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Index
S.No. Topics Sub-Topics Page Number
Matter, types of matter, type of mixture, physical change and chemical change, states
1 Matter of matter, type of solid, gas laws, changes of matter. 1-6
Law of chemical combination, Dalton’s atomic theory, constituents of the atom,
molecule, cathode rays, anode rays or canal rays, discovery of neutrons, Thomson
model of atom, Rutherford’s model, Bohr’s model of atom, postulates of bohr, mole,
2 Atomic structure molar volume, atomic mass, valences, dual nature of matter; de Broglie equation, 7-14
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, quantum numbers, shape of orbitals, rules for
filling of electron.
Historical development :- dobereiner’s law of triads, Newland’s law of octave,
Mendeleev’s periodic law, Modern periodic law, s-block elements, p-block elements, d-
`3. Periodic Table block elements, f-block elements, classification of elements, periodic trends in 15-21
properties of elements, Ionization enthalpy, Electron affinity, electronegativity, electro
positivity, variation in properties across periods and top to bottom.
Metals, and Non- Metal, Non-metal, physical and chemical properties of metal and non-metal, Alloy,
4 corrosion. 22-24
Metals & Alloys
Acids, bases, and Bronsted –Lowry concept of acid and bases, Lewis concept of acid and bases, Acids,
5 Base, pH value, Titration, Buffer solution, color indicators, Salt. 25-30
salts
S-block elements, Alkali metals (group I), Alkaline earth metals(group II), P-block
S-block and P-
6 elements, group-13 elements, group-14 elements, group-15 elements, group-16 31-42
block elements elements, group- 17 elements, group-18 elements.
D-block and F- D-block elements, properties of d-block elements, f-block elements, Lanthanides,
7 Actinides, radioactive elements. 43-48
block elements
Organic chemistry, organic compounds, Hydrocarbon, alkane, ethanoic acid, Alcohol,
Organic ester, discovery related to organic compound, Carbon and its allotrope.
8 49-54
Chemistry
Hydrogen (position of hydrogen, occurrence of hydrogen, isotopes of hydrogen,
Hydrogen and
9 hydrogen economy, physical and chemical properties of hydrogen), water 55-57
Water (Occurrence, preparation, structure of water, hard and soft water).
Chemical Chemical equations, types of chemical equation, oxidation and reduction, redox
10. reaction, concept of oxidation number of oxidation states, food preservatives. 56-60
Reactions
Chemical bond, octet rule, Lewis symbols, electronic theory of valences, Ionic or
Chemical electrovalent bond, covalent bond, quantum theory of covalent bond, types of orbital
11 overlap, bonding parameters, coordinate -covalent bond, bonding in solid state, 61-64
Bonding
hydrogen bond.
Classification of polymers:- on the basis of number of units, on the basis of source, on
the basis of structure, on the basis of mode of synthesis, on the basis of magnitude of
12 Polymers intermolecular forces present in them, types of polymerization reaction, uses of some 65-67
polymer.
Solution, types of solution, colligative properties, osmosis, osmotic pressure, colloids,
13 Solution emulsion. 68-71
Electrochemical cell or galvanic cell, electrolytic conduction, some commercial cells: -
14 Electrochemistry primary cell, secondary cell, electroplating, metallurgy, types of metallurgy, important 72-75
steps used in metallurgy.
General Purification of impure substance: - magnetic separation, sedimentation and
decantation, filtration, sublimation, distillation, fractional distillation, differential
15 processes used extraction, chromatography, occurrence of elements: mineral & ores. Elements in 76-78
in chemistry biological system.
Chemistry in Chemicals in medicines(drugs), chemicals in food, soap, detergents, propellants, dyes,
16 classification of dyes on the basis of their application 79-81
daily life
Carbohydrates, classification of carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, classification of
17 Biomolecules proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, vitamins and hormones, genetic engineering. 82-86
Coal and Coal, types of coal, petroleum, petroleum refining, octane and cetane number, natural
18 gas, combustion, fuel. 87-89
petroleum
Cement, occupational lung diseases, fertilizers, some important gases: greenhouse
gases, LPG and modern LPG, CNG, methane gas, gases used for artificial respiration,
Applied welding gas, smoke bomb, laughing gas, syngas, tear gas, CO, Propane gas, water gas,
19 producer gas, study of fossils, catalytic converters, some disease due to metals, energy 90-97
chemistry
production in India, nuclear power plants in India, Nuclear bomb testing agency in
India, some important chemicals, Glass, some daily life medicines.
20 Miscellaneous Occurrence of elements 98-101

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1. Matter
Matter can be defined as anything which Ammonia gas is an example of (Separate by using the technique of
occupies space, offers resistance, compound. magnetization.
possesses mass and can be felt by one or NOTE: (SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO & PA/SA Exam, 15.11.2015)

more of our senses. Thus matter is Lead and iron both are not compounds iron filings and Sulphur, Milk,
ultimately classified into elements, because they are elements. suspension, Soil, sand, lime water,
mixture of sand etc.
compounds and mixtures. (RRB GROUP_D 08.10.2018)
(RRB JE 14.12.2014,
(SSC CPO 13.12.2019)
Some characteristics of matter are:- SSC MTS 16.09.2017, SSC JE 25.01.2018)
3. Mixtures: Mixtures are the materials
(RRB ALP 13.08.2018 & A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture
RRB JE 02.06.2019) made up of two or more pure substances
in which the solute particles do not
(i) All matter are made up of particles. (elements/compounds) in proportion by
dissolve but remain suspended
(ii) Particles of matter are very small. mass. Mixture possess variable
throughout the bulk of the medium. the
(iii) The force of attraction present composition and can be separated into
particles of a suspension is visible by
between the particles of the substance by constituent components by suitable
naked eye.
which they are bonded to each other. physical means. (RRB JE 27.05.2019)
(iv) The particles of matter move For example, crude oil is a mixture of a (SSC MTS 08.07.2022)
continuously in fluid and air. large number of different substances. Suspension particles have the size
(v) Particles of matter having kinetic The constituents of a mixture do not lose between 10–2 and 10–4 cm
energy and the speed of particles their identity and properties (SSC MTS Staff Exam. 24.03.2013,)

increases with increase in temperature.

(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam. Heterogeneous Mixtures (oil and water)
27.05.2012)
(vi) There is an inter molecular space that can be separated by different
e.g., air, milk, sea water, petrol,
between particles of matter. funnels.
limewater, paint, glass, cement, wood, (RRB GROUP-D 31.10.2018)
1. Element: It is the purest kind of matter, gasoline, liquefied petroleum gas, Physical Change and Chemical
which can neither be decomposed nor Asphalt, Diesel etc.
built up from simpler substances by any Change
(SSC MTS 22.10.2021)
chemical or physical means. In the light AIR is a mixture of both elements and Physical change – the properties such as
of recent developments elements may be compounds size, shape, color and condition of a
defined as substances made up of only (RRB NTPC 11.04.2016) substance are called its physical
one kind of atoms. There are 118 Distilled water is not a mixture it is the properties. Any change in these
elements known at present out of these Purest form of water. properties is called physical change. No
(SSC MTS 05.07.2022)
elements 92 have been derived from new substances are formed in such types
ICE is not a mixture it’s a substance.
natural sources and the remaining of changes.
(SSC MTS 03.10.2017)
elements have been prepared by artificial Some examples of physical change:
means such as transmutation. Types of Mixtures (i) Melting of ice cubes.
Transmutation: it is the process of There are two types of mixtures that is (ii) Glowing of platinum wire.
changing one element into another by homogenous and heterogeneous.
(RRB NTPC 11.04.2016)
radioactive decay, nuclear bombardment, (RRB JE 02.06.2019)
(iii) Water changes to ice.
RRB GROUP –D 08.10.2018)
or similar processes (i) Homogeneous mixture: A mixture is
(iv) Water into water vapor
For example plutonium can be said to be homogeneous, if it has a (RRB GROUP_D 01.10.2018)
produced artificially. uniform composition throughout and (v) Crystallization
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO there are no visible boundaries of Chemical change – the change in which
& LDC Exam. 28.10.2012)
separation between the constituents. one or more new substances are formed
Curie point is the point at which Metal More ever the constituents cannot be
lose their magnetic properties. is called chemical change
seen even by a microscope, e.g., sugar some examples of chemical change are:
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010)
dissolved in water, unpolluted air, petrol, (i) Milk conversion to yogurt.
Elements may be further classified into
alloys, etc. (RRB GROUP_D 12.10.2018)
metals, non-metals and metalloids. (RRB NTPC 18.04.2016 (ii) Burning of incense sticks or paper
2. Compound: A compound is a pure & RRB JE 27.05.2019)
(iii) Burning of wood.
substance which can be decomposed into
(ii) Heterogeneous mixture: A mixture is (iv) Digestion of food.
simpler substances by suitable chemical
said to be heterogeneous, if it does not (v) Souring of butter.
techniques. A compound is formed by (RRB ALP 29.08.2018)
combination of two or more elements have a uniform composition throughout
(vi) Rusting of iron
(SSC CHSL 14.10.20) and has visible boundaries of separation (RRB NTPC 07.04.2016 & 18.01.2017)
in a definite proportion by mass, e.g., between the various constituents. The (vii) Neutralization
water (a compound) is made up of different constituents of a heterogeneous (RRB NTPC 28.03.2016)
hydrogen and oxygen (elements) in the mixture can be seen even with naked eye,
ratio 1:8 by mass. e.g., mixture of iron filings and sand

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STATES OF MATTER

Solid Liquid Gas Plasma BEC Fermionic Condensate Quark-gluon

(4th State o Matter) (5th State f Matter) (6th State o Matter) (7th State of Matter)
(RRBGROUP-D 01.10.2018)
(SSC MTS 13.08.19 &11.10.2021)

1. Solid ions because of strong attraction 3. Network covalent solids: There are no
In a solid, particles are packed tightly between opposite charges; it takes a lot individual molecules. The atoms are
together so they are unable to move. of energy to overcome ionic bonds. This covalently bonded in a continuous
Particles of a solid have very low kinetic means that ionic compounds have very network, resulting in huge crystals.
energy. Solids have a definite shape. They high melting and boiling points. These solids are very hard, they do not
also have a definite volume. Ionic solids are formed by the three- dissolve in water and they do not
dimensional arrangements of cations and conduct electricity.
anions bound by strong force. Example: - diamonds, amethysts (it is a
(SSC CPO 25.11.2020) violet variety of quartz)
While the crystals themselves are hard,
brittle and nonconductive, most ionic
compounds can be dissolved in water,
Example: - Diamond, iron, Camphor
forming a solution of free ions that will
(RRB NTPC 11.4.2016)
conduct electricity example: - NaCl 4. Metallic solids: - These are made up of
Some characteristics of solids are:-
(Sodium chloride), metallic bond; the valence electrons are
(i) Solids are incompressible and hard and
(SSC MTS 09.08.2019,05.07,22) not donated or shared as they are in ionic
their constituent particles have less
it is also called table salt. Six anions and covalent bonding. Rather, the
space between them.
surround a sodium ion in a crystal lattice electron clouds of adjacent atoms
(ii) They have higher density in comparison
of sodium chloride. overlap so that electrons become
to gas and liquid. (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 06.12.2022 Shift-3)
delocalized.
(iii) The particles of solids are configured in a
B) Amorphous Solids: In this, the particles
systematic way and their melting point is
do not have a repeating lattice pattern.
often high.
(RRB GROUP-D 06.12.2018) The amorphous solids do not have a
(iv) Solids have maximum attraction of force. definite melting point; instead, it melts
gradually over a range of temperatures,
(RRB GROUP-D 23.10.2018) because the bonds do not break all at
 Solids are divided into two groups. once. This means an amorphous solid
Solids can be classified as crystalline or 2. Molecular solids: These are composed will melt into a soft, malleable state
amorphous on the basis of the nature of of covalently bonded molecules attracted before turning completely into a liquid.
order present in the arrangement of to each other by electrostatic forces These solids are called "isotropic"
their constituent particles. (called Vander walls forces). because properties such as refractive
(A) Crystalline Solids: These are regarded This electrostatic force of attraction index, conductivity and tensile strength
as 'true solids'. In crystalline solids, the between the two poles is weaker than are equal regardless of the direction in
atoms, ions or molecules are arranged in ionic or covalent bonding. So, Molecular which a force is applied.
an ordered and symmetrical pattern that solids tend to be softer than ionic Example: - Glass, rubber, Gels, sugar
is repeated over the entire crystal. The crystals and have lower melting point. candy and most plastics.
smallest repeating structure of a solid is These non-polar molecular solids will
called a unit cell. Unit cells combine to not dissolve in water, but will dissolve
form a network called a crystal lattice. in a non-polar solvent, such as
There are 14 types of lattices, called benzene and octane. Polar molecular
"Bravais lattices". They are classified solids, such as sugar, dissolve easily in
into seven crystal systems based on the water.
arrangement of the atoms. Water is a polar molecule.
(SSC CHSL 09.08.21)
There are 4 types of crystalline
Example: Ice, sugar, chlorine (Cl2), Solid
solids carbon dioxide, iodine, sulphur S8, HCl, Difference Between Amorphous
Fullerene "buckyballs". and Crystalline Solid
S.no. Amorphous solid Crystalline solid
1 Does not have Has definite
definite geometrical
geometrical shape shape
1. Ionic solids: - These are composed of 2 Melt over a wide They have sharp
oppositely charged range of melting point

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temperature This law states that the volume and state of matter in the universe. Plasma
3 isotropic anisotropic temperature of gas have a direct consists of highly charged particles with
4 unsymmetrical symmetrical relationship; as temperature increases, extremely high kinetic energy. The noble
5 Break at irregular Breaks at Smooth volume increases, when pressure is held gases (krypton, neon, helium, argon etc.)
cleavage planes cleavage planes constant. are often used to make glowing signs by
6
(SSC CHSL 13.10.20) using electricity to ionize them to the
(C) Gay-Lussac's Law plasma state. As earth is a ball of gases
In 1808, the law was formulated by Gay so, it is said that 85% of earth is made up
Lussac’s Law it states that When gases of plasma.
combine chemically to yield another gas, Some natural gases when come in
2. Liquid
their volumes are in the ratios of small contact with high temperature and high
In the liquid phase, the particles of a
integers. electric field, their atoms change into
substance have more kinetic energy than
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-1) ions and this highly ionized state of gases
those in a solid. Liquids have a definite This law explains that why you should
volume. Liquids cannot be compressed. A is known as Plasma.
never heat a closed container. Plasma was discovered by Crooks
liquid will change shape according to its (SSC CGL MAINS ,2022
container. In tube lights, Argon gas gets converted
(C) Avogadro's Number:
to plasma due to electric field and high
This law proposed that equal volume of
temperature.
gas at the same temperature and
Uses: Plasma T.V,
pressure will have an equal number of
Gas cutter (gas used to cut metals)
particles, regardless of their chemical
nature and physical properties.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-1)
(SSC CGL MAINS ,2022)

