Chapter 23

Fluid flow
The measurement of fluid flow is of great
importance in many industrial processes, some  state the continuity equation (i.e. the principle
examples including air flow in the ventilating ducts of conservation of mass)
of a coal mine, the flow rate of water in a condenser  state and perform calculations on Bernoulli’s
at a power station, the flow rate of liquids in equation
chemical processes, the control and monitoring of  state and perform calculations on the impact of
the fuel, lubricating and cooling fluids of ships and a jet on a stationary plate
aircraft engines, and so on. Fluid flow is one of the
most difficult of industrial measurements to carry
out, since flow behaviour depends on a great many
variables concerning the physical properties of a
fluid. There are available a large number of fluid 23.1 Differential pressure flowmeters
flow measuring instruments generally called
flowmeters, which can measure the flow rate of When certain flowmeters are installed in pipelines
liquids (in m3/s) or the mass flow rate of gaseous they often cause an obstruction to the fluid flowing in
fluids (in kg/s). The two main categories of the pipe by reducing the cross-sectional area of the
flowmeters are differential pressure flowmeters pipeline. This causes a change in the velocity of the
and mechanical flowmeters. This chapter also fluid, with a related change in pressure. Figure 23.1
contains calculations on Bernoulli’s equation and shows a section through a pipeline into which a
the impact of a jet on a stationary plate. flowmeter has been inserted. The flow rate of the fluid
may be determined from a measurement of the
difference between the pressures on the walls of the
At the end of this chapter you should be able to: pipe at specified distances upstream and downstream
 appreciate the importance of measurement of of the flowmeter. Such devices are known as
fluid flow differential pressure flowmeters.
 describe the construction, principle of
operation, advantages and disadvantages, and
practical applications of orifice plates, Venturi
tubes, flow nozzles and Pitot-static tube and
describe the principle of operation of deflecting
vane and turbine type flowmeters
 describe the construction, principle of
operation, advantages and disadvantages, and
practical applications of float and tapered tube
flowmeters, electromagnetic flowmeters, and
hot-wire anemometer Figure 23.1
 select the most appropriate flowmeter for a
particular application The pressure difference in Figure 23.1 is measured
using a manometer connected to appropriate pressure
Mechanical Engineering Principles, Bird and Ross, ISBN 9780415517850
 262 Mechanical Engineering Principles
tapping points. The pressure is seen to be greater up- Principles of operation
stream of the flowmeter than downstream, the When a fluid moves through a restriction in a pipe,
pressure difference being shown as h. the fluid accelerates and a reduction in pressure oc-
Calibration of the manometer depends on the shape curs, the magnitude of which is related to the flow rate
of the obstruction, the positions of the pressure of the fluid. The variation of pressure near an orifice
tapping points and the physical properties of the fluid. plate is shown in Figure 23.2(b). The position of mini-
In industrial applications the pressure difference is mum pressure is located downstream from the orifice
detected by a differential pressure cell, the output plate where the flow stream is narrowest. This point
from which is either an amplified pressure signal or of minimum cross-sectional area of the jet is called
an elec- trical signal. the ‘vena contracta’. Beyond this point the pressure
Examples of differential pressure flowmeters com- rises but does not return to the original upstream value
monly used include: and there is a permanent pressure loss. This loss
(a) Orifice plate (see Section 23.2) depends on the size and type of orifice plate, the
(b) Venturi tube (see Section 23.3) positions of the upstream and downstream pressure
(c) Flow nozzles (see Section 23.4) tappings and the change in fluid velocity between the
(d) Pitot-static tube (see Section 23.5) pressure tappings that depends on the flow rate and
the dimensions of the orifice plate.
British Standard reference BS 1042: Part 1: 1964 In Figure 23.2(a) corner pressure tappings are
and Part 2A: 1973 ‘Methods for the measurement of shown at A and B. Alternatively, with an orifice plate
fluid flow in pipes’ gives specifications for measure- insert- ed into a pipeline of diameter d, pressure
ment, manufacture, tolerances, accuracy, sizes, tappings are often located at distances of d and d/2
choice, and so on, of differential flowmeters. from the plate respectively upstream and downstream.
At distance d upstream the flow pattern is not
influenced by the presence of the orifice plate, and
23.2 Orifice plate distance d/2 coincides with the vena contracta.

