ME 417

Refrigeration Systems
Why does water form on the surface of a cold water bottle(or glass
with cold water)?
How does a refrigerator work?
How does an air conditioner work?
What is the difference between Air Conditioning & Refrigeration? | Airedale Cooling Services
A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION
The methods of production of cold by mechanical processes are quite
recent. Long back in 1748, William Coolen of Glasgow University
produced refrigeration by creating partial vacuum over ethyl ether.
But, he could not implement his experience in practice. The first
development took place in 1834 when Perkins proposed a
hand-operated compressor machine working on ether. Then in 1851
came Gorrie’s air refrigeration machine, and in 1856 Linde developed a
machine working on ammonia.
REFRIGERATION
REFRIGERATION is the process of moving heat from one location to another by use
of refrigerant in a closed cycle.

“Refrigeration is simply cooling by removing heat.”

Applications include air conditioning, commercial refrigeration, and industrial

refrigeration.

Ref: 2018 ASHRAE Handbook – Refrigeration, SI Edition; Basic Principles of

Refrigeration – ProBrewer
HEAT
Heat is a form of energy which can exist on its own and can be moved
from one place to another. Heat is not matter that can be measured by
weight or volume. Heat can also come from other forms of energy. For
example, motors that use electricity will generate heat.

Heat will not flow without a temperature difference. The heat will only
transfer from a high energy source (Higher Temperature) to a low
Energy Source (Cooler Temperature). The bigger the temperature
difference, the more heat is transferred.

Ref: Basic Principles of Refrigeration – ProBrewer

Ref: Basic Principles of Refrigeration – ProBrewer
A typical refrigerant, R-134a, has a boiling point of -15.34°F!
Since the hot summer air is above the boiling point of the
refrigerant, the refrigerant would boil at that temperature. The
most commonly used refrigeration system is called the direct
expansion vapor compression system.

Simplified Refrigeration Cycle (skillcatapp.com)