3. Gases Avogadro made a distinction between

Gas particles have a great deal of space atoms and molecules.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 12.12.2022 Shift-1)
between them and have high kinetic
(D) Ideal gas law:
energy. Due to high kinetic energy gas 5. Bose-Einstein Condensates (BEC)
Avogadro's number, the ideal gas
particles overcome intermolecular forces In 1955, technology enables scientists to
constant, and both Boyle's and Charles’s
that hold solids and liquids together, thus create a new state of matter, the BEC.
law combine to describe a theoretical
a gas has no definite volume and no “When Gas is condensed it changes
ideal gas in which all particle collisions
definite shape. into a liquid called as Bose Einstein
are absolutely equal. These important
(SSC Delhi Police Constable 02.12.2020) condensate.” Using a combination of
Diffusion in gases occurs in extreme laws are often combined into one
lasers and magnets, Eric Cornell and Corl
intensity because there is negligible equation known as the "ideal gas law".
(RRB SSE 21.12.2014) Weidman cooled a sample of "Rubidium"
attractive force between the molecules of to a few degrees of absolute zero. At this
The ideal gas equation
gases . extremely low temperature, molecular
= PV = nRT = NkBT
(RRB GROUP_D 30.10.2018)
n = number of moles motion comes very close to stopping all
R = universal gas constant (8.314×107 in together. Since there is almost no kinetic
Ergs k-1 mol-1) energy being transferred from one atom
N = number of molecules to another, the atoms begin to clump
together; there are no longer thousands
J
kB = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10-23 of separate atoms, just one "super
Gas Laws: K atom". A BEC is used to study quantum
Temperature, pressure, and volume of a K = R/NA mechanics on a microscopic level. Light
gas are interdependent and there are NA = Avogadro's number appears to slow down as it passes
various laws to describe the relationship = 6.0221 × 1023/mol through a BEC, allowing study of
among them. (SSC MTS Staff Exam.17.03.2013,) particle/ wave paradox. A BEC also has
(A) Boyle's Law: A real gas can act as an ideal gas in low many of the properties of a super fluid
The law was formulated in 1662 and Pressure and high temperature. flowing without friction.
concluded that if temperature (T) is held (E) Dalton's Law- 5th phase is Bose-Einstein Condensate
constant; volume (V) and pressure (P) In 1801, John Dalton proposed a law that state.
have an inverse relationship. states the total pressure exerted by the
(SSC CGL 09.09.2001) mixture of non reactive gases is equal to
At constant temperature, the sum of the partial pressure of
1 individual gas.
Pα ⇒ PV = K, (K = constant) Ptotal = p1+p2+p3+……..(at constant T & V)
V
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005) (SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I,13.03.2023, 20.03.23)
(RRB JE 14.12.2014 & 30.08.2019, (SSC CGL MAINS 03.03.2023)
RRB NTPC 28.12.2020)(SSC MTS 22.07.2022) 4. Plasma
(SSC STENO 17.11.2022)(SSC CGL MAINS ,2022) It is not a common state of matter here
(B) Charles's Law : on Earth, but may be the most common

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BEC  Stated by Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose. They gave a
calculation that if 1 lac part of any gas is cooled down. We get a new
state called is BEC. But they did not proved it.
But proved by  Cornell These get noble
(Discovered by)  Chatterley prize for this in
 Weimen 2001.
Note: with an experimentally measured mercury is added into water, it settles
Gas density of 22.59 g/cm3. down.
(SSC CPO 13.03.2019) • Density of water is highest at 4°C.
Lightest metal is lithium. NOTE :
If temperature of water move from 10°C A pure substances consists of a single
Electric field or Low temperature to –4°C then density of water increases type of particles .
High Temperature (cooled) from 10°C to 4°C (highest density of Ex- Methane
water) and then density decreases from (RRB GROUP-D 24.09.2018)
Plasma BEC
4°C to –4°C. Glass, cement and steel are not pure
6. Fermionic Condensate: Also the average temperature of elements whereas sodium is a pure
A fermionic condensate is a super fluid refrigerator 4°C element.
phase formed by fermionic particles at Compressibility: The property that gas Change of State of Matter
low temperatures. It is closely related to can be compressed by applying pressure When a matter is subjected to high or
Bose-Einstein condensate, a superfluid and it can be filled in the container. low temperature ie. deviation from its
phase formed by bosonic atoms under (RRB GROUP _D 11.10.2018)
standard temperature, the state of matter
similar conditions. The earliest Order of compressibility changes i.e it may move from solid to
recognised fermionic condensate Gas > Liquid > Solid liquid or liquid to gas or any change in
described state of electrons in a Note: You are advised to use Nitrogen state .
superconductor. The first atomic (N2) gas filled Tyres on express way.
fermionic condensate was created by a  This is because as gases expand at high
team led by Deborch S. Jin in 2003. temperature and contracts at low
7. Quark-Gluon Plasma or Quark Soup: temperature.
It is a state of matter an Quantum During summer, Road are quite hot so
chromoedynamics (QCD) which at this heat when passed into tyres due to
extremly high temperature and density. friction, expands the normal gases filled
This state is through to consists of inside tyres. Due to this Expansion, large
asymptotically free-strong interacting pressure is exerted inside tyres and tyres
Queries and gluons, which are ordinarily burst. Since N2 is a cool gas and it
Melting: When heat is applied to a solid,
confined by color confinement inside expands slowly so, tires filled with
its particles begin to vibrate faster and
atomic nuclei and electrons. Nitrogen Gas do not burst.
tend to move farther apart. When the
Brownian motion: Particles of a matter Now a days
substance, at standard atmospheric
move in a zig-zag motion called Aeroplane tyres are filled with pressure, reaches to a certain point -
Brownian motion. This was given by Nitrogen gas rather than Helium called the melting point - the solid will
Robert Brown. gas. begin to turn into a liquid. Melting is also
Order of Kinetic Energy: known as fusion.
Plasma > Gas > BEC > Liquid > Solid When gas is heated, it expands so, (SSC CGL 18.08.2017)
 
distance between its molecules increase.
(Formed at (Formed at
High Low
Since plasma is formed at high
Temperature) Temperature) temperature so, it has maximum
intermolecular distance. So, it also has
Order of Density:
maximum kinetic energy.
Solid > Liquid > BEC > Gas > Plasma If you continue to apply heat to the
Ice floats on water
Density of water > Density of ice sample, the temperature will not rise
Reason: Density of ice is less than
Density of Mercury > Density of Water above the melting point until the entire
Density of water but volume must be
Density will be high for the one which has sample has been liquefied. Once the
same.
minimum intermolecular distance entire sample has become a liquid the
When water is converted into ice, due to
Osmium: It is the heaviest metal and it has temperature will begin to rise again.
freezing, some gap is created between
highest density Melting point of ice decrease by adding
(SSC MTS21.08.2019)
molecules, so the density of ice is less
(SSCCGL07.03.2020) than density of water. salt into it.
the atomic number is 76.it is the densest • Density of mercury (Hg) or Honey is Iron melts at 1538 degree Celsius. And
naturally occurring element on earth, more than Density of water so when boils at about 2861 degree Celsius.
(SSC CPO 16.03.2019)

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Tungsten has the highest melting point. It Vaporization: It is the conversion of a
used for making filaments of bulb. liquid to gas. Vaporization can occur
Tungsten was earlier called Wolfram . through either evaporation or boiling.
(SSC CPO 09.12.2019)(SSC MTS 16.08.2019) When enough energy is transferred to a
Freezing: The freezing point is the particle near the surface; it may gain
temperature at which a liquid substance enough energy to be knocked completely
is cooled enough to form a solid. As the away from the sample as a free gas
liquid is cooled, particle motion slows. particle. This process is called NOTE:
Absolute zero is a hypothetical evaporation and it continuous as long as Fermentation
temperature at which atoms would stop liquid remains. It is interesting to note The conversion of sugar into alcohol is
moving. At physically, it is impossible to that a liquid cools as it evaporates. The fermentation. (During fermentation of
reach. The value for absolute zero energy transferred to surface molecules, sugar, the compound which is always
temperature is O (zero) Kelvin or minus which causes their escape, is carried formed is Ethyl Alcohol)
459.67 degrees Fahrenheit or minus away from the remaining liquid sample. (RRB JE 24.05.2019, RRB NTPC 12.10.2021)
273.15 degree Celsius. (SSC CGL 13.06.2019)(SSC MTS 13.10.2021) For Example making vinegar from
32 degree Fahrenheit is freezing point for When enough heat is added to a liquid, sugarcane Juices, Milk is converted to
fresh water. the liquid starts to boil. Boiling point is curd
dependent upon the pressure the (SSC Constable (GD) & Rifleman (GD) Exam.
22.04.2012)
substance is under. A liquid under higher
pressure will require more heat before
vapor bubbles form within it.
At high altitudes, there is less
atmospheric pressure pressing down on
the liquid, so it will boil at a lower
Note: temperature. The same amount of liquid
• William Thomson codified the first two at sea level is under a greater
laws of thermodynamics and deduced atmospheric pressure and will boil at a
that the absolute zero of temperature is - higher temperature.
273.15 °C . he was honoured for this with Salt is obtained by evaporation of sea
the naming of the kelvin temperature water.
scale. (SSC CGL 20.08.2017) (SSC MTS 14.08.2019)
• If a glass bottle is completely filled with 100 °C is the boiling point at standard
water, sealed with lid and eventually, the atmospheric pressure at sea level and
ice will burst the glass bottle. 45degree latitude of water on the Celsius
(Because Liquid has the property of scale .
(SSCCHSL16.04.21)
expanding on freezing) (SSC CGL 20.08.2021)
• Super cooling is cooling of liquid below Condensation and Deposition:
freezing point. Condensation is when a gas transforms
Sublimation: When a solid is converted into a liquid due to change in pressure or
directly into a gas without going through temperature of the substance.
a liquid phase, the process is known as Condensation occurs when a gas has
"Sublimation". been cooled or compressed to the point
(SSC MTS 02.11.2021)
where kinetic energy of the particles can
no longer overcome the intermolecular
forces.
When a gas transforms directly into a
solid, without going through the liquid
phase, it is called deposition or de-
sublimation.
Sublimation occurs when kinetic energy (RRB NTPC 16.04.2016)
of the particles is greater than Example: In sub-freezing air, water
atmospheric pressure surrounding the changes directly to ice without first
sample. This may occur when the becoming a liquid. This is how snow
temperature of the sample is rapidly forms in clouds. Dry Ice, Ammonium
increased beyond the boiling point. A few chloride, iodine, naphthalene, camphor
volatile substances will undergo etc.
sublimation at normal temperature and (SSC CAPFS 02.07.2017, RRB ALP 20.08.2018
RRB GROUP-D 16.10.2018, 11.12.2018)
pressure. The best known of these
substances is CO2 or dry ice.

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2. Atomic Structure
Law of chemical combination: 5. Atoms can neither be created nor existence and shows all the properties of
Antoine l. Lavoisier and Joseph l. Proust destroyed, i.e., atoms are indestructible. that element.
were established the two laws of (RRB JE & RRB GROUP-D 04.12.2018) (SSC JE 29.01.2018)

chemical combination that is There is no charge in the molecule. The

(RRB ALP & TEC. 30.08.2018, RRB GROUP-D concept of a molecule can be different for
31.10.2018, RRBJE 31.05.2019) solids, liquids and gases.
(1) Law of conservation of mass – the mass (RRB GROUP-D 13.12.2018)
can neither be created and nor be The word molecule was discovered by
destroyed in a chemical reaction. Amedeo Avagadro.
(SSC CGL. 13.11.2005)
(RRB GROUP-D 20.18.2018)
(RRB JE 23.05.2019) Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic
Theory Molecules in solids cannot move.
Dalton law provide an explanation on
1. It failed to explain how atoms of different Atomicity:-
law of conservation of mass.
(RRB GROUP-D 01.10.2018) elements differ from one another, i.e., it The number of atoms constituting a
(2) Law of constant proportions- In a did not tell anything about structure of molecule is known as atomicity.
(RRB GROUP-D RRB ALP 20.08.2018 & 16.10.2018)
chemical substances the elements are the atom.
2. It could not explain how and why atoms Types of Atomicity
always present in definite proportions by
of different elements combine with each 1.Monoatomic are element with only one
mass.
(RRB GROUP-D 05.12.2018 & 03.12.2018 other to form compound atoms or stable atom. Monoatomic is a
All samples of carbon dioxide contain molecules. combination of the words “mono” and
carbon and oxygen in a mass ratio of 3 :8. 3. It failed to explain the nature of forces “atomic” and means “single atom”.This
(Carbon dioxide is heavier than that bind together different atoms in a usually applies to gases . a monoatomic
oxygen)This is in agreement with the molecule. gas is one in which the gas phase at
rule of constant proportion. 4. It failed to explain Gay-Lussac’s law of sufficiently high temperature.
(RRB GROUP-D 10.12.2018)
combining volumes Example-. Helium, argon are
Dalton’s Atomic Theory 5. It did not make distinction between monoatomic.
By observing the laws of chemical ultimate particles of an element that take (SSC CGL 20.08.21)
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I,21.03.2023)
combination John Dalton in 1808 part in reaction (atoms) and ultimate Gold is a monoatomic unit.
proposed atomic theory of matter. He is particle that has independent existence (SSC CGL 17.08.2021)
the father of atomic theory. (molecule). 2.Elements that are in paring form are
(SSC MTS 23.02.2014,
Note: term as Diatomic.
RRB GROUP-D 04.10.2018, 16.10.2018 & 25.10.2018
SSC CHSL 12.03.2018, 04.08.2021, Apart from proposing atomic theory, Oxygen molecule and hydrogen chloride
RRB NTPC 20.01.2021) colour blindness was researched by john are diatomic.
1. Matter is made up of extremely small, Dalton 3.Elements that are made up of four
indivisible particles called atoms. (SSC CHSL 21.03.2018)
atoms are term as Tetra- atomic.
(RRB GROUP_D 01.10.2018, Constituents of The Atom Example- Phosphorus.
SSC MTS 16.09.2017,
SSC CHSL 07.03.2018,
Atom: It is the smallest particle of an (SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-3)
RRB JE 27.06.2019) element that can take part in a chemical In reference to atomicity, is diatomic.
2. Atoms of same substance are identical in reaction.
all respects, i.e., they possess same size, (RRB GROUP_D 01.12.2018) Elements that have more than three
shape, mass, chemical properties, etc. atoms are term as Polyatomic.
3. Atoms of different substances are 5 atoms are there in a methane molecule.
different in all respects, i.e., they possess The word atom discovered by (Cathode Rays)
different size, shape, mass, chemical Democritus a Greek philosopher.
(RRB GROUP-D 31.10.2018)
properties, etc.
Atoms are made up of sub atomic
(SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam. (2013)
particles called protons, neutrons and
(SSC CHSL 07.03.2018 &
RRB GROUP-D 05.11.2018) electrons.
4. Atoms of different elements may (RRB JE 14.12.2014)

combine with one another in a fixed, The chemical behavior of an atom depends
simple, whole number to form upon the number of electrons orbiting
compound-atoms (now called as around the nucleus. Cathode rays were discovered by Julius
molecules). Molecule Plucker (1859).
(RRB JE 25.05.2019, A molecule can be defined as the portion In his experiment, he used a discharge
RRB JE 26.05.2019, 04.06.2019 &
SSC MTS 02.11.2021) of an element or the smallest fraction of a tube
compound that is capable of independent It is a long glass tube fitted with metal
electrodes on either sides and across