Construction Advantages of orifice plates

An orifice plate consists of a circular, thin, flat plate with (i) They are relatively inexpensive.
a hole (or orifice) machined through its centre to fine (ii) They are usually thin enough to fit between an
limits of accuracy. The orifice has a diameter less than existing pair of pipe flanges.
the pipeline into which the plate is installed and a Disadvantages of orifice plates
typi- cal section of an installation is shown in Figure (i) The sharpness of the edge of the orifice can be-
23.2(a). Orifice plates are manufactured in stainless come worn with use, causing calibration errors.
steel, monel metal, polyester glass fibre, and for large (ii) The possible build-up of matter against the plate.
pipes, such as sewers or hot gas mains, in brick and (iii) A considerable loss in the pumping efficiency
concrete. due to the pressure loss downstream of the plate.
Applications
Orifice plates are usually used in medium and large
pipes and are best suited to the indication and control
of essentially constant flow rates. Several applications
are found in the general process industries.

23.3 Venturi tube

Construction
The Venturi tube or venturimeter is an instrument
Part Four

for measuring with accuracy the flow rate of fluids

in pipes. A typical arrangement of a section through
such a device is shown in Figure 23.3, and consists
of a short converging conical tube called the inlet or
Figure 23.2
 Fluid flow 263
upstream cone, leading to a cylindrical portion called
the throat. A diverging section called the outlet or 23.4 Flow nozzle
recov- ery cone follows this. The entrance and exit
diameter is the same as that of the pipeline into which The flow nozzle lies between an orifice plate and the
it is installed. Angle β is usually a maximum of 21, venturimeter both in performance and cost. A typi-
giving a taper of β/2 of 10.5. The length of the throat cal section through a flow nozzle is shown in Figure
is made equal to the diameter of the throat. Angle  is 23.4, where pressure tappings are located immediately
about 5 to 7 to ensure a minimum loss of energy but adjacent to the upstream and downstream faces of the
where this is unimportant  can be as large as 14 to nozzle (i.e. at points A and B). The fluid flow does
15. not contract any further as it leaves the nozzle and
the pressure loss created is considerably less than that
occurring with orifice plates. Flow nozzles are
suitable for use with high velocity flows for they do
not suffer the wear that occurs in orifice plate edges
during such flows.

Figure 23.3

Pressure tappings are made at the entry (at A) and

at the throat (at B) and the pressure difference h which
is measured using a manometer, a differential pressure
Figure 23.4
cell or similar gauge, is dependent on the flow rate
through the meter. Usually pressure chambers are
fitted around the entrance pipe and the throat
circumference with a series of tapping holes made in 23.5 Pitot-static tube
the chamber to which the manometer is connected.
This ensures that an average pressure is recorded. The A Pitot-static tube is a device for measuring the veloc-
loss of energy due to turbulence that occurs just ity of moving fluids or of the velocity of bodies mov-
downstream with an ori- fice plate is largely avoided ing through fluids. It consists of one tube, called the
in the venturimeter due to the gradual divergence Pitot tube, with an open end facing the direction of the
beyond the throat. fluid motion, shown as pipe R in Figure 23.5, and a
Venturimeters are usually made a permanent instal- second tube, called the piezometer tube, with the
lation in a pipeline and are manufactured usually from open- ing at 90 to the fluid flow, shown as T in
stainless steel, cast iron, monel metal or polyester Figure 23.5. Pressure recorded by a pressure gauge
glass fibre. moving with

Advantages of venturimeters
(i) High accuracy results are possible.
(ii) There is a low pressure loss in the tube
(typically only 2% to 3% in a well proportioned
tube).
(iii) Venturimeters are unlikely to trap any matter
from the fluid being metered.
Disadvantages of venturimeters
Part Four

(i) High manufacturing costs.