Introduction to Refrigeration systems
1. Terminologies
2. System and Practices
3. Component and Equipment
4. Food Cooling and Storage
5. Refrigerated Transport
6. Food, Beverage, and Floral Applications
7. Industrial Applications
8. Low-Temperature Applications
9. Code and Standards
2. System and Practices
2.1. Halocarbon Refrigeration Systems
2.2. Ammonia Refrigeration Systems
2.3. Carbon Dioxide Refrigeration Systems
2.4. Liquid Overfeed Systems
2.5. Component Balancing in Refrigeration Systems
2.6. Refrigerant System Chemistry
2.7. Control of Moisture and Other Contaminants in Refrigerant Systems
2.8. Equipment and System Dehydrating, Charging, and Testing
2.9. Refrigerant Containment, Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation
2.1. Halocarbon Refrigeration Systems
Halocarbon refrigerants are classified into four groups:
1. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which contain carbon, chlorine, and
fluorine;
2. hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which consist of carbon,
hydrogen, chlorine, and fluorine;
3. hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which contain carbon, hydrogen, and
fluorine;
4. hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), which are HFC refrigerants derived from
an alkene
2.1. Halocarbon Refrigeration Systems
Desired characteristics of a halocarbon refrigeration system may include
• Year-round operation, regardless of outdoor ambient conditions
• Possible wide load variations (0 to 100% capacity) during short periods without
serious disruption of the required temperature levels
• Frost control for continuous-performance applications
• Oil management for different refrigerants under varying load and temperature
conditions
• A wide choice of heat exchange methods (e.g., dry expansion, liquid overfeed, or
flooded feed of the refrigerants) and use of secondary coolants such as salt brine,
alcohol, glycol, and carbon dioxide.
• System efficiency, maintainability, and operating simplicity
• Operating pressures and pressure ratios that might require multistaging,
cascading, etc.
 2.2. Ammonia Refrigeration Systems
CUSTOM-ENGINEERED ammonia (R-717) refrigeration systems often have
design conditions that span a wide range of evaporating and condensing
temperatures. Examples are
(1) a food freezing plant operating from 10 to –45°C;
(2) a candy storage requiring 15°C db with precise humidity control;
(3) a beef chill room at –2 to –1°C with high humidity;
(4) a distribution warehouse requiring multiple temperatures for storing ice
cream, frozen food, meat, and produce and for docks; and
(5) a chemical process requiring multiple temperatures ranging from 15 to
–50°C. Ammonia is the refrigerant of choice for many industrial
refrigeration systems.
2.3. Carbon Dioxide Refrigeration Systems
CARBON dioxide (R-744) is one of the naturally occurring compounds
collectively known as “natural refrigerants.” It is nonflammable and
nontoxic, with no known carcinogenic, mutagenic, or other toxic
effects, and no dangerous products of combustion. Using carbon
dioxide in refrigerating systems can be considered a form of carbon
capture, with a potential beneficial effect on climate change. It has no
adverse local environmental effects. Carbon dioxide exists in a gaseous
state at normal temperatures and pressures within the Earth’s
atmosphere. Currently, the global average concentration of CO2 is
approximately 390 ppm by volume.
2.3. Carbon Dioxide Refrigeration Systems
1. The use of CO2 refrigeration systems became established in the
1890s and CO2 became the refrigerant of choice for freezing and
transporting perishable food products around the world.
2.4. Liquid Overfeed Systems
OVERFEED systems force liquid in excess of the amount evaporated,
either mechanically or by gas pressure, through organized-flow
evaporators, separate it from the vapor, and return it to the
evaporators. Mechanically pumped systems usually pump from a
vessel at the connected suction pressure (i.e., lowtemperature liquid).
Gas-operated systems can be configured to deliver either
low-temperature liquid directly like the mechanically pumped system,
or subcooled liquid from a controlled pressure receiver at an
intermediate pressure. With the latter, the accumulated overfed liquid
is transferred from the low-pressure receiver back to the
controlled-pressure receiver
2.5. Component Balancing in Refrigeration
Systems
A refrigerant is a fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigeration system.
The fluid absorbs heat at a low temperature and pressure and transfers
heat at a higher temperature and pressure. Heat transfer can involve
either a complete or partial change of state in the case of a primary
refrigerant. Energy transfer is a function of the heat transfer
coefficients; temperature differences; and amount, type, and
configuration of the heat transfer surface and, hence, the heat flux on
either side of the heat transfer device.
2.6. Refrigerant System Chemistry
SYSTEM chemistry deals with any chemical reactions that could take
place in an HVAC&R system between refrigerants, lubricants, and
construction materials of various system components (e.g.,
compressor, heat transfer coils, connecting tubing, expansion device).
Higher temperatures or contaminants such as air, moisture, or residual
process chemicals (e.g., metal cutting fluids, cleaning agents)
complicate chemical interactions between components. Phase changes
occur in the refrigeration cycle; in particular, the temperature
extremes from the highest discharge line temperature to the lowest
evaporating temperature are of importance to the end user.
2.7. Control of Moisture and Other
Contaminants in Refrigerant Systems
MOISTURE (water) is an important and universal contaminant in
refrigeration systems. The amount of moisture in a refrigerant system
must be kept below an allowable maximum for satisfactory operation,
efficiency, and longevity. Moisture must be removed from components
during manufacture, assembly, and service to minimize the amount of
moisture in the completed system. Any moisture that enters during
installation or servicing should be removed promptly.
2.7. Control of Moisture and Other
Contaminants in Refrigerant Systems
Sources of Moisture Effects of Moisture
Moisture in a refrigerant system results from Excess moisture in a refrigerating system can cause one or all
• Inadequate equipment drying in factories and of the following undesirable effects:
service operations • Ice formation in expansion valves, capillary tubes, or
• Introduction during installation or service evaporators
operations in the field • Corrosion of metals
• Leaks, resulting in entrance of moisture-laden • Copper plating
air • Chemical damage to motor insulation in hermetic
• Leakage of water-cooled heat exchangers compressors or other system materials
• Oxidation of some hydrocarbon lubricants that • Hydrolysis of lubricants and other materials
produce moisture • Sludge formation
• Wet lubricant, refrigerant, or desiccant
• Moisture entering a nonhermetic refrigerant
system through hoses and seals
2.8. Equipment and System Dehydrating,
Charging, and Testing
PROPER dehydration, charging, and testing of packaged refrigeration
systems and components (compressors, evaporators, and condensing
coils) help ensure proper performance and extend the life of
refrigeration systems.