7
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which high voltage can be applied. The Electrons are stable, negatively charged The mass of the positively charged
tube is also connected to a vacuum pump particles found in all atoms. particle called proton is calculated as
for controlling the pressure of the gas (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002) follows
(SSC CHSL 08.07.2019
inside the discharge tube. (RRB NTPC 29.03.2016)
Number of electrons determines the
This experiment shows that the
chemical properties of an element. e 1.6  1019 C
fluorescence is due to bombardment on m 
(SSC CGL01.07.2012) e / m 9.58  104 C / g
the glass walls of the tube by the rays The British physicist named Paul Dirac was
emitted from the cathode. These rays are known to have introduced the concept of  1.67 1024 g
called cathode rays. antiparticle in 1930. Protons are positively charged particles
Properties of cathode rays (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-1) with mass1.67262 x 10-27 kg and charge
(i) They travel in straight lines. The equivalent anti-particles of electron are equal to 1.6022 x 10-19 coulombs same as
(ii) They consist of material particles. called positron. electron & Positron.
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.07.09.2016)
(iii) They get deflected towards positive (SSC CHSL 20.03.2018 &
The positron in an elemental particle found RRB GROUP-D 02.11.2018)
plate, when an electric field is applied to
in the electron atom, which was discovered Protons are present in highly dense
them.
by Carl .D. Anderson in 1932 A.D., it is a central part of the atom called nucleus.
(iv) When magnetic field is applied, they get
positively charged particle, whose mass and The mass of proton is 1.00727 u or amu
deflected and the direction of deflection
charge are equal to the electron, so it is (approx. taken as 1 u or amu).
indicates the presence of negative charge
called the electron ‘s’ antiparticle. Protons are denoted as p or 1 1
on them. 1 p or 1 H.
(RRB NTPC 18.01.2017)
Origin of cathode rays: Cathode rays Anode Rays or Canal Rays or Positive Protons are fundamental particles of all
initially originate from the metal which atoms.
Rays
constituents the cathode. These are also A proton is identical to a hydrogen
formed due to the bombardment of the particle.
molecules of the gas inside the discharge Discovery of Neutrons
tube by the high-speed particles Neutrons were discovered by James
(electrons) which are emitted from the Chadwick These neutral particles were
cathode. found to have a mass 1.675 x 10-27 kg
The properties of cathode rays given which is almost equal to that of a
above show that cathode rays are made hydrogen atom. These particles carried
up of material particles which are no charge (i.e., they are neutral).
negatively charged. These particles Neutrons are present in the nucleus of
which constitute cathode rays are called These were discovered by Goldstein in the atom. Nucleus of an atom consists
electrons. 1886. In his experiment he used a proton and neutron
Cathode rays are a beam of electrons. perforated cathode in discharge tube. (SSC MTS 16.02.2014,
(SSC CPO 25.11.2020) On passing high voltage between the RRB JE 14.12.2014 & 29.05.2019,
SSC TAX ASSISTANT 05.12.2003,
electrodes, he found some rays moving SSC SECTION OFFICER 14.12.2003,
Determination of [Charge (e)/Mass
towards cathode and passed through the SSC CPO SI 05.06.2016,
(m)] Ratio for Electrons SSC CAPFS 04.07.2017, 07.07.2017 &
holes of the cathode.
The electrons obtained from different SSC CHSL 14.10.2020, RRB NTPC 19.01.2021)
These rays consist of positively charged (SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I, 09.03.2023)
sources were found to be exactly identical. particles moving away from anode. Expect hydrogen (which contains only one
This indicated that the electrons are Origin: It is believed that the positively proton and one electron), the atoms of all
universal constituents of matter. charged particles that constitute the other elements including isotopes of
The meaning of the Greek origin word anode rays are formed when electrons hydrogen (i.e. deuterium and tritium)
‘Elektron’ is Amber. are knocked out from the atoms or contain all the three fundamental particles
(SSC Delhi police, CAPF SI & CISF ASI molecules of the gas inside the discharge
24.11.2020) (i.e. electron, proton and neutron).
tube by the particles of fast moving (RRB GROUP-D 10.10.2018 &
An electron can. be defined as a sub-atomic
cathode rays. Thus, these are the residual RRB JE 23.05.2019)
particle with mass 9.10939×10-31 kg and Numbers of neutrons in an atom of
positively charged particles left when
charge equal to 1.6022×10-19 coulombs.
electrons have been knocked out. hydrogen is zero.
(SSC CHSL 16.11.2014)
(RRB NTPC 04.04.2016, Note: Anode rays are not emitted from
RRB GROUP-D 16.10.2018 & 01.12.2018, Neutron has greatest mass among electron,
anode but in the space between anode
RRB JE 29.05.2019) proton, and neutron and hydrogen nucleus.
and cathode.
(SSC CGL 21.04.2013)
Electrons are present in the extra-nuclear Properties of Anode Rays 92U235 has 143 neutrons.
part of the atom. (i) They travel in straight lines. SSC CAPFS SI, CISF ASI &
The relative charge of electron is -1 and its (ii) They consist of material particles. DELHI POLICE SI 22.06.2014)

mass is approximately 0.00054 u or amu (iii) They are deflected by electric and Thomson Model of Atom
(taken as zero). magnetic fields.
Electrons are fundamental particle of (iv) The value of positive charge on these
0 rays depends up to the nature of the gas
matter. Electron is represented as 1 e .
in the discharge tube.

8
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(RRB GROUP-D 28.11.2018 & (iii) Total negative charge on electrons is
RRB JE 31.05.2019)
equal to the total positive charge on the
(ii) A small fraction of -particles deviates at
nucleus so that atom on the whole is
particular angles.
electrically neutral.
(iii) A very few -particles (about 1 in 20,
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
000) bounced back
Rutherford explained his observations as
of Atom
(i) When a body is moving in an orbit, it
follows:
undergoes acceleration even if the body
(i) J.J. Thomson proposed a model in which is moving with constant speed in an orbit
atom was assumed to be a uniform (due to change in direction), so an
sphere with radius 10~8 cm of positive electron moving around the nucleus in an
charge with electrons embedded into it orbit is under acceleration.
in such a way as to give the most stable Electrons moves around the nucleus in
electro static arrangement. orbital motion.
(RRB NTPC 16.01.2021 & 03.02.2021) 1. Since most of the -particles pass (SSC CHSL 21.01.2017)
Discovery of electron = J.J THOMSON IN through the foil undetected, it indicates According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic
1897.( received the Nobel Prize) that the most of the space in an atom is theory, charged particles when
(RRBNTPC 17.01.2017,
RPF SI 24.2.2018,
empty. accelerated must emit electromagnetic
SSC CGL 04.02.2007, 04.06.2019, 07.06.2019, 2. -particles being positively charged and radiations. Therefore, an electron in an
RRB NTPC 27.06.2019, having considerable mass could be orbit will emit radiation. The energy
RRB JE 28.08.2019,SSC MTS 05.08.2019)
detected only by some heavy, positively carried by radiations comes from
(ii) In this model the atom is visualized as a
charged centre. The small angle of electronic motion. The electron should
pudding or cake of positive charge with
detection of -particles indicated the lose energy and move closer and closer
raisins (electrons) embedded into it. This
presence of a heavy positive centre in the to the nucleus following a spiral path and
model is also called the ‘raisin pudding’
atom. Rutherford named this positive ultimately, will fall into the nucleus
model, or ‘plum pudding model’
centre as nucleus. within10–8 sec. But actually this does not
(SSC CPO 05.06.2016)
(iii) The mass of atom is considered to be 3. -particles which make head-on collision happen.
evenly spread over the atom according to with the positive centre are deflected Thus, Rutherford’s model cannot explain
this model. through large angles. Since the number of the stability of atom if the motion of
Drawbacks of Thomson Model of Atom such -particles is very small, the space electron is described on the basis
This model of atom could account for the occupied by the heavy positive centre classical mechanics and electromagnetic
electrical neutrality of atom, but it could must be very small. theory.
(RRB JE 26.05.2019)
not explain the results of gold foil The radius of the nucleus is about (10-13
(ii) It does not give any idea about
experiment carried out by Rutherford. 1
cm) which is about of that of distribution of electrons around the
Rutherford’s Model (Nuclear Model of 100,000 nucleus and about their energies.
Atom) the radius of atom (10-8 cm). Bohr’s Model of Atom
(SSC CPO 23.11.2020)
In order to overcome the short comings
If we consider cricket ball as nucleus
of the Rutherford’s model. Neil’s Bohr
then the radius of atom will be about 5
(1913) proposed a new model of the
km.
atoms based upon quantum theory of
Based on his scattering experiment
radiations. Main points of this model are:
Rutherford put forward nuclear model of
1. The electrons in an atom revolve around
the atom. The main points of this model
the nucleus only in certain selected
are:
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I,21.03.2023) circular orbits. These orbits are
(SSC CGL 21.04.2013,
(i) Most of the mass and all the positive associated with definite energies and are
RRB GROUP-D 28.01.2018, 23.10.2018, 12.12.2018 &,
RRB JE 31.05.2019) charge on an atom is concentrated in a called energy shells or energy levels.
Rutherford bombarded high energy - very small region called nucleus. These are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 ... etc., or
particle from radioactive source on thin (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 24.04.2013) designated as K, L, M, N, etc. shells.
foil (thickness 10-7 m) of gold metal, - Nucleus of an atom consists of Proton 2. Only those orbits are permitted in which
particles are positively charged helium and Neutron the angular momentum of the electron is
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 14.12.2003) h
nuclear having high energy, emitted a whole number multiple of , where h
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
during radioactive decay of unstable Size of the nucleus is extremely small as 2π
elements like Uranium. It has + 2 charge compared to the size of the atom. is Planck’s constant.
and mass 4 u. The thin gold foil had a (ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons h
mvr = n , where n = 1, 2, 3 ... no. of
circular fluorescent ZnS screen around it. which are revolving around it at very 2π
Whenever an a-particle struck the high speeds. The centrifugal force due to orbit.
screen, He observed a tiny flash of light this motion balances the electro static i.e., angular momentum is quantized.
was produced at that point that force of attraction. Success of Bohr’s Model (Postulates of
(i) Most of the -particles passed through Bohr)
the gold foil undeflected. (i) It could explain the stability of the atom.

9
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(ii) Bohr’s theory helped in calculating 16.11.2014 average mass of the atom, as compared
energy of an electron in a particular to 1/12th the mass of one carbon -12
orbit of hydrogen atom or hydrogen- Gram atomic Gram atom.
like atoms. molecular (SSC CPO 25.11.2020 & SSC STENO. 17.11.2022

Energy of an electron in nth orbit of mass mass/ of SHIFT-1)

1 mole the element 1 mole (mol) of oxygen (O2 ) molecule
hydrogen and hydrogen-like atoms.
2
(RRB GROUP-D weighs about 32 grams, while 1 molecule
1312z 05.11.2018) of oxygen is equal to 16 AMU.
En =- kJ/mole
n2 The atomic mass of zirconium is 91.22g
Radius of nth orbit for hydrogen and (SSC CGL 06.03.20)
hydrogen-like atoms. WILHELM OSTWALD credited for the The is the atomic mass of sodium is 23g.
introduction of word ‘mole’ around 1896. (SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I,13.03.2023)
n2
× 0.529 × 10-10 m (RRB GROUP-D 23.10.2018) Valence
z Molecular Mass The electrons present in the outermost
Radius of first orbit in hydrogen atom The mass of one mole of a substance in shell of an atom are known as the valence
can be calculated as: grams is called molecular mass or of the electron.
n2 molar mass.
rn = × 0.529 × 10-10 m (RRB NTPC 04.02.2021)
Z (SSC CAPFS 04.07.2017) Valence of an electron is depend on
r1(H) = 0.529 × 10-10 m [∵ n = 1, Z = 1] The molecular mass of a substance is the number of losing of electron, gaining of
= 0.529 Å sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in electron and sharing of electrons.
(iii) Bohr’s Model could explain the atomic a molecule of the substances. (SSC CHSL 15.3.2018)
spectrum of hydrogen. Molecular mass of gas is twice its vapour The outermost shell of an atom has
(SSC CPO SI 03.09.2006) pressure maximum 8 numbers of electrons.
(SSC CGL 09.09.2016) Electrons in the highest energy level of
Note: Multiplication of equivalent weight and an atom are called valence electrons.
Bohr and Rutherford developed the valence of an element is equal to atomic (SSC CGL 19.01.2017)
model of atomic structure weight. The combining power of an element is
(SSC CHSL 17.03.2018) valence.
(SSC CHSL 10+2 DEO & LDC Exam. 16.11.2014)
Note: (RRB GROUP-D 11.10.2018)
The total energy of revolving electron in The atomic weight of lithium is For Example:-
an atom can never be positive 6.941amu, g/mol.
(SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO & LDC Exam.
1. The valence of magnesium is 2.
(SSC CHSL 19.03.2020)
(SSC CHSL 15.03.2018)
28.11.2010) 2 moles are present in 36gm of water.
The total energy of an electron inside an (SSC JE 23.01.2018) 2. The valence of Boron is 3.
The mass of 4 mole of Aluminum atoms (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-2)
atom is less than zero.
are 108gm. 3. When helium atom loses one electron
Quarks: Fundamental particles such as (SSC JE 23.01.2018) then it becomes positive helium ion
protons and neutrons are believed to be The molecular mass of sulphurous (SSC CHSL 21.03.2018)
made up of various combinations of acid( H2SO3) is 82.07 g/mol. Atomic number (Z): The number of unit
elementary particles called quarks. These (SSC SI 13.03.2019) positive charges present in an atom is
were first proposed by Murray Gell- The molecular formula for Sulphuric
known as atomic number.
Mann. acid is H2SO4.
(SSC CHSL 09.08.2021) Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons
Quarks are believed to have fractional The weight of 6.023 × 1023 atoms of (p)
charges and other properties such as carbon is 12 gms (RRB JE 14.12.2014 & 24.05.2019,
flavour and colour. (SSC MTS Staff Exam.17.03.2013,)
RRB NTPC 05.04.2016, 16.04.2016,
SSC CHSL 05.06.2016)
Mole may be defined as the amount of NaCl has same equivalent weight and Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons
the substance which contains same molecular weight.
(j) = Number of electrons (e)
number of elementary units (atoms, Molar volume: It is the volume occupied (RRB GROUP-D 02.11.2018)
molecules, ions) as the number of atoms by one mole molecule of any substance. It Atomic number is represented by Z.
present in 12 gram of carbon (C – 12). is also called gram molecular volume (SSC CAPFS 06.07.2017)
Thus 1 mole = 6.023×1023 atoms of (GMV). The basic feature compared to weight of
oxygen One mole molecule of all gases occupies an element is atomic number.
The unit of calculation for a chemist use 22.4L at 293 K and 760 mm Hg pressure
(RRB GROUP-D 07.12.2018)
to calculate the number of atoms, The chemical property of an elements
(NTP). Hence molar volume of all gases
molecules and ions. etc. is called mole. depends on atomic number.
at NTP is 22.4 L.
(RRB GROUP-D 27.11.2018) The atomic number of a hydrogen atom
Atomic mass: the mass of an atom is
1 mole atom of 6.023 x 1023 atoms is made up of only 1 proton.
atomic mass is defined in Dalton and is
hydrogen of hydrogen (RRB NTPC 04.04.2016)
equivalent to atomic mass unit. (SSC MTS 19.07.2022,20.07.22)
6.023 x 1023
1 mole of oxygen Atomic mass = n + p Atomic number of gold is greater than
molecules of
molecules (n = mass of neutron, p = mass of proton) that of Barium.
oxygen
The relative atomic mass of a molecule is Atomic number of silver is greater than
6.023 x 1023 expressed in atomic mass unit(u). that of bromine.
1 mole particles at STP Relative atomic mass = the mass of the Chlorine atom and chloride ions have an
(SSC CHSL 10+2 DEO &
LDC Exam. atom of an element is defined as the equal number of protons.