(ii) The installation tends to be rather long (typically
120 mm for a pipe of internal diameter 50 mm). Figure 23.5
 264 Mechanical Engineering Principles
the flow, i.e. static or stationary relative to the fluid, is Disadvantages of Pitot-static tubes
called free stream pressure and connecting a pressure (i) Due to the small pressure difference, they are
gauge to a small hole in the wall of a pipe, such as only suitable for high velocity fluids.
point T in Figure 23.5, is the easiest method of (ii) They can measure the flow rate only at a
recording this pressure. The difference in pressure (pR particu- lar position in the cross-section of the
– pT), shown as h in the manometer of Figure 23.5, is pipe.
an indication of the speed of the fluid in the pipe. (iii) They easily become blocked when used with
Figure 23.6 shows a practical Pitot-static tube con- fluids carrying particles.
sisting of a pair of concentric tubes. The centre tube
is the impact probe that has an open end which faces
‘head-on’ into the flow. The outer tube has a series of
holes around its circumference located at right angles 23.6 Mechanical flowmeters
to the flow, as shown by A and B in Figure 23.6. The
manometer, showing a pressure difference of h, may With mechanical flowmeters, a sensing element
be calibrated to indicate the velocity of flow directly. situat- ed in a pipeline is displaced by the fluid
flowing past it. Examples of mechanical flowmeters
commonly used include:
(a) Deflecting vane flowmeter (see Section 23.7)
(b) Turbine type meters (see Section 23.8)

23.7 Deflecting vane flowmeter

The deflecting vane flowmeter consists basically of

a pivoted vane suspended in the fluid flow stream as
shown in Figure 23.7.

Figure 23.6

Applications
A Pitot-static tube may be used for both turbulent
and non-turbulent flow. The tubes can be made very
small compared with the size of the pipeline and the
monitoring of flow velocity at particular points in the Figure 23.7
cross-section of a duct can be achieved. The device is
generally unsuitable for routine measurements and in When a jet of fluid impinges on the vane it deflects
industry is often used for making preliminary tests of from its normal position by an amount proportional
flow rate in order to specify permanent flow to the flow rate. The movement of the vane is indi-
measuring equipment for a pipeline. The main use of cated on a scale that may be calibrated in flow units.
Pitot tubes is to measure the velocity of solid bodies This type of meter is normally used for measuring
moving through fluids, such as the velocity of ships. liquid flow rates in open channels or for measuring
In these cases, the tube is connected to a Bourdon the velocity of air in ventilation ducts. The main dis-
pressure gauge that can be calibrated to read velocity advantages of this device are that it restricts the
directly. A development of the Pitot tube, a flow rate and it needs to be recalibrated for fluids of
pitometer, tests the flow of water in water mains and differing densities.
detects leakages.
Part Four