Dehydration by Heat, Vacuum, or Dry Air

 2.9. Refrigerant Containment, Recovery,
Recycling, and Reclamation
CONTAINMENT during installation, service, maintenance, and
decommissioning of refrigeration systems. The potential environmental
effect of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)
refrigerants on ozone depletion, and of these and the hydrofluorocarbon
(HFC) and hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) refrigerants on global warming, make it
imperative that refrigerants are confined to closed systems and recovered
during service and at the end of life. Containment must be considered in all
phases of a system’s life, including
(1) design and construction of leaktight and easily serviced systems,
(2) leak detection and repair,
(3) recovery during service, and
(4) recovery at system disposal. Additional reference can be found in
ASHRAE Standard 147-2013.
3. COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT
3.1. Insulation Systems for Refrigerant Piping
3.2. Refrigerant Control Devices
3.3. Lubricants in Refrigerant Systems
3.4. Secondary Coolants in Refrigeration Systems
3.5. Forced-Circulation Air Coolers
3.6. Retail Food Store Refrigeration and Equipment
3.7. Food Service and General Commercial Refrigeration Equipment
3.8. Household Refrigerators and Freezers
3.9. Absorption Equipment
3.1. Insulation Systems for Refrigerant Piping
The success of an insulation system for cold Refrigerant piping includes lines that run at cold
piping, such as refrigerant piping, depends temperature, that cycle between hot and cold,
on factors such as
• Correct refrigeration system design and even some that run at temperatures above
ambient. These pipes use various insulation
• Correct specification of insulating system
materials and systems, and are insulated for the
• Correct specification of insulation thickness
following reasons:
• Correct installation of insulation and
related materials such as vapor retarders • Energy conservation
• Quality and continuity of vapor retarding • Economics (to minimize annualized costs of
system ownership and operation)
• Installation quality • External surface condensation control
• Adequate maintenance of the insulating • Prevention of gas condensation inside the pipe
system • Process control (i.e., for freeze protection and
to limit temperature change of process fluids)
• Personnel protection
• Fire protection
• Sound and vibration control
Ref: Basic Principles of Refrigeration – ProBrewer
 3.2. Refrigerant Control Devices
1. CONTROL SWITCHES....
2. Pressure Switches...
3. Temperature Switches (Thermostats) ....
4. Differential Switches....
5. Float Switches....
6. CONTROL SENSORS ....
7. Pressure Transducers....
8. Thermistors....
9. Resistance Temperature Detectors...
10. Thermocouples.......
11. Liquid Level Sensors...
12. CONTROL VALVES ....
13. Thermostatic Expansion Valves........
14. Electric Expansion Valves ...
15. REGULATING AND THROTTLING VALVES ....
16. Evaporator-Pressure-Regulating Valves...
3.3. Lubricants in Refrigerant Systems
The primary function of a lubricant is to reduce friction and minimize
wear. It achieves this by interposing a film between moving surfaces
that reduces direct solid-to-solid contact or lowers the coefficient of
friction.
3.4. Secondary Coolants in Refrigeration
Systems
SECONDARY coolants are liquids used as heat transfer fluids that
change temperature as they gain or lose heat energy without changing
into another phase. For lower refrigeration temperatures, this requires
a coolant with a freezing point below that of water. These are generally
called brines by the industry.
3.5. Forced-Circulation Air Coolers
FORCED-CIRCULATION unit coolers and product coolers are designed to
operate continuously in refrigerated enclosures; a cooling coil and
motor-driven fan are their basic components, and provide cooling or
freezing temperatures and proper airflow to the room. Coil defrost
equipment is added for low-temperature operations when coil frosting
might impede performance.
Any unit (e.g., blower coil, unit cooler, product cooler, cold diffuser
unit, air-conditioning air handler) is considered a forced-air cooler
when operated under refrigeration conditions.
3.6. Retail Food Store Refrigeration and
Equipment
Refrigeration equipment used in retail food stores may be broadly
grouped into display refrigerators, storage refrigerators, processing
refrigerators, and mechanical refrigeration machines.