10
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For Example:- (SSC CHSL 14.03.2018)

Atomic Most common isotopes used in a nuclear

Element PYQ An atom of an element has atomic weapon are of Uranium and Plutonium.
number
(SSC CPO 2022, number 17 and mass number. The (RRB JE 2014)
Gallium 31 10.11.2022 Shift- number of neutrons in its nucleus is 19 The chemical properties of isotopes must
1)
Note: be same.
(SSC CPO 2022, (SSC CGL 08.09.2016,
10.11.2022 Shift- Mass of proton SSC CHSL 16.03.2018 & 22.03.2018)
29
Copper 2) = 1.67262 ×10-27kg (APPROX) For Example:-
(SSC CHSL Mass of electron
17.03.20) 1. Carbon occurs naturally in three
(SSC CHSL
= 9.10938×10-31kg (APPROX) isotopes: carbon12, which has 6
17.03.2020) Mass of neutron neutrons, carbon13, which has 7
82 (SSC CGL Pre. =1.6749210-27kg (APPROX)
Lead 2022, 08.12.2022
neutrons and carbon 14 which has 8
Mas of hydrogen atom neutrons.
Shift-2)
= 1.7×10-27kg (APPROX) (SSC CGL 07.03.2020)(SSC MTS 11.10.2021)
(SSC CPO 2022, Approximate atomic mass (u) of hydrogen is 1. 2. Isotope of hydrogen are 3 Protium,
Einsteinium 23.11.20, (SSC MTS 08.07.2022)
99 Deuterium, tritium.
(actinide series.) 11.11.2022 Shift-
Mass of hydrogen atom is 1837 time the (SSC Steno Grapher 11.09.2017)
3)
mass of an electron. (SSC CGL 09.03.2020)
Nobelium (named (SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-2)
(SSC CGL Pre. The number of neutrons presents in an
after Alfred Nobel, (SSC CGL MAINS ,2022)
2022, 08.12.2022 element having mass number 226 and 3. Scandium has thirteen (13) isotopes.
the inventor of Shift-2)(SSC MTS
atomic number 88 is 138 (SSC CGL 06.03.2020)
dynamite(prepared 06.08.2019)
102 (SSC CPO 2022,
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 30.07.2006
4. Isobars: They are atoms which have
from nitro
11.11.2022 Shift- Atomic Numbers (Z) and mass same mass number but different atomic
glycerol.) and the 3) number (A) of an element X are number. e.g., 40 40 and
founder of the 18 Ar,19 K
Nobel Prize) generally indicated as:
40
A 20 Ca. Nuclideswhich have same mass
Mass number (A): It is defined as, the ZX Or Z X A
total number of protons and neutrons in number called Isobars.
There is an relationship between atomic (RRB JE 14.12.2014 & 02.06.2019,
the nucleus. It is denoted by A. number, mass number & number of SSC CGL 11.01.2017,
Thus, Mass number = Number of protons neutrons:- RRB GROUP –D 25.09.2018, )
+ Number of neutrons A = z +n
(RRB JF 19.09.2019)
(SSC CHSL 19.03.2018 & RRB JE 23.05.2019) (SSC MTS 19.08.2019)
(Protons + neutrons) are collectively Calcium and argon are example of a pair
n = A-z of isobar.
called nucleons Found in nucleus
RRB JE 24.05.2019
(SSC Tax Assistant 05.12.2004) (SSC CHSL 17.03.2020)
(RRB JE 14.12.2014,
n= no. of electrons Note:
RRB ALP 09.08.2018 & z= Atomic number Isobars are lines joining places having
RRB GROUP-D 02.11.2018) A= mass number equal Pressure
Nucleons are regarded as composites Atoms of different elements have (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 05.09.2004)
sub-particles known as quarks. different atomic number and different Isodiapheres: Atoms of different
It is always a whole number. number of valence electron. elements having same difference in
The mass number of a nucleus is Isotones: Atoms having same number of number of neutrons and number of
sometimes more and sometimes equal to neutrons are called isotones. protons are called isodiapheres. e.g.,
its atomic number The atoms of elements having same 235 231
92 U and 90 Th.
(SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO & LDC difference between mass number and
Exam.28.11.2010)
atomic number. In U, n-p = [(235-92)-92] = (143 – 92) =
If we know the mass number and atomic (SSC CHSL 26.03.2018) 51 and Th, n – p = [(231-90)-90] = (141-
number of an element, we can calculate e.g., 14 and 16 (both have 8 neutrons). 90)=51
6 C 8 O
the number of protons, electron and Isosters: Those molecules which have
neutrons and thus can predict the same number of electrons and the same
structure of the atom. Isotopes: They are atoms of same
atomicity, e.g., N2O and CO2(both have 22
element having d
For Example:- The concept that all electrons and atomicity of both is 3)
The mass number of titanium & atoms of an element are equal was Isoelectronic: Those atoms which have
Potassium are 47.75 and 39. falsified by the discovery of isotones. same number of electrons, e.g., Na +, Mg2+,
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 08.12.2022 (RRB GROUP-D 27.11.2018)
Shift-4 & 12.12.2022 Shift-2) ifferent mass number or different no. of F  , Ne, etc. (each has10 electrons).
The carbon atom from 6c12
indicate that it neutron but same atomic number.
(RRB NTPC 27.04.2016)
has 6 neutrons and 6 proton (RRB SSE 21.12.2014,
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 24.02.2002) SSC CHSL 15.11.2015, 17.03.2018,
(RRB GROUP-D 18.09.2018) SSC CGL 01.07.2012, 31.08.2016 & 02.09.2016,
If an atom has atomic number 10 and RRB GROUP-D 22.09.2018, 12.11.2018, 13.12.2018,
RRB NTPC 12.02.2021, 03.04.2021, &
mass number 23, then the number of
(SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-1)
protons and neutrons in an atom is 10,
e.g., 35
17 CI and 37
17 CI.
13 respectively.

11
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Composition of Element with Electron Distribution in Shells
Distribution of
Atomic Number of Number of Number of
Name of Element Symbol Electrons Valency
Number Protons Neutrons Electrons
KLMN
Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1

Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0

Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1

Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2

3
Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - -
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier
I,21.03.2023)

Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4

Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3

Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2

1
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - -
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier
I,21.03.2023)

Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0

Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1

Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2

Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3

Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4

Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3.5

Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2

Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1

Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0

Atomic radius is measured in Dual Nature of Matter: de Broglie Electron has the dual nature of particle
nanometers. Equation wave.
(SSC CGL 16.08.2015)
1/109m = 1 nm Louis de Broglie (1924) proposed that
1m = 109 nm just as radiations have particle nature,
Heisenberg’s Uncertainly
Relative Sizes the material particles are also associated Principle
Radii (in m) Example with wave nature. He also gave a relation It is not possible to determine the exact
10–10 Atom of hydrogen for calculating the wavelength of the position and the velocity of electron
wave associated with a particle of mass simultaneously. If ‘Δx’ is uncertainly in
10–9 Molecule of water
m moving with velocity v as given under position and ‘Δv’ is uncertainly in
10–8 Molecule of hemoglobin
velocity, then
10–4 Grain of sand h h
  h
10–2 Ant m p Δx . Δv≥
4 m
10–1 Watermelon
Where h is Planck’s constant and p is the Where, ‘h’ is Planck’s constant, ‘m’ is
The most suitable unit for expressing
momentum of the particle. ‘λ’ is 22
nuclear radius is angstrom mass and π = 3.142 or .
wavelength. This relationship has been 7
(SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO &
PA/SA Exam, 15.11.2015) verified by an experiment. In Heisenberg’s theory of uncertainty, the
uncertainty of momentum and the state

12
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of particles cannot be reduced because it This quantum number determines This quantum number tells us about the
is fundamentally intrinsic. angular momentum of the electron. This spin of the electron. This spin can be
(RRB JE 14.12.2014) is denoted by l. This quantum number either clockwise or anticlockwise. The
Wave function (Ψ): The amplitude of determines the shape of the orbital in spin quantum number can have only two
the wave associated with a particle as which the electron is located. I may have 1 1
obtained from the Schrodinger wave values which are + and - .
all possible whole number values from 0 2 2
equation. The wave function is a to n – 1 for each principal energy level. Two electrons in an orbital are
mathematical expression, a function of The various sub-level are designed as s, differentiated by spin quantum numbers.
the position of the particle. Its physical p, d, f depending upon the value of l as (SSC CGL 27.10.2015)
significance is that the square of the shown below : The Nuclear particle having no mass and
value of Ψ at any point, |Ψ |2 is Value of I → 0 1 2 3 no Charge, but only spin is neutrino
proportional to the probability of finding (SSC CGL 19.05.2013)
Subshell → s p d f
the particle at that point. Shape of orbitals
Orbital: It is the region or space where For n = 1, l can have only one value i.e., 0. For s-orbitals: The probability of finding
there is maximum probability of finding It means that first energy level has only the electron is same in all directions at a
the electron. one sub shell, i.e. 1s particular distance. s-orbitals are
Quantum Numbers For n = 2, l can have values 0 and 1. It spherically symmetrical.
In order to characterise an electron in an means that second energy level has only
atom, a set of four numbers known as two sub shells, i.e., 2s and 2p.
quantum numbers, is required. These For n = 3, possible values of l are 0, 1 and
four quantum numbers are principal 2. This implies that third energy level has
quantum number, azimuthal quantum three sub shells, i.e., 3s, 3p and 3d.
number, magnetic quantum number and Similarly, fourth energy level (n = 4) can
have four sub shells i.e., 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f. Node is the point of zero probability
spin quantum number.
1. The Principal Quantum Number (n) Hybridization of one’s’ and on ’p’ Node  Zero probability points
This quantum number determines to a orbitals gives two SP orbitals oriented (i) In the ns-orbital, the total number of
large extent the energy of an electron linearly at 180°. For example, in nodes is (n - 1).
and the average distance of an electron magnesium Hybrid, the 3s orbital and For p-orbitals: There are three possible
from the nucleus. It is denoted by the one of the 3p orbital from magnesium orientations of electron cloud. These
letter n. Size of the orbital is determined hybridize to form SP orbitals. The two three orientations or orbitals of a p-
by this quantum number. It can have any frontal lobes of the SP orbitals face away subshell are designated as px, py and pz,
whole number values such as 1, 2, 3, 4 ..., from each other forming a straight line px, py and pz orbitals are oriented along x-
etc. The energy levels or energy shells leading to a linear structure. axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively. Each
corresponding to these numbers are (SSC SHSL 13.01.2017) p-orbital has two lobes which are
designated as K, L, M, N, etc. As the value 3. The Magnetic Quantum Number (m) separated by a point of zero probability
of n increases, the electron gets farther This quantum number which is denoted called node. Each p-orbital is thus, dumb-
away from the nucleus and its energy by m refers to the different orientations bell shaped.
increases. of electron cloud in a particulars
K shells = 2(1)2 =2 two elements are in subshell.
(SSC MTS Staff Exam. 17.03.2013,)
first period.
These different orientations are called
The first electron shell which is nearer to
orbitals. The possible values of m range
the nucleus never holds more than ‘n’
from –1 through 0 to +1, thus making a
electrons, where “n” is equal to 2 in K For d-orbital: d-orbitals are present in
total of (2l + l) values .The orientation of
shell. the d-shell for which l = 2 and m = -2, -1,
(SSC CGL 06.03.2020)
an atomic orbital is governed by
0, + 1, + 2. This means that there are five
The number of electrons that can be magnetic quantum number.
(SSC MTS 17.03.2013)
orientations leading to five different
placed in the L shell is 8. orbitals. The shape of d-orbital is double
(RRB GROUP-D 19.09.2018) For l = 0 (i.e., s-sub shell), m can have
only one value, m = 0. It means that s-sub dumb-bell.
The number of electrons in M shell is 18.
(SSC CAPFS SI, CISF ASI & shell has only one orbital.
DELHI POLICE SI 22.06.2014, For l = 1 (i.e., p-sub shell), m can have
RRB ALP 09.08.2018 &
RRB JE15.11.2018, 20.08.2018,.
three values, -1, 0 and +1. This implies
RRB GROUP-D 24.09.2018, 12.12.2018, & that p-sub shell has three orbitals.
SSC CGL 27.09.2018 & 02.12.2022 Shift-3) For l = 2 (i.e., d-sub shell), m can have
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 five values, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2. It means that
Tier I,21.03.2023)
d-sub shell has five orbitals.
The minimum number of electrons that
For l = 3 (i.e., f-sub shell), m can have
can be adjusted in N shell is 32.
(RRB GROUP_D 16.11.2018 & 28.06.2019) seven values, -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3. It
2. The Azimuthal Quantum Number or means that f-subshell has seven orbitals.
Angular Quantum Number (l) 4. The Spin Quantum Number Filling of Electrons in Orbitals
The quantum number which is denoted
by s

13
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6d < 7p is sequence of orbitals in which (SSCMTS
25.07.2022)
electrons are filled.
8 Oxygen (O) [He] 2s2 2p4
• Hund’s rule of Maximum Multiplicity
No electron pairing takes place in s, p, d 9 Fluorine (F) [He] 2s2 2p5
and f-orbitals until each orbital in the 10 Neon (Ne) [He] 2s2 2p6
given subshell contains one electron 11 Sodium (Na) [Ne] 3s1
having parallel spin, e.g., N(7)has 12 Magnesium [Ne] 3s2
electronic configuration Is2, (Mg)
2s2 2p1x 2p1y 2p1z according to Hund’s rule 13 Aluminum (Al) [Ne] 3s2 3p1
14 Silicon (Si) [Ne] 3s2 3p2
and not 1s2 2s2 2p2x 2p1y 15 Phosphorus (P) [Ne] 3s2 3p3
Rules for getting sequence of 16 Sulfur (S) [Ne] 3s2 3p4
(SSCMTS
filling the orbitals with electrons 25.07.2022)
Ground state or Normal state: The
state of an atom when all the electron • Bohr Bury’s Rules 17 Chlorine (Cl) [Ne] 3s2 3p5
occupy their lowest energy levels as (i) Orbitals fill in order of increasing value of 18 Argon (Ar) [Ne] 3s2 3p6
required by their n and l values is called (n + l) 19 Potassium (K) [Ar] 4s1
ground state or normal state. (ii) If two orbitals have the same value of (n (SSC CPO 13.12.19)