Advantages of Pitot-static tubes

(i) They are inexpensive devices.
23.8 Turbine type meters
(ii) They are easy to install.
Turbine type flowmeters are those that use some
(iii) They produce only a small pressure loss in the
form of multi-vane rotor and are driven by the fluid
tube.
being investigated. Three such devices are the cup
(iv) They do not interrupt the flow.
 Fluid flow 265
anemometer, the rotary vane positive displacement the turbine blades may be determined by a
meter and the turbine flowmeter. mechanical or electrical device enabling the flow
(a) Cup anemometer. An anemometer is an rate or total flow to be determined. Advantages
instrument that measures the velocity of moving of turbine flowmeters include a compact durable
gases and is most often used for the form, high accuracy, wide temperature and pres-
measurement of wind speed. The cup sure capability and good response characteristics.
anemometer has three or four cups of Applications include the volumetric
hemispherical shape mounted at the end of arms measurement of both crude and refined
radiating horizontally from a fixed point. The petroleum products in pipelines up to 600 mm
cup system spins round the vertical axis with a bore, and in the water, power, aerospace, process
speed approximately proportional to the and food industries, and with modification may
velocity of the wind. With the aid of a be used for natural, industrial and liquid gas
mechanical and/or electrical counter the wind measurements. Turbine flowmeters require
speed can be determined and the device is easily periodic inspection and clean- ing of the working
adapted for automatic recording. parts.
(b) Rotary vane positive displacement meters
measure the flow rate by indicating the quantity
of liquid flowing through the meter in a given
time. A typical such device is shown in section
in Figure 23.8 and consists of a cylindrical
chamber into which is placed a rotor containing
a number of vanes (six in this case). Liquid
entering the chamber turns the rotor and a known Figure 23.9
amount of liquid is trapped and carried round to
the outlet. If x is the volume displaced by one
blade then for each revolution of the rotor in 23.9 Float and tapered-tube meter
Figure 23.8 the total volume displaced is 6x. The
rotor shaft may be coupled to a mechanical Principle of operation
counter and electri- cal devices which may be With orifice plates and venturimeters the area of the
calibrated to give flow volume. This type of opening in the obstruction is fixed and any change in
meter in its various forms is used widely for the the flow rate produces a corresponding change in
measurement of domestic and industrial water pres- sure. With the float and tapered-tube meter the
consumption, for the accu- rate measurement of area of the restriction may be varied so as to maintain
petrol in petrol pumps and for the consumption a steady pressure differential. A typical meter of this
and batch control measure- ments in the general type is shown diagrammatically in Figure 23.10 where
process and food industries for measuring flows a ver- tical tapered tube contains a ‘float’ that has a
as varied as solvents, tar and molasses (i.e. density greater than the fluid.
thickish treacle). The float in the tapered tube produces a restriction
to the fluid flow. The fluid can only pass in the
annular area between the float and the walls of the
tube. This reduction in area produces an increase in
velocity and hence a pressure difference, which
causes the float to rise. The greater the flow rate, the
greater is the rise in the float position, and vice versa.
The position of the float is a measure of the flow rate
of the fluid and this is shown on a vertical scale
Figure 23.8
engraved on a transpar- ent tube of plastic or glass.
For air, a small sphere is used for the float but for
(c) A turbine flowmeter contains in its construc-
liquids there is a tendency to instability and the float
tion a rotor to which blades are attached which
Part Four

is then designed with vanes that cause it to spin and

spin at a velocity proportional to the veloc-
thus stabilize itself as the liquid flows past. Such
ity of the fluid which flows through the meter. A
meters are often called ‘rotameters’. Calibration of
typical section through such a meter is shown in
float and tapered tube flowmeters can be achieved
Figure 23.9. The number of revolutions made by
using a Pitot-static tube or,
 266 Mechanical Engineering Principles
an electromagnetic flowmeter whose principle of
operation is based on the laws of electromagnetic
induction. When a conductor of length L moves at
right angles to a magnetic field of density B at a velocity
v, an induced e.m.f. e is generated, given by: e = BLv.
With the electromagnetic flowmeter arrangement
shown in Figure 23.11, the fluid is the conductor and
the e.m.f. is detected by two electrodes placed across
the diameter of the non-magnetic tube.
Rearranging e = BLv gives:
e
velocity, v =
BL

Figure 23.10

more often, by using a weighing meter in an

instrument repair workshop.
Advantages of float and tapered-tube flowmeters
(i) They have a very simple design.
Figure 23.11
(ii) They can be made direct reading.
(iii) They can measure very low flow rates.
Thus with B and L known, when e is measured, the
Disadvantages of float and tapered-tube flowmeters velocity of the fluid can be calculated.
(i) They are prone to errors, such as those caused by
temperature fluctuations. Main advantages of electromagnetic flowmeters
(ii) They can only be installed vertically in a pipe- (i) Unlike other methods, there is nothing directly
line. to impede the fluid flow.
(iii) They cannot be used with liquids containing (ii) There is a linear relationship between the fluid
large amounts of solids in suspension. flow and the induced e.m.f.
(iv) They need to be recalibrated for fluids of differ- (iii) Flow can be metered in either direction by
ent densities. using a centre-zero measuring instrument.
Practical applications of float and tapered-tube Applications of electromagnetic flowmeters are
meters are found in the medical field, in instrument found in the measurement of speeds of slurries, pastes
purging, in mechanical engineering test rigs and in and viscous liquids, and they are also widely used in
simple process applications, in particular for very low the water production, supply and treatment industry.
flow rates. Many corrosive fluids can be handled with
this device without complications.

