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Expression and communication techniques

Chapter 1:

Research, analyse and organise information

1. Introduction
Communication is an essential skill in our daily, professional and academic lives. It involves
conveying ideas, information and emotions clearly and effectively. The techniques of
communication and oral and written expression are therefore invaluable skills that everyone
must master if they are to succeed in their professional and personal lives. This chapter aims to
teach you how to identify and use the places, tools and documentary resources that will help
you to communicate effectively in an academic or professional context. We will also explore
the skills needed to understand and analyse documents, and to compile and update relevant
documentation. These skills are essential for any university student, as they will enable you to
find the information you need to carry out your research and projects, and to communicate
clearly and coherently. The skills you will learn in this chapter are necessary to prepare you for
the world of work.

2. General objective:
 Identify and use documentary resources and tools,
 Understanding and analysing documents,
 Compiling and updating documentation

3. Concepts
Communication
Communication involves a sender and receiver of the message who are linked to each other in the
workplace.
According to Claude ROY, "communication is a verbal or non-verbal process by which we
share information with someone or with a group so that they understand what we are saying.
Talking, listening, understanding, reacting... are the different stages of this process.

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 Expression and communication techniques
All communication involves the elements indicated in the diagram of human communication
proposed by Roman Jakobson.

Jakobson diagram

Document
Definition:

The International Organisation for Standardisation defines "document" as "a combination of a

medium and information, usually permanently recorded, and such that it can be read by man
and machine". (Definition of).

Five elements are essential to define a document:

- the "document" object contains information

- the information is structured in a way that can be read by man or machine
- it is based on a transportable, reproducible and relatively stable medium
- it has a purpose
- it's finished in terms of content.
Definition by R. Escarpit

4. Academic and professional documentary and information resources

1. There are many documentation and information resources that are very useful for
students. However, when looking for academic information, it is essential to check the
source of the information to ensure that it is reliable and relevant.

2. University libraries: University libraries offer books, journals, theses, manuscripts,

maps and archives, databases and digital resources...

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 Expression and communication techniques
3. Educational websites: There are many educational websites that provide online courses,
videos, tutorials and reference documents. For example, Khan Academy.

4. Encyclopaedias: provide detailed information on specific subjects. There are also online
encyclopaedias such as Wikipedia.

5. Search engines: Search engines like Google are useful for finding information on a
particular subject: articles, studies, reports, statistics, videos and images.

6. Online archives: Online archives such as the Library and the World Digital Library
provide historical documents, books, photographs and reference material for students.

7. Networks: Social networks can also be a source of information, allowing researchers to

communicate with experts in their field of study. There are also academic and
professional social networks such as ResearchGate, Academia.edu, LinkedIn, etc.,
which allow researchers to share their publications and connect with other researchers
working on similar subjects.

8. Teachers: Teachers are also valuable resources for students, providing advice,
references and guidance on the most relevant and reliable sources of information. They
can recommend books, articles, websites and databases to help students carry out their
research.

9. Academic databases: there are a number of academic databases, such as Google Scholar,
JSTOR, ScienceDirect and others. These allow you to carry out targeted searches and
access scientific articles, theses, dissertations, books, etc.

10. Conferences and symposia: attending conferences and symposia can provide an
opportunity to meet experts in a specific field, discover new research and make yourself
known in the academic community.

11. Specialist journals: specialist journals regularly publish scientific articles and research
in a specific field.

12. Internships and site visits: Internships are an excellent opportunity to gain practical
experience in a company, factory or establishment. Interns can gather information and
documents on how the company operates, production processes, technologies used,

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 Expression and communication techniques
business strategies, human resources management policies, etc. They can also interact
with employees and professionals to gather information and documents. They can also
interact with employees and professionals to gather information and documents. They
may also consult annual reports, investor presentations, expert publications, market
studies, etc.

Remarks

It is important to bear in mind that not all information found online is necessarily reliable
and accurate, so it is important to check the source and credibility of the information before
using it in a professional or academic context. However, as a starting point for research,
digital resources can provide interesting avenues to explore and ideas to explore further.

5. Managing the mass of information resources

The digital world is constantly expanding, which makes managing the mass of information
resources a major challenge. It is advisable to use strategies that can help to manage the mass
of information effectively and which must be based on the following points:

 set priorities.
 search for information
 assess the relevance and reliability of the resources found.
 analyse and classify the information gathered.
 structure and summarise the knowledge acquired.