Excited state: If the electrons occupy a + l), the one with lower ‘n’ will be filled 20 Calcium (Ca) [Ar] 4s2
higher position than the permitted first. 21 Scandium (Sc) [Ar] 3d1 4s2
values, the state of the atom is Chromium (Z = 24) 22 Titanium (Ti) [Ar] 3d2 4s2
(SSC MTS 08.07.2022) 23 Vanadium (V) [Ar] 3d3 4s2
considered as excited state.
Expected configuration:
Rules for Filling up of Electrons 24 Chromium (Cr) [Ar] 3d5 4s1
4s2 3d 4
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle 25 Manganese [Ar] 3d5 4s2
[Ar]18     
No two electron in an atom can have all (Mn)
the four quantum numbers same. Actual configuration : 26 Iron (Fe) [Ar] 3d6 4s2
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. year 1997) 4s1 3d5 (SSC MTS
Any orbital can have a maximum of two [Ar]18       21.07.2022)
electrons and these two must have 27 Cobalt (Co) [Ar] 3d7 4s2
Copper (Z = 29)
opposite spins. 28 Nickel (Ni) [Ar] 3d8 4s2
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 24.02.2002)
Expected configuration:
29 Copper (Cu) [Ar] 3d10 4s1
4s2
Some important points about 30 Zinc (Zn) [Ar] 3d10 4s2
[Ar]18 
distribution of electron on the
3d9
basis of quantum number: Note: The electronic configuration of an
⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ↑
The maximum number of orbitals in each atom having atomic number ‘20’ is 2,
principal energy shell is n2. Actual configuration
8, 8, and 2
4s1
s-subshell has only one orbital with (SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO &
[Ar]18  LDC Exam. 28.11.2010)
maximum of two electrons
3d10 (SSC CGL MAINS ,2022)
p-subshell has three orbitals with
⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ Atomic Name of Discovery
maximum of six-electrons
Number element
d-subshell has five orbitals with The reason for exceptional configuration
maximum of ten electrons is based on the concept of system. The Element Berkelium Stanley
f-subshell has seven orbitals with stability of the atom is linked with 97 Thompson,
maximum of fourteen electrons. symmetry of the electronic configuration. Albert Ghiorso,
The half-filled and fully filled and Glenn
configuration are more symmetrical and Seaborg in 1949
• Aufbau Principle the symmetry leads to greater stability. Element Seaborglum Albert Ghiorso
According to it, “the electrons are added 106 and colleagues in
progressively to the various orbitals in 1974
increasing order of energies starting Element Thorium Jöns Jacob
from the orbital of lowest energy.” 1 to 30 'Electronic Configuration 90 Berzelius in 1829
The increasing order of energies of Atomic Name of the Electronic Element Lawerncium Georgy Flerov
various orbitals is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, Number Element Configuration 103 and colleagues in
3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s .... 1 Hydrogen (H) 1s1 1965
The energy level diagram for multi 2 Helium (He) 1s2
electron atom is according to Aufbau 3 Lithium (Li) [He] 2s1
principle. 4 Beryllium (Be) [He] 2s2
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s
5 Boron (B) [He] 2s2 2p1
< 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s > 5f <
6 Carbon (C) [He] 2s2 2p2
7 Nitrogen (N) [He] 2s2 2p3

14
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3. Periodic Table
Modern Periodic table has completed 150th anniversary in 2019 as it was made in 1869.
Total = 118 elements (Atomic No. 118 – Oganesson (Og)
119 is a hypothetical element
First recognizable periodic table was given by – Mendeleev (on the basis of atomic weight)
Modern periodic table was given by – Henry Moseley (on basis of atomic number)

Non- Metals = 17 Lavoisier classified elements into metals

There are a total of definitely at least 17 non- Of the known elements in the periodic table, and non-metals. He is considered as the
metals in the periodic table, which are as only 11 are gases under atmospheric ‘father of modern chemistry.
follows: conditions. Dobereiner’s Law of Triads:
(SSC CGL 16.08.21) Johann wolfgang Dobereiner’s was first
1. Hydrogen (Z=1)
2. Helium (Z=2) 14 elements in the periodic table such that observed platinum as a catalyst and
3. Carbon (Z=6) for every element name there is a single discovered similar triads that led to the
4. Nitrogen (Z=7) alphabet that symbolically represents it . development of the periodic table of
5. Oxygen (Z=8) Ex-C-Carbon, B-Boron etc. elements.
(SSC MTS 16.08.2019)
6. Fluorine (Z=9) (RRB GROUP-D 15.10.2018)(SSC CPO 13.12.19)
Periodic table In 1817, Dobereiner’s, a German Chemist,
7. Neon (Z=10)
It is the arrangement of the known elements arranged elements with similar
8. Phosphorous (Z=15)
in certain groups in such a way that elements properties in group of three in such a
9. Sulphur (Z=16)
with similar properties are grouped together way that the atomic mass of the middle
10. Chlorine (Z=17)
in a tabular form. element was nearly the same as the
11. Argon (Z=18)
12. Selinium (Z=34)(Disputed) Historical Developments average atomic masses of the first and
13. Bromine (Z=35) (Only liquid non metal) At present 118 elements are known third elements. A few triads proposed by
14. Krypton (Z=36) (however the identity of elements with him are listed below.
15. Iodine (Z=53) atomic numbers 113, 115 and 117 is not yet (SSC CHSL 22.03.2018,
fully established). SSC MTS 06.08.2019 RRB JE 28.08.2019,
16. Xenon (Z=54) RRB NTPC 20.01.2021)
17. Radon (Z=86)

Element
Atomic mass Element Atomic mass Element Atomic mass
(RRB ALP 10.08.2018 &13.08.2018)
Li 6.9 Ca 40.1 Cl 35.5
Na 23.0 Sr 87.6 Br 79.9
K 39.1 Ba 137.3 I 126.9
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 08.12.2022 Shift-4)

Limitation: He could not classify all the (RRB GROUP-D 04.12.2018) Newland’s Law of Octaves: In 1865,
elements, known at that time, into triads John Newlands, arranged the elements, in

15
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increasing order of their atomic mass (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-3) (RRB GROUP-D 05.12.2018, 10.12.2018, &
Li Ba B C N O P RRB JE 28.08.2019)
and found that any given element has
Note:
similar properties to the eights element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Mn, Hg does not follow Newlands Law of
that followed it. The relationship was K Ca
Octaves.
same as that existing between musical (lithium and sodium has the same
properties.)
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law:
notes and its octaves. He established 56
(SSC MTS 14.10.2021) In 1869, Russian chemist Mendeleev
elements that exist in nature.
(RRB ALP, 20.08.2018, 21.08.2018, Drawback of Newland law of made a periodic table of 63 element
RRB GROUP-D 16.11.2018,
octave: based on atomic mass. According to
SSC CGL 10.06.2019, RRB NTPC 08.04.2021 Mendeleev periodic law, the physical
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-2 (i) Elements like Co and Ni were placed in
SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-3) the periodic table of Newland with and chemical properties of elements are
• Thorium is the last element in Newland halogens. a periodic function of their atomic
‘s law of octaves. (RRB ALP & TEC 30.08.2018) masses.
(RRB ALP & TEC. 31.08.2018) (ii) Newland placed cobalt (Co) and nickel It was published in a German magazine
• The 10th element in Newland periodic (Ni) in a group on the same property, in the year 1872.
classification shows the same properties while iron (Fe), which has the same Mendeleev is called the “Father of
to the third. property as cobalt (co) and nickel kept periodic table
(RRB ALP 20.08.2018) it far away from these elements. (RRB NTPC 02.04.2016,
• In 1887, the Royal Society, London gave (RRB ALP & TEC. 17.08.2018,
04.04.2016, 30.04.2016 & 25.01.2021,
RRB ALP 09.08.2018, 17.08.2018,
the Davy Medal for the ‘discovery of the RRB GROUP-d 19.09.2018 & 10.10.2018)
RRB GROUP-D22.09.2018, 03.10.2018, 11.10.2018,
periodic law of chemical elements’ to (iii) The rule of octave was applicable till 26.10.2018, RRB JE 26.05.2019, 02.06.2019 ,
John Alexander Newland. calcium. CHSL 13.10.20 , CGL 24.08.21)

The main characteristics of Mendeleev’s 22.10.2018 & RRB JE 31.05.2019) (iii) There are seven periods (numbered 1,
periodic table are The elements of first seven groups have 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) to accommodate more
(i) The elements are arranged in vertical been divided into sub-groups elements. Periods 4, 5, 6 and7 are
columns called groups and horizontal designated as ‘A’ and ‘B’ on the basis of divided into two halves. The first half of
rows called periods. similarity in properties. Group VIII the elements are placed in the upper left
(RRB GROUP-D 22.09.2018, consists of triads of elements (contains corner and second half occupy lower
27.11.2018, 13.12.2018) (SSC CGL 23.08.21) total 9 elements).The zero group right comer in each of these periods.
(SSC MTS 26.07.2022)
contains inert gases or noble gases and (RRB GROUP-D 20.09.2018, 22.10.2018
(ii) There are nine groups indicated by
their valency is zero. Zero group was & RRB JE 31.05.2019)
Roman numerals as I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII,
added to the periodic table at a very late
VIII and zero.
(RRB GROUP-D 20.09.2018,
stage.

16
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Periods 1, 2, 3 are There are only two elements in first period.

short periods There are eight elements in second and third period.

There are eighteen elements in fourth and fifth period.

These are long
Periods There are thirty two elements in sixth period.
(Period 4, 5, 6) The longest period is sixth because seventh is still
incomplete.

(iv) The periodic table created by (iv) In some cases elements with similar RRB GROUP-D 19.01.2021)
Mendeleev had 9 group and 7 periods. properties have been placed in different Henry Moseley conducted X-ray
(v) Hydrogen and oxygen are reactive groups e.g., copper and mercury. spectroscopic study of a large number of
elements and form compounds with (v) Lanthanides and actinides have not elements and showed that the frequency
almost all elements, so Mendeleev been provided a proper place in f- block of X-rays emitted by an element is
studied the chemical element. related to the atomic number, Z, rather
properties of compounds of hydrogen (RRB GROUP-D 06.12.2018) than the atomic mass.
and oxygen. (vi) In Mendleev periodic table, the cobalt (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-2)
(RRB ALP & TEC 10.08.2018) appears before from nickel. Cause of Periodicity
Importance of Mendeleev’s (RRBGROUP-D 04.10.2018) Periodicity refers to the repetition of
(vii) They did not discover the two elements similar properties of the elements placed
Periodic Table
gallium and germanium both these in a group and separated by certain
(i) It made the study of elements
elements were placed under Eka - definite gaps of atomic numbers.
systematic.
Aluminum (68)and Eka -silicon. The periodicity in properties of elements
(ii) It helped in prediction of new elements (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 02.12.2022 Shift-3)
and their properties. placed in any group is due to repetition
(ix) In 1955, 101 synthetic element is of the same valence shell electronic
(iii) It helped in correction of doubtful provisionally named Mendelevium in
atomic masses. configuration after a certain definite gap
honor of dmitri Mendeleev, who created of atomic numbers (magic numbers)
Defects in Mendeleev’s Periodic one of the first periodic tables.
Table such as 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 02.12.2022 Shift-3)
(i) Position of hydrogen is controversial. Modern Periodic Law Long form of Periodic Table
(SSC CGL 10.06.2019 & RRB GROUP-D 19.09.2018)
In 1913, Moseley gave the modern It is the latest form of periodic table. It
(ii) Mendeleev had left some places blank in periodic law. It states, “The physical and contains 7 horizontal rows (periods)
his periodic table .Instead of seeing chemical properties of the elements are and18vertical columns (groups)
these spaces as faults, Mendeleev firmly the periodic function of their atomic numbered 1, 2, 3, 18 (IUPAC).
predicted the existence of some numbers.
(RRB GROUP-D, 15.10.2018,
15.11.2018& 26.09.2018 28.09.2018,
elements that were not known until that (RRB NTPC 29.04.2016, 22.01.2021, RRB ALP 31.08.2018,
time. Later, in the periodic table of RRB GROUP-D 13.08.2018, 14.08.2018 18.09.2018 RRB JE 25.05.2019 RRB NTPC 09.01.2021,
Mendeleev, the elements Sc (scandium), 19.09.2018, 01.10.2018, 11.10.2018, 15.10.2018, The first element in the periodic table is
10.12.2018 RRB ALP 17.08.2018 & RRB JE
Ga (gallium) and ge(germanium) were 27.05.2019 Hydrogen.
replaced. Henry Moseley proved that the atomic (RRB JE 26.05.2019 &
(RRB GROUP-D 16.10.2018) RRB NTPC 27..02.2021)
number of an element is a more In the periodic table, the highly
(iii) Isotopes (atoms of same elements with
fundamental property than its atomic electronegative halogens and the highly
different atomic masses) have been
mass, which led to modification in the electropositive alkali metals are
placed together.
Mendeleev Periodic Law table. separated by noble gases.
(RRB GROUP-D 24.01.2018 &
(SSC CGL 16.08.21)