Equipment may also be categorized by temperature:

medium-temperature refrigeration equipment maintains a dew-point
evaporator temperature between –7 and 4.5°C and product
temperatures above freezing; low-temperature refrigeration
equipment maintains a dew-point evaporator temperature between –
40 and –12°C and product temperatures below freezing. Reach-in
refrigerators have doors; open refrigerators do not.
3.7. Food Service and General Commercial
Refrigeration Equipment
FOOD service requires refrigerators that meet a variety of needs.
Application are refrigerators available for restaurants, fastfood
restaurants, cafeterias, commissaries, hospitals, schools, convenience
stores, grocery stores, and other specialized applications.

Many refrigeration products used in food service applications are

self-contained, and the corresponding refrigeration systems are
conventional. Some systems, however, do use ice for fish, salad pans,
or specialized preservation and/or display.
3.8. Household Refrigerators and Freezers
Providing optimized conditions for
preserving stored food is the
primary function of a refrigerator or
freezer. This is done by storing food
at reduced temperature. Ice making
is an essential secondary function in
some markets. A related product,
the wine chiller, provides optimum
temperatures for storing wine, at
temperatures from 7 to 18°C. Wine
chillers are often manufactured by
the same companies using the same
technologies as refrigerators and
freezers. Dual use products
combining a wine storage
compartment with fresh-food
and/or freezer compartments have
also been manufactured.
3.9. Absorption Equipment
The equipment can be broadly categorized by whether it uses water or
ammonia as refrigerant.
The primary products in the water refrigerant category are large
commercial chillers, which use lithium bromide (LiBr) as absorbent.
There are three primary products in the ammonia refrigerant category:
(1) domestic refrigerators,
(2) residential chillers, and
(3) industrial refrigeration units.
3.9. Absorption Equipment
Absorption units have several major advantages:
• They are activated by heat.
• No mechanical vapor compression is required, reducing summer
electric peak demand.
• They do not use atmosphere-harming halogenated refrigerants.
• Lubricants, which can degrade heat and mass transfer, are not
required.
• The equipment can be direct-fired by combustion of fuel, directly
heated by various waste fluids, or heated by steam or hot water (from
either direct combustion or from hot waste fluids).
4. FOOD COOLING AND STORAGE
4.1. Thermal Properties of Foods
4.2. Cooling and Freezing Times of Foods
4.3. Commodity Storage Requirements
4.4. Food Microbiology and Refrigeration
4.5. Refrigerated-Facility Design
4.6. Refrigerated-Facility Loads
4.1. Thermal Properties of Foods
THERMAL properties of foods and beverages must be known to perform the
various heat transfer calculations involved in designing storage and
refrigeration equipment and estimating process times for refrigerating,
freezing, heating, or drying of foods and beverages. Because the thermal
properties of foods and beverages strongly depend on chemical composition
and temperature, and because many types of food are available, it is nearly
impossible to experimentally determine and tabulate the thermal properties
of foods and beverages for all possible conditions and compositions.
However, composition data for foods and beverages are readily available
from sources such as Holland et al. (1991) and USDA (1975). These data
consist of the mass fractions of the major components found in foods.
Thermal properties of foods can be predicted by using these composition
data in conjunction with temperature-dependent mathematical models of
thermal properties of the individual food constituents.
4.2. Cooling and Freezing Times of Foods
PRESERVATION of food is one of the most significant applications of
refrigeration. Cooling and freezing food effectively reduces the activity
of microorganisms and enzymes, thus retarding deterioration. In
addition, crystallization of water reduces the amount of liquid water in
food and inhibits microbial growth (Heldman 1975).
4.3. Commodity Storage Requirements
Storage requirements of many perishable foods, furs and fabrics that
enter the market on a commercial scale must be followed. The data are
based on the storage of fresh, high-quality commodities that have been
properly harvested, handled, and cooled.
4.4. Food Microbiology and Refrigeration
REFRIGERATION’S largest overall application is the prevention or
retardation of microbial, physiological, and chemical changes in foods.
Even at temperatures near the freezing point, foods may deteriorate