23.11 Hot-wire anemometer

23.10 Electromagnetic flowmeter
Part Four

A simple hot-wire anemometer consists of a small

piece of wire which is heated by an electric current
The flow rate of fluids that conduct electricity, such and positioned in the air or gas stream whose
as water or molten metal, can be measured using velocity is to be measured. The stream passing the
wire cools it,
 Fluid flow 267
the rate of cooling being dependent on the flow veloc- Now try the following Practise Exercise
ity. In practice there are various ways in which this is
achieved:
Practise Exercise 124 Further problems on
(i) If a constant current is passed through the wire, the measurement of
variation in flow results in a change of tempera- fluid flow
ture of the wire and hence a change in For the flow measurement devices listed 1 to 5,
resistance which may be measured by a (a) describe briefly their construction (b) state
Wheatstone bridge arrangement. The change in their principle of operation (c) state their char-
resistance may be related to fluid flow. acteristics and limitations (d) state typical
(ii) If the wire’s resistance, and hence temperature, practi- cal applications (e) discuss their
is kept constant, a change in fluid flow results advantages and disadvantages.
in a corresponding change in current which can
be calibrated as an indication of the flow rate. 1. Orifice plate
(iii) A thermocouple may be incorporated in the as- 2. Venturimeter
sembly, monitoring the hot wire and recording
the temperature which is an indication of the air 3. Pitot-static tube
or gas velocity. 4. Float and tapered-tube meter
Advantages of the hot-wire anemometer 5. Turbine flowmeter.
(a) Its size is small.
(b) It has great sensitivity.

23.13 Equation of continuity

23.12 Choice of flowmeter
The calibrations of many of the flowmeters described
earlier are based on the equation of continuity and
Problem 1. Choose the most appropriate Bernoulli’s equation.
fluid flow measuring device for the The equation of continuity states that for the
following circumstances: steady flow of a fluid through a pipe of varying cross-
(a) The most accurate, permanent installation for section the rate of mass entering the pipe must be
measuring liquid flow rate. equal to the rate of mass leaving the pipe; this is really
(b) To determine the velocity of low- a statement of the principle of conservation of mass.
speed aircraft and ships. Thus, for an incompressible fluid:
(c) Accurate continuous volumetric measurement a1 v1  a2 v2
of crude petroleum products in a duct of
500 mm bore. where a1 = cross-sectional area at section 1,
(d) To give a reasonable indication of the a2 = cross-sectional area at section 2, v1 = velocity of
mean flow velocity, while maintaining a fluid at section 1, and v2 = velocity of fluid at section
steady pressure difference on a hydraulic 2
test rig.
(e) For an essentially constant flow rate with
reasonable accuracy in a large pipe bore, 23.14 Bernoulli’s equation
with a cheap and simple installation.
(a) Venturimeter Bernoulli’s equation states that for a fluid flowing
(b) Pitot-static tube through a pipe from section 1 to section 2:
(c) Turbine flowmeter P1 v12 P2 v 2 2
  2  gz1 
  2  g(z 2  h f )
(d) Float and tapered-tube flowmeter
Part Four

(e) Orifice plate. where ρ = density of the fluid,

P1 = pressure at section 1,
P2 = pressure at section 2,
 268 Mechanical Engineering Principles
v1 = velocity at section 1,
49.05
v2 = velocity at section 2, from which, v2 = = 6.531 m/s
1.15
z1 = ‘height’ of pipe at section 1,  d 2   0.042
z = ‘height’ of pipe at section 2, Cross-sectional area of pipe = a2 = 2 
2 4 4
hf = friction losses (in m) due to the fluid = 0.001257 m2
flowing
from section 1 to section 2, Mass rate of flow through the outlet pipe
and g = 9.81 m/s2 (assumed).
= ρ a2v2 = 770 kg  1.257  10–3m2  6.531 m
Problem 2. A storage tank contains oil whose m3 s
free surface is 5 m above an outlet pipe, as shown = 6.321 kg/s
in Figure 23.12. Determine the mass rate of flow at
the exit of the outlet pipe, assuming that (a) losses
at the pipe entry = 0.4 v2, and (b) losses at the Flow through an orifice
valve Consider the flow of a liquid through a small orifice,
= 0.25 v2. as shown in Figures 23.13(a) and (b), where it can be
Pipe diameter = 0.04 m, density of oil, ρ = 770 kg/m3. seen that the vena contracta (VC) lies just to the right
of the orifice. The cross-sectional area of the fluid is the
smallest here and its decrease in area from the orifice
is measured by the coefficient of contraction (Cc).