17
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Characteristics of Groups & Characteristics of s-block elements: The important characteristics of the d-
Characteristics of Periods The general characteristics of the s- block elements are listed below:-
(i) All the elements in a group have same block elements are: (i) They are all metals with high melting
general electronic configuration, e.g., (i) All the elements are soft metals. and boiling points.
alkali metals (ns1), alkaline earth (ii) They have low melting and boiling (ii) Most of the d-block elements form
metals (ns2). points. coloured compounds which are
(ii) The elements in a group are separated (iii) They are highly reactive in nature. normally of complex nature.
by definite gap of atomic numbers (2, (iv) Most of them impart characteristic (iii) They show variable oxidation states.
8, 8, 18, 18, 32) called Magic numbers. colours to the flame. (iv) The compounds of the elements are
(iii) The atomic size of the elements (v) They form ionic compounds by losing generally paramagnetic in nature.
increases down the group. their valence electrons and thus, show (v) A large number of d-block elements
(iv) In same group the elements have same oxidation states of + 1 and+ 2 in their such as Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pt, V, etc. act
electron number in outer shell. compounds. as catalysts.
(RRB SSE 21.12.2014 & (vi) They are good reducing agents. (vi) They also have tendency to form alloys
SSC CGL 11.08.2017) (vii) All of them arc good conductors of heat with other metals.
(v) The noble/ inert gases are placed in 18 and electricity. Zinc the metal ion used in the Veri-
group of modern periodic table and p-block elements Green process.
they have minimum reactive element. In these elements the last electron is (SSC STENO. 17.11.2022 SHIFT-3)

filled in the valence p-subshell. There are Gold is the heaviest metal among gold,
(RRB NTPC 28.04.2016 &
six groups in this block (group 13to 18). silver, iron and copper.
RRB ALP & TEC 21.08.2018 &30.08.2018)
General electronic configuration: ns2 f-block elements
(vi) Alkali metals are placed in first group
np1-6 In the elements of this block, the filling
of the modern periodic table.
(RRB ALP 30.08.2018) (where n = 2 to 7) of the last electron takes place in the (n-
(vii) All isotopes of an element are placed in Characteristics of p-block 2) f-subshell. At the same time, (n - 1)d
the same group. subshell may contain zero or one
elements: The general characteristics
(RRB ALP 30.08.2018) electron while ns-subshell is having two
of p-block elements are:
(viii) Metals are placed in the left in the electrons.
(i) p-block elements include both metals
modern periodic table. General electronic configuration:
(RRB ALP 17.08.2018)
and non-metals and metalloids.
(n- 2)f1-14 (n - l)d-1 ns2
(ix) The elements in each group have (ii) The compounds of these elements are
(where n = 6 to 7)
generally similar chemical properties mostly covalent in nature.
(iii) Some of the elements show variable The f-block elements are also called
because these are related to the
oxidation states. inner-transition elements. There are
valence shell electronic configuration.
(iv) In every period, the reducing character two series of such elements each having
(ix) The numbers of shells is fixed and is
of the elements decreases from left to fourteen elements. In the first series,
equal to the number of the same
right while the oxides of most of the the filling of electrons takes place in the
period.
elements are acidic in nature. 4f-subshell. It is known as lanthanide or
Like – In a third period, the number of
lanthanoid series (atomic no. 58-71)
shells =3. D-block elements
since it follows lanthanum (La) of (d-
(RRB ALP 20.08.2018) This block includes those elements in
block and a member of group
The maximum no. of electron in a shell which the last electron enters the d-
3.Similarly, in the second series, the
is depend on the formula (2n)2 where subshell of the last but one
filling takes place in the 5f-subshell. It is
n= denotes the number of the shell (penultimate) energy level. There are
called actinide or actinoid series
closest to the nucleus. Eg. K shells = ten vertical columns or groups in the d-
(atomic no. 90-103) as it follows
2(1)2 =2 two elements are in first block from group 3 to12.
actinium (Ac) of d-block, also belonging
period. (SSC CGL 16.08.21)
(SSC CHSL 23.03.2018, General electronic configuration: to group 3.
RRB ALP 21.08.2018 & (n-1)d1-10 ns0-2 np1-6 Characteristics of f-block elements: A
RRB JE 31.08.2018 02.06.2019 & 29.08.2019) few important characteristics
(where n = 2 to 7)
Division of Periodic Table into associated with the f -block elements
The d-block elements are called the
different blocks. transition elements because the are:
s block elements properties of these elements are (i) The f-block elements are heavy metals.
Those elements in which the last midway between those of s and p-block (ii) They have generally high melting and
electron is filled in the valence S- elements. There are four transition boiling points.
subshell of outer most energy level. This series (or periods) in this block. The (iii) Just like d-block elements, these
block consists of two groups i.e., group first three transition series have ten elements also form complex salts and
1 (alkali metals) and group 2 (alkaline elements each while the fourth is show variable oxidation states(+ 3 is
earth metals). incomplete. the common oxidation state) in their
General electronic configuration: ns1-2 compounds.
Characteristics of d-block
(where, n = 1 to 7) (iv) The compounds of these elements are
elements:
generally coloured.

18
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(v) Most of the elements of the actinide transition series within the transition to measure covalent or ionic radius.
series are coloured. elements of d-block. Their atoms are held together by weak
Classification of Elements Advantages of Long Form of van der Waals forces of attraction. The
Periodic Table van der Waals radius is half of the
The elements present in the four distance between the nuclei of two non-
(i) The position of the elements in the
different blocks of the periodic table can bonded neighbouring atoms of two
periodic table is linked with their
also be classified into the following: electronic configuration. adjacent molecules in the solid state.
(a) Noble gases: These are the elements (ii) Each group is an independent group (c) Metallic radius: It is half the distance
present in group18 and the idea of subgroups has been between the centres of the nuclei of two
(SSC MTS 02.08.2019). discarded. adjacent atoms in the metallic crystal.
Actually each period ends with a noble (iii) One position for all the isotopes of an Note: The three radii are in the
gas element .The general electronic element is justified, since the isotopes following order:
have the same atomic number. Van der Waals radius > Metallic radius >
configuration of the elements is ns2np6
(iv) The division of the elements into s, p, d Covalent radius.
which means that they have completely Ionic Radius
and f-block has been quite helpful in
filled valence 5 and p-orbitals (helium understanding their properties. It is the effective distance from the
with ls2 configuration is an exception). (v) Lanthanides and actinides are placed at centre of nucleus of an ion up to which
All the members are of gaseous nature the bottom of the periodic table because it exerts influence on the electron cloud.
and because of the completely filled their properties are different from other Note:
orbitals, they have very little tendency groups. (i) The radius of cation is always smaller
(vi) It is quite easy to remember. than that of the atom.
to take part in chemical combination.
Defects in Long Form of Periodic (ii) The radius of anion is always larger
These are also called inert gases. than that of the parent atom.
(RRB NTPC 28.04.2016 & Table
Anionic radius > Atomic radius >
RRB ALP & TEC 21.08.2018 & 30.08.2018) (i) Hydrogen has been placed at the top of
Cationic radius.
(b) Representative elements: These alkali metal because of its electronic
Isoelectronic species: Such species
include both the s and p-block elements configuration (Is1). On similar basis,
belong to different atoms or ions of
Helium(Is2) should have been included
with the exception of noble gases. The elements which have same number of
in group 2 of alkaline earth metals. But
general characteristics of these electrons but different magnitude of
it is placed in group 18 of noble gases.
elements have been discussed already. nuclear charge.
Apart from this, hydrogen resembles
(c) Transition elements: The transition e.g. S-2, Cl-, K+.
halogens of group 17in many
Within the series of isoelectronic ions,
elements include all the d-block characteristics.
the size of the ions decreases with
elements and they are present in the (ii) Lanthanides and actinides should have
increase in the magnitude of nuclear
centre of the periodic table between s been accommodated in the main body
charge, e.g. Al3+< Mg2+< Na+< F-< O2-< N3-
of the periodic table. But these have
and p-block elements. These have been Ionization Enthalpy
been placed separately at the bottom of
divided into ten groups (3 to 12). the periodic table. It is the energy required to remove an
Locating the Position of an electron from an isolated gaseous atom
Periodic Trends in Properties of
in its ground state.
Element in the Periodic Table Elements
The properties of elements which are M(g) + I.E. → M g  + e-
The period, block and group to which a
particular element belongs can be directly or indirectly related to the If gaseous atom is to lose more than one
electronic configuration of their atoms electrons, they can be removed only one
located with the help of the following
and show gradation in moving down a after another i.e., in succession and not
guidelines. group or along a period, are called simultaneously. This is known as
The principal quantum number, of the periodic properties. successive ionisation energy or
valence shell represents the period of Such properties are valency, atomic potential:
the element. radius, ionic radius, ionization energy (RRB GROUP-D 07.12.2018)
The subshell in which the last electron (I.E.), electron affinity (E.A.), atomic IE3> I.E2> I. E1.
is filled corresponds to the block of the volume, etc. A factor affecting the ionization
Some physical properties though not potential of an element is atomic size.
element.
directly connected to electronic (RRB GROUP-D 16.11.2018)
Group of the element is predicted from configuration but are linked with group The ionization energy of an element
the electrons present in the outermost of atoms and not with single atom, may depends on the central charge.
(n) shell as follows : (RRB GROUP-D 06.12.2018)
also be considered as periodic
properties, e.g., m.p., b.p., density, etc. Ionisation energy of nitrogen is greater
For s-block elements: Group no. is
Atomic Radius than that of oxygen because nitrogen
equal to no. of ns electrons. has stable half-filled 2p sub level.
For p-block elements: Group no. is It is the most probable distance from (SSC CGL 19.05.2013 &
the centre of the nucleus to the SSC CHSL 27.10.2013)
equal to 10 + no. of ns and np electrons.
outermost shell of electrons. Factors on which I.E. depends
For d-block elements: Group no. is The atomic radius is used to measure (i) Atomic size: The ionization energy
equal to sum of the no. of (n - 1) d and the size of atoms. decreases with increase in atomic size.
ns electrons. (RRB ALP 29.08.2018)
(ii) Nuclear charge: The ionization energy
For f-block elements: Group no. is 3. (a) Covalent radius: It is equal to half of
increases with increase in magnitude of
(d) Inner-transition elements: The the distance between the centres of the
nuclear charge.
elements that belong to the f-block of nuclei of two atoms held together by a
(iii) Screening effect: The reduction in force
the periodic table are known as inner purely covalent bond.
of attraction by the electrons of shells
transition elements because they form (b) van der Waals radius: Noble gases do
present in between the nucleus and
transition elements because they form not have molecules, so it is not possible
valence electrons is called screening

19
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effect or shielding effect. Greater the (ii) Atomic size: Larger the size of the atom, Exception: Group 18 elements (noble
number of intervening electrons smaller will be the value of electron gases) on the extreme right of the table
between valence electron and nucleus, affinity. have got zero valences.
the greater will be shielding or (iii) Electronic configuration: Stable the 7. Atomic Radius: Generally, decreases
screening effect and hence lower is the electronic configuration of an atom, because of increase in effective nuclear
I.E. lower will be its electron affinity. charge on moving from left to right
(iv) Penetration effect: Penetration power Electronegativity across a period.
of various subshells of a particular (RRB JE 02.06.2019) (SSC CGL 19.10.2014 &
energy levels is in the orders s > p > d > It is the tendency of an atom of an SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-2)
element to attract the shared pair of Explanation: From left to right across a
f Therefore for the same shell it is easier
electrons towards itself in a covalent period orbit number remain constant
to remove an electron from p-subshell
bond. Greater the electronegativity of and effective nuclear charge increases
than from s -subshell. Thus greater the
an atom, greater will be its tendency to progressively. Consequently relative
penetration power higher is the I.E.
attract the shared pair of electrons pull (attractive force) of the nucleus on
(v) Electronic configuration: The
towards itself. outermost electrons becomes more and
elements having relatively stable
Factors Affecting Electronegativity more so atomic size decreases.
electronic configuration have relatively
(i) Effective nuclear charge: Greater the Exception:
higher values of ionization energy, e.g.
effective nuclear charge greater is (i) Transition elements exhibit little
(a) The noble gases having stable
electronegativity. variation in their atomic radii. This is
configuration (ns2np6) have highest
(ii) Atomic radius: Smaller the atomic due to poor shielding effect of d-
ionisation energies within their
radius greater is the electronegativity. electrons.
respective periods.
Electro positivity (ii) Lanthanide series of elements also
(b) The elements like N (ls22s2 2px1 2py1
Tendency of atoms of an element to lose exhibit little variation in their atomic
2pz1) and P(1s22s22p63s2 3px13py13pz1)
electrons and form positive ions is radii. This is due to lanthanide
having configurations in which orbitals
known as electro positivity. contraction.
belonging to the same subshell are
Note: A more electropositive element (iii) There is increase in atomic radius from
exactly half-filled are quite stable and so
has more metallic character. group 17 to 18 because of sharp
they have relatively high ionisation
Variation in Properties decrease in the value of effective
energies.
nuclear charge from group 17 to 18.
(c) The elements like Be (ls22s2) and Variation from Left to Right
8. Shells : In a periodic table, while
Mg(1s22s22p63s2)have all electrons across a Period moving from left to right in a period,
paired. Such configurations being stable 1. Atomic number: Increases. numbers of shells remain same
also result in higher value of I.E. Reason: This is because of increase in (SSC CAPFS 07.07.2017)
Electron Affinity the number of protons in the nucleus of 8. Ionic radius: The variation of ionic
It may be defined as, the amount of atoms of the element as we move from radii follows the same trend as those of
energy released when an electron is left to right across a period. atomic radii for the same reason.
added to an isolated gaseous atom of 2. Atomic weight: Generally increases. Note: Anionic radii > Atomic radii >
the element. Reason: This is because of increase in Cationic radii
A(g) + e- → A g  + E.A. the number of protons and neutrons in 9. First ionisation energy (1st I.E.): In
the nucleus of atoms of the elements general, 1st I.E. of elements increases
(RRB GROUP-D 10.12.2018) across a period. across a period because of increase
The energy released when an atom Exception: (i) 39.95Ar and 39.I0K, (ii) ineffective nuclear charge and decrease
gains an electron is called electron gain 58.93Co and 58.71Ni, (iii) 127.60Te and126.90I. in atomic radii from left to right in a
enthalpy. 3. Nuclear charge: Increases. period . however, in the ionization
The larger value of electron affinity Reason: This is because of continuous potential of Li is 5.4eV, that of Be; 9.3eV,
reflects greater tendency of an atom to increase in the number of protons, i.e., b:8.3eV etc. so in periodic table the
accept the electron. positive charge in the nucleus of atoms ionisation potential is decrease from Li
The units of electron affinity are of the elements on moving across a to F.
electron volt per atom or kilojoules per period. (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.05.2013)
mole of atoms. 4. Effective nuclear charge: Generally The element with highest first
First electron affinity (energy release increases on moving from left to right ionization energy is helium.
when first electron is added to gaseous across a period. (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam.
atom) is positive for almost all Exception: Effective nuclear charge 30.03.2008)
elements. The energy change taking decreases sharply from group 17 to 18 Explanation: As the effective nuclear
place when an electron is added to in a period. charge increases and atomic size
isolated monovalent anion (in ground 5. Number of valence electrons: On (radius) decreases across a period,
state) is called second electron affinity moving from left to right across a attractive force of nucleus on outermost
(E.A.2). period, the number of valence electrons electrons becomes more, so energy
A g  + e- → A 2 g  + E.A2. increases from 1 to 8 except first period required to remove the electron
where the increase is from 1 to 2 only. becomes greater and consequently
Similarly, A 2 g  + e- → A 3 g  + E.A.3 6. Valence: On moving from left to right in ionisation energy increases from left to
each short period (2nd and 3rd), the right across a period.
The second, third etc., electron affinities
valence with respect to oxygen Exceptions:
are called successive electron affinities.
increases from 1 to 7 (Na20 to Cl2O7) (i) Transition metals series show a small
Note: The successive electron affinities
while that with respect to hydrogen variation in their I.E.
one always negative.
rises from 1 to 4 (NaH to SiH4) and then (ii) I.E. (Be) > I.E. (B), I.E. (N) > I.E. (0), I.E.
Factors Affecting Electron Affinity
falls to 1 (PH3 to HC1). (Mg)> I.E. (Al), I.E. (P) > I.E. (S).
(i) Nuclear charge: Greater the nuclear (RRB GROUP-D 11.12.2018) Note: I.E. 1st< I.E. 2nd< I.E. 3rd
charge more will be the value of
10. Electron affinity (E.A.): Generally,
electron affinity.
increases owing to increase in effective

