away from residential districts.

Zoning laws can also regulate more specific details of construction, such as maximum building
height, minimum lot size or how far a house needs to be setback from the road. The planners who
help create and mold the structures of our cities and towns want – for the most part – to create
layouts that make the most sense for the people living there in terms of how they live and move
within the area.

When making decisions about a city’s zoning, planners will often consult the city’s “master plan,”
which is a comprehensive document that lays out what a particular municipality’s current and
future needs and goals are.

A master plan takes into account a community’s transportation needs, its economy, its obstacles
and challenges, and the people, homes, parks and businesses that make up that community. Once
a master plan is in place, a zoning ordinance can be created, drawing on the goals and needs
outlined in the master plan. The zoning ordinance is what helps put a city’s plans into action; it’s
a document that lists all the regulations and laws that govern how land can be used and maps out
exactly what the boundaries of the area’s different zones are.

Common Zoning Terms

Accessory Dwelling Unit: A residential dwelling that exists on the same lot as a single-family
home but is an independent residence. This may be a detached structure, an attached addition to
the home or a unit built into the home’s basement or attic. Common examples include an “in-law
suite” or a guest house.

Accessory Uses: Structures that don’t fulfil the primary purpose of the land but are incidental to
the primary purpose. A classic example of this is a detached garage on a residential lot.

ARCH. ERIC 12
 13

Easements: A type of land-use restriction that gives an entity the right to use land owned by
someone else for a specific purpose. Easements may restrict the way you can use or build on your
land. An example would be a utility company running utility lines through your property.

Floor Area Ratio (FAR): Tells us how much floor space a building has relative to its total lot
size. Zoning ordinances may have restrictions on what an acceptable FAR can be.

Lot Coverage: The amount of a lot that is occupied by buildings and other structures. Zoning
ordinances may specify a maximum percentage of lot coverage allowed.

Parking Minimum: Stipulates the minimum amount of off-street parking a development must
have.

Setback/building line: Stipulates the distance a structure has to be from a lot’s boundaries. For
example, in residential neighborhoods, houses may have to be setback a specified number of yards
from the street.

Up zoning: A change in zoning laws that allows for more dense use of an area. An example of this
is a city changing a residential district’s zoning from only allowing single-family homes to
allowing for multifamily housing as well.

Variance: An exception granted by your local government to a zone’s use or building restrictions.

Plot coverage ratio: means the extent to which the plot is covered with a building or structure and
this is expressed as percentage or the ratio of the built up area to plot area.

Building coverage ratio: The Building Coverage Ratio is the size of the constructed buildings
floor plate (e.g. first floor total area) as compared to the total size of the plot of land. For example,
if the plot of land is 100sqm and the Building Coverage Ratio is 60%, then the first floor
constructed building can be up 60sqm.

Building height: Minimum and maximum building height standards promote relationship of scale
among structures in residential, commercial, and industrial neighborhoods, helping to create
harmonious environments which enhance a sense of place. Variations in maximum building height

ARCH. ERIC 13
 14

among zones allow increased intensity of development in light rail, Mixed-Use and Urban Center
zones.

Benefits of zoning

1. Stabilize and increase property values, particularly residential properties,

2. Relieve and check congestion in the streets and neighbourhoods.
3. Increase safety and enhance security and adminstration of secuirity services in buildings
and residential neighbourhoods,
4. Make business more efficient by ensuring there is order.
5. Make life healthier by increasing the quality and aesthetic values of a locality,
neighbourhood, city or town.