1. Relevance is the first selection criterion. Will this document answer the question?
2. the source of the document allows us to eliminate less reliable documents;
3. The authors, their affiliation and the date of publication of the document are also reliable
criteria.

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 Expression and communication techniques
6. 6-Documentary research process
The documentary research process can be carried out at different times during the project, and
can be communicated orally or in writing.
At the start of work :
 to choose your subject
 to check the range of sources available
 to define your problem

During work :
 to support its arguments
 to provide critical input
At the end of the job :
 As an aid to writing and presenting work
Note:

It is important to make a selection so as to keep only those documents that appear relevant and
reliable:
 Relevance is the first selection criterion. Will this document help you find answers to
your questions?
 the source of the document allows us to eliminate less reliable documents;
 The authors, their affiliation and the date of publication of the document are also reliable
criteria.

Document location
It is essential to note the document reference, so that it can be consulted easily and cited in the
document. The document reference must contain :

 the author
 the title
 the publication date
 the publisher or source in the case of articles

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 Expression and communication techniques
Document management tools
As the number of documents increases, so does the need to organise them efficiently. To find
interesting information easily, it is advisable to take notes, either in the form of bibliographical
references or personal notes. However, it is also possible to use specialised software. These are
bibliographic management tools that simplify the management of all documents.

There are a multitude of bibliographic reference management tools, which allow you to collect,
store, organise and cite articles, books and other types of documents:
Here is a list of the most commonly used tools:
1. Zotero: free, open-source),
2. Mendeley: free.
3. EndNote: chargeable.
4. RefWorks: chargeable
5. Citavi: chargeable.
6. Papers: chargeable.
7. JabRef: free, open-source.
8. ReadCube: chargeable.
9. ReadNote: free.

These tools also offer functions for synchronising data between different devices and for
importing data from online bibliographic databases.

Note: Microsoft Word also lets you manage bibliographic references. In Word, you can create
a list of bibliographic references and insert them in the text of the document in the form of
quotations. Word can also automatically generate a list of bibliographic references from the
citations inserted in the document. However, this functionality is fairly limited compared with
dedicated bibliographic reference management tools such as Zotero, Mendeley or EndNote.

Writing styles for references

There are several styles of bibliographic reference which define the elements to be included in
the citation, such as the author's name, the title of the publication, the name of the journal or
publisher, the year of publication and the page or volume number, as well as the way in which
these elements should be presented in the citation. It is important to choose the appropriate style

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 Expression and communication techniques
according to the field of research and the requirements of the publication or institution. The
most commonly used citation styles are :

1. APA (American Psychological Association): Used mainly in psychology, social

sciences and education sciences.
2. MLA (Modern Language Association) : Used mainly in literature, arts, languages and
cultures.
3. Chicago: Mainly used in history, arts and social sciences.
4. Harvard: Used mainly in the social sciences, health sciences and management.
5. Vancouver: Used mainly in medical and health sciences.
6. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) : Used mainly in electrical,
electronic and computer engineering.
7. AMA (American Medical Association) : Used mainly in medicine and health sciences.

Reading and analysing a scientific article:

When faced with a scientific article or document, you need to orientate your reading by asking
yourself the following questions:

 What is the specific problem being addressed?

 What is the theoretical and empirical context of the problem?
 To which theoretical trend does the author seem to belong?
 What is the research question?
 What is the hypothesis to be tested, the objective to be achieved?
 What are the main findings of this research?

Here are a few steps that can help a student analyse an academic document effectively:

1. Careful reading: The first step is to carefully read the academic document in its entirety.
It is important to understand the context and the arguments presented in the document.
2. Identify the research question: The student must identify the research question or the
main subject addressed in the document. It is important to understand what the author
is trying to explore or demonstrate.

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 Expression and communication techniques
3. Identify key arguments: The student must identify the key arguments presented in the
document and the evidence used to support them. It is important to understand how the
author constructs his or her argument.
4. Assess the quality of the evidence: The student must assess the quality of the evidence
presented in the paper. The evidence should be strong enough to support the author's
arguments.
5. Assess the author's credibility: The student must assess the author's credibility. It is
important to know whether the author is an expert in the field of research or has relevant
experience in the field.
6. Evaluate the limits of the document: The student must assess the limitations of the paper.
It is important to know whether the author has taken into account all relevant
perspectives or whether there are limitations to his or her study.
7. Drawing conclusions: The student must draw conclusions about the quality of the
document and how it can be used in their own research.

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