20
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nuclear charge and decrease in atomic that of acidic nature of oxides for the decreases which results in decrease in
size across a period. same reason. I.E.
Explanation: As the effective nuclear 20. Acidic nature of hydrides: Generally, 10. Electron affinity: Decrease.
charge increases and atomic size increases from left to right in a period. Reason: The electron gain enthalpy
decreases from left to right along a 21. Basic nature of hydrides: Generally, becomes less negative from top to
period, the attraction of added electron decreases. bottom in a group.
with the nucleus increases and Reason: Since acidic nature of hydrides Reason: Due to increase in size of the
consequently great amount of energy is increase from left to right in a period, atom the force of attraction between
released and E.A., increases from left to basic nature of hydrides naturally nucleus and the outermost energy level
right along a period. decreases. decreases.
Note: Electron affinity of noble gases is 22. Reducing power of hydrides: 11. Electronegativity: Decreases.
zero. Generally, decreases along a period. Reason. As we move down in the group
11. Electronegativity (E.N.): Generally Reason: This is owing to increase in the both I.E. and E.A. decreases hence the
increases from left to right along a electro negativity of elements from left value of electron negativity decreases.
period. Since both I.E. and E.A. increases to right in a period. Nitrogen is most electronegative
along a period, electronegativity also Example: In the second period, among Arsenic, Nitrogen and
increases. Lithium aluminum hydride( LiH)is Phosphorus.
I.E.+E.A. the strongest reducing agent which is Francium is least electronegative
Reason: E.N. = used to reduce aldehydes, ketones, among Osmium, Francium, Hydrogen
5.6 esters, carboxylic acid chlorides, and Tungsten.
Exception: Noble gases do not exhibit carboxylic acids and even carboxylate (SSC MTS 20.08.2019)
electronegativity because of their stable salts to alcohols and HF is the weakest 12. Atomic volume: Increases from top to
outermost electronic arrangements. reducing agent. bottom in a group.
12. Atomic volume: Generally, decreases (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-3) Reason: Due to increase in atomic
from left to right in a period, provided 23. Reactivity of metals: Generally, radius in a group.
physical state of elements remains decreases from left to right in a period. 13. Electro-positivity of elements:
same. Reason: I.E. and E.A. increases in a Generally, increases
4 3 period from left to right. Reason: It is because of increase in
Atomic volume = πr . Variation from Top to Bottom in atomic size and decrease in I.E. of
3
a Group. elements in a group.
Reason: Since atomic radius decreases
1. Atomic number: Increases. 14. Metallic character: Increases.
from left to right in a period, atomic (SSC JE 22.01.2018 &
volume also decreases in the same Reason: Increase in number of protons RRB GROUP-D 12.11.2018)
direction. as, we move from one period to the next Reason: Increase in electropositive
13. Electro-positivity of elements: period. nature of elements top to bottom in a
Generally, decreases across periods. 2. Atomic weight: Increases. group.
Reason: It is because of increase in the Reason: This is because of increase in 15. Non-metallic character: Decreases in a
I.E. of elements from left to right in a number of proton and neutrons with group.
period. increase in atomic number. 16. Basic nature of oxides: Increases in a
14. Metallic Character: Decreases across a 3. Nuclear charge: Increases. group.
period. Reason: This is because of continuous Reason: Oxides of metals are generally
(SSC JE 22.01.2022) increase in number of protons in the basic in nature.
Reason: It is because of decrease in nucleus of atoms as we move from top 17. Acidic nature of oxides: Decreases
atomic size and hence increase in the to bottom. from top to bottom.
I.E. of elements along a period from left 4. Effective nuclear charge: Generally, Reason: Metallic character increases in
to right. increases on moving from top to bottom a group.
15. Non-metallic character: Increases in a group. 18. Basic nature of hydroxides: Increases
along a period. 5. Number of valence electrons: in a group.
Reason: As electronegativity of Remains same reason. The outermost 19. Acidic nature of hydroxides:
elements increases from left to right in configuration of all the elements in a Decreases in a group.
a period, non-metallic character also group remains same. 20. Acidic nature of hydrides: Decreases
increases in the same direction. 6. Valence: Remains same. from top to bottom a group.
16. Basic nature of oxides: Decreases (RRB GROUP-D 12.12.2018)
21. Basic nature of hydrides: Generally,
(RRB JE 26.05.2019, RRB NTPC 29..01.2021
from left to right in a period. increases in a group.
Atomic Radius: Increases.
Reason: Since electro-positivity and (SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-2) 22. Reducing power of hydrides:
hence metallic character of elements Reason: The increase in size is due to Generally, increases in a group due to
decrease along a period, basic nature of extra energy shells added to the atoms increase in electro-positivity in a group.
their oxides naturally decreases. in each period. 23. Reactivity of metals: Increases in a
17. Acidic nature of oxides. Increases (RRB GROUP-D 16.11.2018) group.
from left to right in period. 7. Ionic Radius: Increases. Reason: Reactivity increases in a group
Reason: Since electro negativity and Reason: In a particular group, the ions due to decrease in I.E. and E.A.
hence non-metallic character increases (cations or anions) increase in size from
along a period, therefore, acidic nature top to bottom due to increase in
of their oxides naturally increases. number of shells.
18. Basic nature of hydroxides: In 9. First ionisation energy: Decreases.
general, it follows the same trend as Reason: On moving in a group, the
that of basic nature of oxides for the atomic size increases gradually due to
same reason. addition of a new energy shell. The
19. Acidic nature of hydroxides: In force of attraction of the nucleus
general, it follows the same trend as towards. The valence electrons

21
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4. Metals, Non-Metals & Alloys

1. Metal • Metals are used in making cookware, 4 Non-metals are either solids or gases
• Materials that are hard, lustrous, manufacture of automobiles and except bromine (liquid).
malleable, ductile, sonorous and good manufacturing jewellery. (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 27.10.2013)
(RRB GROUP-D 20.09.2018, 22.09.2018 &
conductor of heat and electricity (SSC MTS 11.07.2022)
01.12.2018)
(because they contain free 2. Non- metal (SSC CHSL 05.08.2021)
electrons • Materials that are dull in appearance, 5. Gallium and Cesium are metals that will
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005) soft in touch, break down into a melt if you keep this on your palm.
(SSC CHSL 09.08.2021) powdery mass on topping with hammer
• Example: iron, copper, aluminum, and bad conductor of heat and 6. Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.
calcium, etc. electricity are called Non-metals. 7. Carbon is a non-metal that exist in
(SSC MTS 16.08.2019)
• They are electronegative elements different form.
• They are electro positive in nature. because they form negatively charged
(RRB GROUP-D 25.09.2018)
ions by the gain of electrons. 8. Non-metal like phosphorus is also
• Free electrons in any metal move
(RRB NTPC 26.07.2021)
randomly proven by atomic models, catches fire if exposed to air.
• Non-Metals are found in all three states.
therefore the free electron in any metals (RRB GROUP-D 17.09.2018)
To prevent from accidental fire, we kept
have a Zig Zag path. • Example: Sulphur, oxygen, carbon, etc. them in kerosene oil and phosphorus in
(RRB GROUP-D 25.09.2018)
Exception of Metals and Non- water.
• The metal is malleable and soft because 9. Copper does not burn but it coated with
metals :-
layers of metal atoms can slip on each black colored layer when we put them
1. Metals like sodium and potassium are
other. on fire.
(RRB GROUP-D 03.12.2018) soft can be cut with a knife.
10. Iron do not burn but its Iron fillings
• The strength of pure iron is less 2. Potassium and sodium react with
burn.
therefore to make them strong and hard oxygen so quickly they catch fire easily
11. Silver and gold are not react with
we add carbon in it. Iron is a metal. It is in the open.
(SSC GL Tier-I Exam. 19.10.2014)
oxygen at high temperature.
not a compound.
(RRB ALP 30.08.2018) 3. Mercury is the metal which is in liquid
(SSC MTS 16.08.19) state at room temperature. Note- Metal ion at first and non-metal ion at
(SSC CPO 13.12.19) (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam. 10.09.2016) second position in a chemical formula

Physical property of metals and non-metals.

Physical Properties Metal Non-metal
Malleability The property of material by which it can be beaten into sheets. So Non-malleable
Metal are malleable.
(RRB JE 28.05.2019 &
(SSC MTS 08.10.21,11.10.21)
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I,21.03.2023)
Ductility The property of material by which it can be drawn into wire. So Non-ductile
Metal are ductile.
(RRB ALP 31.08.2018)
Aluminum is used in wrapping food items.
(SSC MTS 19.07.22)
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I,21.03.2023)
Sonority Materials produce ringing sound when beating is called sonority. So Non-sonorous.
Metal are sonorous.
(SSC MTS 08.08.19)
Luster Some materials have shine because they can reflect the rays of light Non-lustrous (except Iodine)
which are incident on it. So Metal are lustrous.
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 16.12.2007)
(RRB GROUP-D 23.10.2018)
Conductor of heat Materials that pass heat through them easily. Poor conductor of heat
The best conductors of heat are silver and copper. In our homes, having a coating of
Lead and mercury is comparatively poor conductor of heat. polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or rubber like
(SSC MTS 05.10.21) material because they are poor
conductor of heat.
Hardness That cannot easily bent and required more force to break. Metals Soft in nature
are hard.

22
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Chemical properties of (iv) Metals react with base then it produce a K Potassium Most reactive
metal/Non-metals. salt and hydrogen gas. Na Sodium
(i) Metals reacts with oxygen and gives us Metal + Base salt + hydrogen gas Ca Calcium
metal oxide and the metal oxides are Non-metals with base give us salt. Mg Magnesium
Non-metal + base salt Al Aluminium
basic in nature.
(SSC CGL 07.06.2019) NOTE: Zn Zinc Reactivity decreases
For example: A metalloid is a chemical element with Fe Iron
Fb Lead
Metal + oxygen Metal oxide (basic) properties that are a mixture of both
[H] [Hydrogen]
While Acid react with metal oxide, then metals and nonmetals. Boron, silicon,
Cu Copper
it gives salt and water. germanium, arsenic antimony, and
Hg Mercury
(RRBGROUP-D 25.09.2018) tellurium are commonly metalloid Ag Silver
But some metal oxides, such as (RRB NTPC 13.03.2021, 30.12.2021)
Au Gold Least reactive
Aluminium oxides Al2O 3, zinc oxides They are placed between metals and .
etc. show both acidic as well as basic non-metals in periodic table they are Zinc element is more reactive than
behavior. Such metal oxides which react shiny, brittle and semiconductor in copper.
with both acids as well as bases to nature. (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 01.12.2022 Shift-4)
produce salts and water are known as (SSC MTS Staff Exam. 17.03.2013)
If metal A displace metal B from its
(RRB NTPC 26.07.2021)
amphoteric oxides. solution, then metal A is more reactive
2 metalloids they are in the fourth
(SSC S. O. exam, 2003) than B
(RRB GROUP-D & RRB ALP 06.12.2018, 09.08.2018, period of the modern periodic table.
(RRB GROUP-D 10.08.2018)
14.08.2018, RRB GROUP-D 10.12.2018 (RRB GROUP-D 23.10.2018)
Calcium is the most reactive metal.
&15.10.2018 28.09.2018, RRB ALP 17.08.2018 & Silicon is a metalloid & Sodium is a
19.09.2018, ) (SSC CGL 06.06.2019)
metal. SODIUM > Iron > Silver > gold
Non-metal reacts with oxygen and give (SSC CGL 04.06.2019 & SSC STENO. 18.11.2022
(SSC MTS 07.08.2019,06.07.22)
us non-metal oxides they are acidic in SHIFT-2)
GOLD is less reactive.
nature. Carbon is NOT a metalloid .
(SSC MTS 20.10.2021)
(RRB ALP 14.08.2018, RRB JE 27.05.2019) (SSC MTS 20.08.2019)
Food cans are coated with Tin and not Zinc
Non-metal + oxygen  Non-metallic Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is most
because Zinc is more reactive than Tin.
oxide (acidic) commonly used as a (SSC Cabinet Secretariat RO 23.06.2013)
(ii) Metals reacts with water and produce a (LED)semiconductor in solar cells.it is Alloy
metal oxide and hydrogen gas, metal an example of extrinsic semiconductor An alloy is a homogenous mixture of
oxide dissolve in water further form When Arsenic atoms are added to two or more metals, or a metal and a
metal hydroxide. But all non-metals do Germanium lattice, it becomes a/an non-metal. They- are made up by
not reacts with water. Extrinsic semiconductor melting the substances, mixing them
(SSC MTS 05.08.2019 & 07.10.2021) (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.05.2013)
together and then letting cool them at
Metals + Water metal oxide + (RRB NTPC 05.03.2021) (SSC CGL 16.08.21)
room temperature.
hydrogen • Reactivity series
(RRB JE 02.06.2019)
Metal oxide + water metal hydroxide Common metals arranged in the order
Note:
Non-metals do not react with water but of decreasing their chemical reactivity
It does not burn at high temperature
non-metals oxides will react to form are known as reactivity series. (RRB GROUP-D 19.09.2018)
(RRB ALP 29.08.2018)
acids. In order to achieve higher
(iii) Metal react with acid and give us salt temperatures, electric heating devices
and H2 gas, with a ‘POP’ sound. usually use alloy.
(RRB ALP 09.08.2018) (RRB GROUP-D 12.10.2018)

Metal + Dilute acid Salt + hydrogen

[produce a ‘POP’ sound] • Properties of Alloy:
(i) Melting point is lower than the metals.
Non-metals are not react with acid (ii) Electrical conductivity also lower than
because non-metals are acceptors of the metals.
electron so they cannot donate
electrons.