Figure 23.12

Let v2 = velocity of oil through the outlet pipe.

From Bernoulli’s equation: Figure 23.13

P1 v12 Due to friction losses there will be a loss in velocity

  gz 1
 2 at the orifice; this is measured by the coefficient of
2 velocity, namely Cv, so that:
 P2  v 2  gz2  0.4 v22  0.25 v22 C = C  C = the coefficient of discharge.
 2 d V c
v 22
i.e. 0 + 0 + g(5 m) = 0 + 2
Let a = area of orifice.
2 + 0 + 0.65 v2 Due to the vena contracta the equivalent cross-
(where in the above, the following assumptions have sectional area = Cca
been made: P1 = P2 = atmospheric pressure, and v1 is Now the theoretical velocity at section 2 = v2 = 2gh ,
negligible) but due to friction losses, v2 = Cv 2gh
m
Hence, 5 m  9.81 and due to contraction, v2 = CcCv 2gh
Part Four

= (0.5 + 0.65)v2 2
s2 m2
Rearranging gives: 1.15 v 2 = 49.05 Hence discharge = Cca  Cv 2gh
2 s2 But Cd = CvCc
49.05
Hence, v 2= Therefore, discharge = Cd  a 2gh
2 1.15
 Fluid flow 269
Now try the following Practise Exercise Now, momentum = mv and as v is constant, the change
dm
of momentum = v
Practise Exercise 125 Further problems on dt
dm
fluid flow However, = mass rate of flow = ρav
dt
1. If in the storage tank of worked Problem 2 Therefore, change of momentum = ρav  v = ρav2 but
on page 268, Figure 23.12, z1 = 8 m, from Newton’s second law of motion (see pages 157
determine the mass rate of flow from the and 163),
outlet pipe.
[7.995 kg/s] F = rate of change of momentum

2. If in the storage tank of worked Problem 2, i.e. F = ρav2

page 268, Figure 23.12, z1 = 10 m, where F = resulting normal force on the flat plate.
determine the mass rate of flow from the
outlet pipe. force av 2
Pressure =  = ρv2
[8.939 kg/s] area a
For wide surfaces, such as garden fences, the pressure
3. If in Figure 23.13, h = 6 m, Cc = 0.8, can be calculated by the above formula, but for tall
Cv = 0.7, determine the values of Cd and
buildings and trees, civil engineers normally assume
actual v2. [Cd = 0.56, v2 = 6.08 m/s]
that:
4. If in Figure 23.13, h = 10 m, Cc = 0.75,
Cv = 0.65, and the cross-sectional area is Pressure p = 0.5 ρv2
1.5  10–3m2, determine the discharge and This is because the flow of fluid is similar to the plan
the actual velocity v2. view shown in Figure 23.15, where the change of mo-
mentum is much less.

23.15 Impact of a jet on a

stationary plate
The impact of a jet on a plate is of importance in a
number of engineering problems, including the deter-
mination of pressures on buildings subjected to gusts
Figure 23.15
of wind.
Consider the jet of fluid acting on the flat plate
of Figure 23.14, where it can be seen that the velocity Problem 3. Determine the wind pressure on a
of the fluid is turned through 90, or change of slim, tall building due to a gale of 100 km/h.
velocity = v. Take density of air, ρ = 1.2 kg/m3.

For a tall building, pressure p = 0.5

ρv2
km 1000 m 1h = 27.78 m/s
Velocity, v = 100  
h km 3600 s
Hence,
kg  m2
wind pressure, p = 0.5  1.2   27.78
m3 s 

= 462.96 N/m2 = 0.00463 bar.