ARCH. ERIC 14
 15

4.3 Requirements for infrastructure services

Assignment

Explain the various requirements for infrastructure services as outlined below;

(30mks)

a) Water supply- demand assessment, sources, treatment, distribution

b) Waste water disposal- sewerage, septic tanks, aqua privy, VIP latrines, pit latrines

c) Solid waste disposal- land fill, incineration, composting, recycling, open dumping,
pyrolysis

d) Transportation- public, private, walking, cycling, railway, air, water, animal

e) Layout design of roads &streets- parking, traffic circulation, intersections

4.4 Types of site layout plans

a) Part development plan

A development plan sets out a local authority's policies and proposals for land use in their area.
The development plan guides and shapes day-to-day decisions as to whether or not planning
permission should be granted, under the system known as development control.

b) Cadastral survey plan

A cadastral survey plan is basically a property boundary survey. They are primarily carried out for
legal purposes so as to accurately establish land ownership boundaries and usage. Cadastral
surveys show the boundaries of properties between neighbours and may include items such as
easements, which are the right to cross or use someone else’s property for a particular reason.

ARCH. ERIC 15
 16

Cadastral or property boundary surveys are needed when:

• New parcels of land are created i.e. a new estate or large land development
• You want to subdivide your block and get several new land titles
• Neighbours want to check their property boundaries prior to fencing or building on or near
the boundary
• You want to create and grant an easement for access or use by another party

c) Land sub-division plan

Subdivision of land is the division of one parcel of land into two or more parcels, and may include
the creation of private roads or public streets. A subdivision plan is produced after an initial survey
of your property or land. The survey determines the existing boundaries, and is used to understand
the new proposed boundaries for the subdivision. A subdivision plan outlines both existing
boundaries and marks new boundaries. When you want to subdivide, a compliant subdivision
survey and plan is required before any other processes.

The subdivision process will generally involve four main steps:

• Preparation of a plan by a licensed land surveyor.

• Application for a planning permit and certification to local council.
• Referral to service authorities for consent and compliance.
• Registration with the Land Titles office

ARCH. ERIC 16
 17

4.5 Environmental pollution problems

Introduction

Environmental pollution is defined as the undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of our air, land and water. As a result of over-population, rapid industrializations,
and other human activities like agriculture and deforestation etc., earth became loaded with diverse
pollutants that were released as by-products. We know that, a living organism cannot live by itself.
Organisms interact among themselves. Hence, all organisms, such as plants, animals and human
beings, as well as the physical surroundings with whom we interact, form a part of our
environment. All these constituents of the environment are dependent upon each other. Thus, they
maintain a balance in nature. As we are the only organisms try to modify the environment to fulfill
our needs; it is our responsibility to take necessary steps to control the environmental imbalances.
The environmental imbalance gives rise to various environmental problems. Some of the
environmental problems are pollution, soil erosion leading to floods, salt deserts and sea recedes,
desertification, landslides, change of river directions, extinction of species, and vulnerable
ecosystem in place of more complex and stable ecosystems, depletion of natural resources, waste
accumulation, deforestation, thinning of ozone layer and global warming. The environmental
problems are visualized in terms of pollution, growth in population, development,
industrialization, unplanned urbanization etc. Rapid migration and increase in population in the
urban areas has also lead to traffic congestion, water shortages, solid waste, and air, water and
noise pollution are common noticeable problems in almost all the urban areas since last few years.

Pollutants are generally grouped under two classes:

(a) Biodegradable pollutants - Biodegradable pollutants are broken down by the activity of
microorganisms and enter into the biogeochemical cycles. Examples of such pollutants are
domestic waste products, urine and faucal matter, sewage, agricultural residue, paper, wood and
cloth etc.

ARCH. ERIC 17
 18

(b) Non- Biodegradable pollutants - Non-biodegradable pollutants are stronger chemical

bondage, do not break down into simpler and harmless products. These include various insecticides
and other pesticides, mercury, lead, arsenic, aluminum, plastics, radioactive waste etc.

Classification of Environmental Pollution

Pollution can be broadly classified according to the components of environment that are polluted.
Major of these are: Air pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution (land degradation) and Noise
pollution. Details of these types of pollutions are discussed below

with their prevention measures.