through growth of microorganisms, changes caused by enzymes, or
chemical reactions. Holding foods at low temperatures merely reduces
the rate at which these changes take place. A few spoilage organisms
can grow at or below temperatures at which food begins to freeze, but
their growth rate is greatly reduced below that at ambient
temperatures.
 4.5. Refrigerated-Facility Design
REFRIGERATED facilities are any buildings or sections of a building that
achieve controlled storage conditions using refrigeration.
Two basic storage facilities are
(1) coolers that protect commodities at temperatures usually above 0°
C and
(2) low-temperature rooms (freezers) operating under 0°C to prevent
spoilage or to maintain or extend product life.
4.5. Refrigerated-Facility Design
Conditions within a closed refrigerated space must be maintained to preserve the
stored product. This refers particularly to seasonal, shelf life, and long-term storage.
Specific items for consideration include
• Uniform temperatures
• Length of airflow pathway and impingement on stored product
• Effect of relative humidity
• Effect of air movement on employees
• Controlled ventilation, if necessary
• Product entering temperature
• Expected duration of storage
• Required product outlet temperature
• Traffic in and out of storage area
 4.6. Refrigerated-Facility Loads
TOTAL refrigeration load includes
(1) transmission load, which is heat transferred into the refrigerated
space through its surface;
(2) product load, which is heat removed from and produced by
products brought into and kept in the refrigerated space;
(3) internal load, which is heat produced by internal sources (e.g.,
lights, electric motors, and people working in the space);
(4) infiltration air load, which is heat gain associated with air entering
the refrigerated space; and
(5) equipment-related load
5. REFRIGERATED TRANSPORT
5.1. Cargo Containers, Rail Cars, Trailers, and Trucks
5.2. Marine Refrigeration
5.3. Air Transport
5.1. Cargo Containers, Rail Cars, Trailers, and
Trucks
TRANSPORT of commodities may be as simple as direct delivery of
fresh vegetables from garden to market in a wagon. However, travel
time, ambient temperature, and risk of spoilage often make
temperature-controlled transport necessary. Because some
commodities are sensitive to the relative humidity and chemical
composition of their surrounding atmosphere, these conditions may
also need to be controlled. Today many commodities travel to distant
markets intermodally (i.e., by some combination of highway, ocean,
and railroad).
5.1. Cargo Containers, Rail Cars, Trailers, and
Trucks
1. Cargo containers are usually 2.4 m wide, 2.4 to 2.9 m high, and 6.1
or 12.2 m long.
2. Railway refrigerator cars are insulated boxcars, usually 15 to 20 m
long.
3. Trailers range in size from 2.4 to 2.6 m wide, 3.7 to 4.1 m high, and
7.3 to 18.3 m long.
5.2. Marine Refrigeration
MARINE refrigeration systems are used aboard seagoing vessels and
offshore facilities and generally include cargo hold refrigeration,
domestic refrigeration services, and refrigerated containers. These
systems differ from stationary systems not only in physical aspects but
also in the fact that marine systems must be designed to handle
frequent starting and stopping. Process freezing or chilling plants on
vessels might run continuously for weeks, but under some conditions
may be started and stopped daily. Cold storages are usually shut down
after the cargo is discharged, and are restarted before new cargo is
loaded.
5.3. Air Transport
AIR freight service is provided by all-cargo carriers and passenger
airlines. The latter companies also have all-cargo aircraft. Wide-body
aircraft have a passenger and cargo mix on the main deck, increasing
cargo capacity
6. FOOD, BEVERAGE, AND FLORAL APPLICATIONS
6.1. Methods of Precooling Fruits, 6.9. Citrus Fruit, Bananas, and
Vegetables, and Cut Flowers Subtropical Fruit
6.2. Industrial Food-Freezing Systems 6.10. Vegetables
6.3. Meat Products 6.11. Fruit Juice Concentrates and
Chilled Juice Products
6.4. Poultry Products 6.12. Beverages
6.5. Fishery Products 6.13. Processed, Precooked, and
6.6. Dairy Products Prepared Foods
6.7. Eggs and Egg Products 6.14. Bakery Products
6.8. Deciduous Tree and Vine Fruit 6.15. Chocolates, Candies, Nuts, Dried
Fruits, and Dried Vegetables
7. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
7.1. Ice Manufacture
7.2. Ice Rinks
7.3. Concrete Dams and Subsurface Soils
7.4. Refrigeration in the Chemical Industry
8. LOW-TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
8.1. Cryogenics
8.2. Ultralow-Temperature Refrigeration
8.3. Biomedical Applications of Cryogenic Refrigeration