Problem 4. What would be the wind pressure of

Part Four

Problem 3, if the gale were acting on a very wide

and flat surface?
Figure 23.14
 270 Mechanical Engineering Principles
For a very wide surface,
kg  m2 6. Hot-wire anemometer.
2
pressure, p = ρv = 1.2   27.78  7. Turbine flowmeter.
m3  s
8. Deflecting vane flowmeter.
= 926.1 N/m2 = 0.00926 bar
9. Flow nozzles.
(or less than 1/100th of atmospheric pressure!)
10. Rotary vane positive displacement meter.
11. Write down the relationship between the
Now try the following Practise Exercises coefficients Cc, Cv and Cd

Practise Exercise 126 Further problems on 12. Write down the formula for the pressure
the impact of jets on due to a wind acting perpendicularly on a
flat surfaces tall slender building.

1. A hurricane of velocity 220 km/h blows

perpendicularly on to a very wide flat surface.
Determine the wind pressure that acts on Practise Exercise 128 Multiple-choice
this surface due to this hurricane, when the questions on
density of air, ρ = 1.2 kg/m3. [0.0448 bar] the
measurement of
2. What is the wind pressure for Problem 1 on fluid flow
a slim, tall building? [0.0224 bar]
(Answers on page 298)
3. A tornado with a velocity of 320 km/h
blows perpendicularly on to a very wide 1. The term ‘flow rate’ usually refers to:
surface. Determine the wind pressure that (a) mass flow rate
acts on this surface due to this tornado, (b) velocity of flow
when the density of air, ρ = 1.23 kg/m3. (c) volumetric flow rate
[0.0972 bar]
2. The most suitable method for measuring the
4. What is the wind pressure for Problem 3 on velocity of high-speed gas flow in a duct is:
a slim, tall building? [0.0486 bar] (a) venturimeter
5. If atmospheric pressure were 1.014 bar, (b) orifice plate
what fraction of atmospheric pressure (c) Pitot-static tube
would be the wind pressure calculated in (d) float and tapered-tube meter
Problem 4?
[
0.0479 ≈
1 3. Which of the following statements is
false? When a fluid moves through a
21
] restriction in a pipe, the fluid
(a) accelerates and the pressure increases
(b) decelerates and the pressure decreases
Practise Exercise 127 Short-answer (c) decelerates and the pressure increases
questions on (d) accelerates and the pressure decreases
the
4. With an orifice plate in a pipeline the vena
measurement of
contracta is situated:
fluid flow
(a) downstream at the position of mini-
In the flowmeters listed 1 to 10, state typical mum cross-sectional area of flow
practical applications of each. (b) upstream at the position of minimum
1. Orifice plate. cross-sectional area of flow
Part Four

(c) downstream at the position of maxi-

2. Venturimeter. mum cross-sectional area of flow
3. Float and tapered-tube meter. (d) upstream at the position of maximum
cross-sectional area of flow
4. Electromagnetic flowmeter.
5. Pitot-static tube.
 Fluid flow 271

In Questions 5 to 14, select the most appropriate 10. To measure the velocity of wind.
device for the particular requirements from the
following list: 11. Constant flow rate, large bore pipe, in the
general process industry.
(a) orifice plate
(b) turbine flowmeter 12. To make a preliminary test of flow rate in
(c) flow nozzle order to specify permanent flow
(d) pitometer measuring equipment.
(e) venturimeter 13. To determine the flow rate of fluid very
(f) cup anemometer ac- curately with low pressure loss.
(g) electromagnetic flowmeter
(h) pitot-static tube 14. To measure the flow rate of air in a ventilat-
(i) float and tapered-tube meter ing duct.
(j) hot-wire anemometer
15. For a certain wind velocity, what fraction
(k) deflecting vane flowmeter.
of the pressure would act on a tall slender
5. Easy to install, reasonably inexpensive, for building in comparison with a very wide
high-velocity flows. surface?
6. To measure the flow rate of gas, incorporat- (a) 0.01 (b) 0
ing a Wheatstone bridge circuit. (c) 0.5 (d) 0.99
7. Very low flow rate of corrosive liquid in a 16. For a wind speed of 190 km/h, what frac-
chemical process. tion (approximate) of atmospheric
pressure will this be, when blowing
8. To detect leakages from water mains.
perpendicularly to a very wide surface?
9. To determine the flow rate of liquid (a) 2.5 (b) 0.5
metals without impeding its flow. (c) 1/30 (d) 0

Part Four