(1) Air Pollution

Air is mainly a mixture of various gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen. These are
present in a particular ratio. Whenever there is any imbalance in the ratio of these gases, air
pollution is caused. The sources of air pollution can be grouped as under;

(i) Natural; such as, forest fires, ash from smoking volcanoes, dust storm and decay of organic
matters.

(ii) Man-made due to population explosion, deforestation, urbanization and industrializations.

Certain activities of human beings release several pollutants in air, such as carbon monoxide (CO),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), lead, arsenic, asbestos,
radioactive matter, and dust. The major threat comes from burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and
petroleum products. Thermal power plants, automobiles and industries are major sources of air
pollution as well. Due to progress in atomic energy sector, there has been an increase in
radioactivity in the atmosphere. Mining activity adds to air pollution in the form of particulate
matter. Progress in agriculture due to use of fertilizers and pesticides has also contributed towards
air pollution. Indiscriminate cutting of trees and clearing of forests has led to increase in the amount
of carbon dioxide in atmosphere. Global warming is a consequence of green house effect caused

ARCH. ERIC 18
 19

by increased level of carbon dioxide (CO2). Ozone (O3) depletion has resulted in UV radiation
striking our earth.

Harmful Effects of air pollution

(a) It affects respiratory system of living organisms and causes bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer,
pneumonia etc. Carbon monoxide (CO) emitted from motor vehicles and cigarette smoke affects
the central nervous system.

(b) Due to depletion of ozone layer, UV radiation reaches the earth. UV radiation causes skin
cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.

(c) Acid rain is also a result of air pollution. This is caused by presence of oxides of nitrogen and
sulfur in the air. These oxides dissolve in rain water to form nitric acid and sulfuric acid
respectively. Various monuments, buildings, and statues are damaged due to corrosion by acid
present in the rain. The soil also becomes acidic. The cumulative effect is the gradual degradation
of soil and a decline in forest and agricultural productivity.

(d) The green house gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) trap the heat radiated
from earth. This leads to an increase in earth’s temperature.

(e) Some toxic metals and pesticides also cause air pollution

(2) Water Pollution

Water is one of the prime necessities of life. With increasing number of people depend on this
resource; water has become a scarce commodity. Pollution makes even the limited available water
unfit for use. Water is said to be polluted when there is any physical, biological or chemical change
in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for use. Sources
of water pollution are mainly factories, power plants, coal mines and oil wells situated either close
to water source or away from sources. They discharge pollutants directly or indirectly into the
water sources like river, lakes, water streams etc.

ARCH. ERIC 19
 20

The harmful effects of water pollution are:

(a) Human beings become victims of various water borne diseases, such as typhoid, cholera,
dysentery, hepatitis, jaundice, etc.

(b) The presence of acids/alkalies in water destroys the microorganisms, thereby hindering the
self-purification process in the rivers or water bodies. Agriculture is affected badly due to polluted
water. Marine eco-systems are affected adversely.

(c) The sewage waste promotes growth of phytoplankton in water bodies; causing reduction of
dissolved oxygen.

(d) Poisonous industrial wastes present in water bodies affect the fish population and deprives us
of one of our sources of food. It also kills other animals living in fresh water.

(e) The quality of underground water is also affected due to toxicity and pollutant content of
surface water.

Water pollution by industries and its effects

Industrial Water Pollution; A change in the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological quality
of water that is injurious to its uses. The term “water pollution” generally refers to human-induced
changes to water quality. Thus, the discharge of toxic chemicals from industries or the release of
human or livestock waste into a nearby water body is considered pollution. The contamination of
ground water of water bodies like rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries, and oceans can threaten the
health of humans and aquatic life.

Sources of water pollution may be divided into two categories.

(i) Point-source pollution, in which contaminants are discharged from a discrete location.
Sewage outfalls and oil spills are examples of point-source pollution.
(ii) Non-point-source or diffuse pollution, referring to all of the other discharges that
deliver contaminants to water bodies. Acid rain and unconfined runoff from
agricultural or urban areas falls under this category. The principal contaminants of

ARCH. ERIC 20
 21

water include toxic chemicals, nutrients, biodegradable organics, and bacterial & viral
pathogens.

Water pollution can affect human health when pollutants enter the body either via skin exposure
or through the direct consumption of contaminated drinking water and contaminated food. Prime
pollutants, including DDT and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), persist in the natural
environment and bioaccumulation occurs in the tissues of aquatic organisms. These prolonged and
persistent organic pollutants are transferred up the food chain and they can reach levels of concern
in fish species that are eaten by humans.

Moreover, bacterial and viral pathogens can pose a public health risk for those who drink
contaminated water or eat raw shellfish from polluted water bodies. Contaminants have a
significant impact on aquatic ecosystems. Enrichment of water bodies with nutrients (principally
nitrogen and phosphorus) can result in the growth of algae and other aquatic plants that shade or
clog streams. If wastewater containing biodegradable organic matter is discharged into a stream
with inadequate dissolved oxygen, the water downstream of the point of discharge will become
anaerobic and will be turbid and dark. Settleable solids will be deposited on the streambed, and
anaerobic decomposition will occur. Over the reach of stream where the dissolved-oxygen
concentration is zero, a zone of putrefaction will occur with the production of hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), ammonia (NH3), and other odorous gases. Because many fish species require a minimum
of 4–5 mg of dissolved oxygen per liter of water, they will be unable to survive in this portion of
the stream. Direct exposures to toxic chemicals are also a health concern for individual aquatic
plants and animals.

Chemicals such as pesticides are frequently transported to lakes and rivers via runoff, and they can
have harmful effects on aquatic life. Toxic chemicals have been shown to reduce the growth,
survival, reproductive output, and disease resistance of exposed organisms. These effects can have
important consequences for the viability of aquatic populations and communities. Wastewater
discharges are most commonly controlled through effluent standards and discharge permits. Under
this system, discharge permits are issued with limits on the quantity and quality of effluents. Water-

ARCH. ERIC 21
 22

quality standards are sets of qualitative and quantitative criteria designed to maintain or enhance
the quality of receiving waters. Criteria can be developed and implemented to protect aquatic life
against acute and chronic effects and to safeguard humans against deleterious health effects,
including cancer.

3) Soil pollution (Land degradation):

Land pollution is due to Deforestation and Dumping of solid wastes. Deforestation increases soil
erosion; thus valuable agricultural land is lost. Solid wastes from household and industries also
pollute land and enhance land degradation. Solid wastes include things from household waste and
of industrial wastes. They include ash, glass, peelings of fruit and vegetables, paper, clothes,
plastics, rubber, leather, brick, sand, metal, waste from cattle shed, night soil and cow dung.
Chemicals discharged into air, such as compounds of sulfur and lead, eventually come to soil and
pollute it. The heaps of solid waste destroy the natural beauty and surroundings become dirty. Pigs,
dogs, rats, flies, mosquitoes visit the dumped waste and foul smell comes from the waste. The
waste may block the flow of water in the drain, which then becomes the breeding place for
mosquitoes. Mosquitoes are carriers of parasites of malaria and dengue. Consumption of polluted
water causes many diseases, such as cholera, diarrhea and dysentery.

(4) Noise pollution

High level noise is a disturbance to the human environment. Because of urbanization, noise in all
areas in a city has increased considerably. One of the most pervasive sources of noise in our
environment today is those associated with transportation. People reside adjacent to highways, are
subjected to high level of noise produced by trucks and vehicles pass on the highways. Prolonged
exposure to high level of noise is very much harmful to the health of mankind. In industry and in
mines the main sources of noise pollution are blasting, movement of heavy earth moving machines,
drilling, crusher and coal handling plants etc. The critical value for the development of hearing
problems is at 80 decibels. Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. High
noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects. Moreover, noise can be a causal factor in
workplace accidents.

ARCH. ERIC 22