• For Example:
Alloy Mixture PYQ
lead and tin (Pb & sin) (RRB JE 14.12.2014, 26.04.2016 , RRB GROUP-D 19.09.2018, 11.10.2018,
Solder 12.10.2018, 16.10.2018 & RR NTPC 10.01.2021,
SSC MTS 26.10.2021)
Copper (80%) + Tin (20%)
Bronze used as a bell metal to make bells
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 12.01.2003, 27.05.2012)
(RRB GROUP-D 12.10.2018 &RRB JE 26.05.2019)
Copper (60%) + Zinc (40%) (SSC CGL 13.05.2001,
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 30.11.2008)
Brass
SSC CHSL 04.12.2011,
(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam. 27.05.2012)

23
Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
SSC MTS 16.02.2014 & 19.10.2014, RRB ALP 30.08.2018, &
SSC MTS 02.08.2019, CPO 15.03.19
RRB NTPC 24.07.2021)
Steel Chromium, carbon (Percentage of carbon 0.1 (SSC CHSL 24.10.1999,
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 06.01.2008)
A high tensile alloy steel to 1). SSC DATA ENTRY 02.08.2009,
called TISCROM was used and iron RRB NTPC FCI ASSIATANT 22.01.2012, 02.04.201)
to construct Howarah
bridge.
Nickel and iron are mixed with chromium. (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)Exam. 24.10.1999)
(FCI Assistant Grade-II Exam. 22.01.2012)
Stainless steel was discovered by Harry Bearley.
stainless steel (SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam. 27.05.2012)
For harden steel we use manganese. (RRB NTPC 18.04.2016, RRB GROUP-D 24.10.2018, RRB JE 28.08.2019 &, RRB
NTPC 04.03.2021)
Constantan Cu, Ni (RRB GROUP-D 17.09.2018 , SSC CGL 09.03.2020)

nickel, chromium, manganese and iron (SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit )Exam. 26.11.2006 )
(SSC MTS (Non-Technical) Staff Exam. 27.02.2011)
heating element of iron (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam.10.11.2013,
Nichrome used in electric heaters (RRB GROUP-D 15.10.2018 & 07.12.2018)
made up of 4 metals (RRB GROUP-12.10.2018, RRB GROUP-D 15.10.2018, SSC CPO 12.03.2019,
RRB JE 26.05.2019)
aluminum. (SSC SECTION OFFICER 14.12.2003, 30.11.2008,
SSC MTS 30.07.2006,
Bauxite SSC CHSL 27.11.2010,
SSC STENOGRAPHER 16.10.2011&
SSC CGL 09.08.2015, )
Talonite Cobalt and Chromium. (SSC MTS 22.08.2019)

gold hard GOLD is mixed with copper to make gold hard (RRB JE 2014)

Gum metal or red brass Cu(65%) + Zinc (34%) + Tin (1%)

Cu (50%) + Zn(35%) + Nickel (15%) →used to (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005, 19.05.2013 )
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 16.12.2007)
German Silver make coins(% of silver =0) (SSC SO 06.01.2008)
(It does not contain silver) (SSC SAS26.06.2010)
(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam. 27.05.2012)

Magnalium Aluminum and Magnesium (SSC (South Zone) Investigator Exam. 12.09.2010)

Coins of Rs. 1 and 2 are made up of ferrite luminum oxide coat makes resistant to It is a method of protecting steel and
stainless steel. further corrosion .the resistance can be iron from rusting by coating them with
(RRB NTPC 31.03.2016) improved by making the oxide layer thin layer of zinc.
Sulphur is not used for manufacturing of thicker. Galvanization(Zinc is used to galvanise
stainless steel. (SSC MTS 05.05.2002, the iron)
SSC CHSL 04.11.2012, 12.08.2021) (SSC Combined Matric Level
Corrosion (PRE)Exam. 24.10.1999)

The slow process of destruction of metals Mechanism of rusting: ( SSC CGL 24.02.2002, SSC CPO SI 12.01.2003,05.09.2004,
07.09.2003, SSC INVESTIGATOR 12.9.2010)
when exposed to the acidic, water vapor H2O + CO2 → H2CO3 (SSC MTS (Non-Technical) Staff Exam. 27.02.2011)
atmosphere is called corrosion. It is an (Metal (from air) (SSC CHSL 12.10.2020)

electrochemical phenomenon in which metal Surface) For preventing an iron frying pan of
is oxidized by loss of electrons to form metal H2CO3⇌ 2H+ + CO32 rusting we apply a coating of zinc.
(SSC STENOGRAPHER 12.09.2017)
oxide. At anode: 2Fe → 2Fe2+ + 4e– Note: Heavy metals got their name
The deterioration of a metal by an 2Fe2+ + O2 + 4H2O → Fe2O3 + 8H+
because compared to other atoms
electrochemical process is commonly termed (Rust)
as corrosion.
they haveHigher atomic masses
At cathode: H+ + e- → H (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam, 09.08.2015)
(SSC CHSL 20.12.2015)
4H+ + O2 → 2H2O
The corrosion of iron is called rusting. Due to
Final reaction Fe2O3 + xH2O  Fe2O3.
rusting the weight of iron is increases.
xH2O
(SSC CGL 07.09.2016)
(SSC CHSL 08.07.2019) Prevention of corrosion (or
Rust needs three components that are iron, rusting)
oxygen and moisture. (i) Barrier protection
(SSC CGL 06.06.2019)
(ii) Sacrificial protection
A substance acquired in the form of
(iii) Electrical protection
brownish film on a piece of iron left in the
(iv) Using anti-rust solutions
open for some time is rust.
(v) Galvanizations
(SSC DELHI POLICE 05.12.2017)
(SSC MTS 16.08.2019) Galvanisation:
•Anodising is a process of forming a
thick oxide layer of aluminum. This

24
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5. Acids, Bases and Salts

Various Concepts of Acids and Bases    The common element for all acids is
Bronsted-Lowry concept of acids base. E.g., NH3, R N H2 , R2NH, R – O – R, hydrogen.

(RRB GROUP-D 24.09.2018 & 28.09.2018)
and bases Cl–, OH-, etc. • They have PH value less than 7.
A substance which can donate a proton is • Ionisation of acids and bases: The (SSC CHSL 10.03.2018
called an acid and a substance which can strength of an acid or a base is • Blue litmus paper turns red on contact
accept a proton is called a base, e.g., HCl determined with the help of extent of its with an acidic solution.
is an acid, Cl- is its conjugate base. ionization in aqueous solution. (SSC CHSL 10.03.2018 & SSC CGL 12.06.2019
• Conjugate acid of the base: The acid • Strong acid is that acid which (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 08.12.2022 Shift-1)

formed by a base by accepting proton is dissociates completely into ions in  When blue litmus was added to an
called conjugate base of that acid, e.g., aqueous solution. e.g. H2SO4, HNO3, HCl, unknown liquid in a test tube, it turned
H3O+ is conjugate acid of H2O. e.g., HI, HClO4, red. The liquid is an acid.
(SSC CHSL 19.10.2020)
HCl + H2O ⇌ Cl- + H3O+ • Strong base is that base which
• Example of acids are HCL(Hyrdrochloric
Acid-1 Base-2 Base-1 Acid-2 dissociates into ions completely in
acid), H2SO4(Sulphuric acid), HNO3(Nitric
• Conjugate base of the acid: The base aqueous solution. E.g. NaOH, KOH, LiOH,
acid) etc.
formed by an acid by donating a proton is RbOH, CsOH, Ba (OH) 2, Ca(OH)2, etc.
Acids are of two types:
called conjugate base of that acid, e.g., Cl- • Weak acid is the acid which is partially
is conjugate base of HCl as shown above. (i) Inorganic acid/mineral acid
ionized in aqueous solution and there
Lewis concept of acids and bases (ii) Organic acid
exists equilibrium between ionized ions
• A substance which is electron-deficient (i) Inorganic acid – Acids that are obtained
and unionized molecules e.g. HNO2
and can accept electrons easily is a Lewis from mineral are known as organic acid.
(Nitrous Acid), HF (Hydrofluoric Acid)
acid e.g., BF3, AlCl3, FeCl3, Ag+, Cu2+. Example – HCL, H2SO4, HNO3
• A substance which is electron-rich and etc.
(ii) Organic acid – Acids that are obtained
can donate electrons easily is a Lewis Acids
from plants, insect are known as organic
• Acids are sour in taste releases H+ ion.
acids.
• It also changes the methyl orange in red.
Example- acetic acid, formic acid
Some common name of Acids
Substance Acid PYQs
Vinegar Acetic Acid or Ethanoic Acid (6- (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002)
(SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax & Central Excise Exam. 14.12.2008)
8%) CH3COOH (SSC CGL 02.09.2016 , 10.06.2019, 03.03.2020, &
SSC CPO 19.01.2017, 06.06.2021, SSC CAPFS 05.07.2017,
RRB JE 27.05.2019, 14.12.2019, CGL 03.03.20 ,
SSC MTS 18.07.21,22.10.2021,26.10.21,07.07.22,15.07.22)
(SSC CHSL 09.08.21) (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 12.12.2022 Shift-4)
Red ant Bite and Bee formic acid / Methanoic acid (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 16.06.2002)
( SSC CGL 31.08.2016, 03.09.2016 , CGL 11.06.19) RRB ALP 09.08.2018,
sting SSC JE 27.01.2018, RRB GROUP-D 16.10.2018, RRB JE 26.05.2019, SSC CGL 12.06.2019,
RRB NTPC 04.01.2021 &, SSC CHSL 19.04.2021)(SSC MTS 06.07.22)
Lemon/ Orange Citric acid (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.08.09.2016
(SSC MTS 16.02.2014, 14.08.2019,07.07.22,22.07.22)(SSC CGL 09.03.20)
(SSC CHSL 09.08.21)
Tamarind and green Tartaric Acid (RRB NTPC 04.04.2016 &
SSC JUNIOR ENGINEER 23.01.2018)(SSC CGL 05.03.20)
Mangoes, grapes
Tomato, Spinach, Lady Oxalic Acid(formed by using saw (SSC CGL 04.02.2007 ,
CPO 14.03.19 , CHSL 09.08.21)
Finger dust)
Curd(sour milk) Lactic Acid (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 12.01.2003)
(SSC Section Office (Commercial Audit) Exam. 25.09.2005)
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005, 12.11.2006)
(RRB JE 14.12.2014 RRB GROUP-D 30.10.2018 & 10.11.2018)
(SSC MTS 07.07.22,14.07.22)
Carrom Powder & Boric acid
Antiseptic Creams
Apple Malic acid (SSC CGL 06.06.2019& SSC CHSL 05.07.19 ,10.07.2019),
(SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-2)
juice/(ripe)banana (SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I,13.03.2023)

Pineapple Pantothenic acid

Wheat Glutamic Acid (it causes Glutamic
allergy.)
Coca cola/soft drink Phosphoric acid (sowing agent) (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)Exam. 24.10.1999 )
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 03.09.2006)

25
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Note: • Sulphuric Acid common name is Oil of (b) Used for Bleaching of Metals and glasses.
1. Kidney Stone: If we do not drink Vitriol. NOTE- In order to melt Ice or snow on
sufficient amount of water, this oxalic (SSC CAPFS 04.07.2017) Roads, we Sprinkle Salt
(SSC CHSL 13.10.20)
acid accumulates in our body at some Sulphuric acid is dibasic. Concentrated Hydrochloric acid has pH
place and this reacts with calcium and (SSC CHSL 27.10.2013) value nearest to zero.
forms Calcium Oxalate. This Calcium The acid used in lead storage battery is (SSC MTS 20.08.2019)

Oxalate acts as Kidney stone sulphuric acid. • Aqua-Regia

(SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-2)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) 24.10.1999) (SSC CPO SI 12.01.2003 06.06.2016,
Gouty Arthritis: This occurs due to SSC TAX ASSISTANT 12.11.2006, 25.11.2007), Concentrated HCl : Concentrated HNO3
accumulation of Uric acid in the bone
(FCI ASSITANT 05.02.2012) 3 : 1
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.27.10.2016) (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 12.05.2002)
joints of human body. (SSC MTS 26.10.2021,07.07.22)
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 30.11.2008)
2. Pteroylglutamic acid is another name of Most Developed country will be the one (SSC MTS (Non-Tech.) Staff Exam. 23.02.2014,20.07.22)
which produces maximum quantity of (RRB NTPC 22.04.2016)
folic acid. Folic acid, also called (SSC CHSL 21.10.20)
pteroylglutamic acid, folate, or folacin, is Sulphuric Acid. This is aqua Regia or King's water or
a water- soluble vitamin of the B complex Royal's water.
• Nitric acid also known as Aqua Fortis.
that is essential in animals and plants for This is used by jewelers to dissolve gold
Making Process  Ostwald Process
the synthesis of nucleic acids. Folic acid and Platinum.
Use of HNO3
was isolated from liver cells in 1934, To eject out dissolved gold and Platinum
(SSC MTS 08.10.2021)
(a) Fertilizers
from Aqua Regia, Just Evaporate acids by
3. In its reaction with silver nitrate, C2H2 (b) Explosives such as TNT (Tri Nitro
heating Aqua Regia.
shows Acidic property Toluene (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 16.12.2007)
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.02.09.2016
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO &
• HCl (Hydrochloric acid) or Muriatic
• Lactic acid
LDC Exam. 04.11.2012) (RRB NTPC 12.01.2021)
4. When we cut an onion the synthase acid or Gastric Acid. Lactic acid is a three- carbon molecule. A
enzyme converts the amino acid sulfoxides (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)
Exam. 30.07.2006) molecule of lactic acid contains atoms of
of the onion into sulfenic acid. (SSC CHSL 02.12.2014, 09.08.21 , carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
SSC CAPFS 05.07.2017, & RRB NTPC 05.03.2021) (RRB NTPC 10.01.2021)
(SSC CGL 03.03.20)
Uses of HCl
Some uses of acids
(a) In Harpic, Colin

Excess Glucose Glycogen

inside body insulin (Stored in liver and muscles)

Excess Running Rest, Writing, in Aerobic Respiration

Sleeping (Presence of Oxygen)
Anaerobic Respiration
(absence of oxygen) Glucose

Lactic Acid in muscles

This is the Reason of Muscles fatigue. • The compound used in prickly heat (SSC CGL 19.05.2013)

Due to increase in lactic acid muscle powder to prevent excessive sweating is Base
cramps occur. Boric acid. Substances which are generally bitter
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam.30.07.2006 (SSC CGL 06.09.2016) taste and feel soapy on touching are
(SSC CHSL 23.03.2016) • Tartaric acid is a component of Baking known as bases.
RRB GROUP-D 16.11.2018 )
• It is used in pickels, cleaning etc. powder. (SSC DELHI POLICE 05.12.2017)
(RRB GROUP-D 26.09.2018) They are viscous as soap.
White sugar contain ethanoic acid • Sweat contains water and salt. They displaces hydroxide (OH-) ions.
(RRB NTPC 31.03.2016)
(SSC MTS 16.02.2014) Base change the color of red litmus paper
• Carbolic acid is also known as Phenol • The Acid that contain hydrogen and
(SSC CGL10.09.2016 & 16.08.2017) to blue.
Soft drinks contain carbonic acid. other non metallic element expect (RRB ALP 21.08.2018, RRB GROUP-D
(RRB GROUP-D 27.09.2018) oxygen is called oxyacids. 01.10.2018 &, RRB JE 02.06.2019,
(RRB ALP 31.08.2018) SSC CHSL 06.08.2021)
NOTE:
• While diluting the acid, add acid into Base change the color of methyl orange
• The strong acid solution contains most
water and not water into the acid. If we to yellow.
ions.
(RRB JE 28.06.2019) add water to acid, the heat produced in
• An acid having basicity One is disodium exothermic reaction will convert acid and Some strongest bases are:
hydrogen phosphate. water into vapour state and acid spurts Dimethyl amine > Methylamine > tri
(SSC CHSL 31.07.2016) dangerously. methylamine > Ammonia.
(SSC CHSL 31.07.2016)
Sulphur, chlorine and nitrogen etc. form
Oxides of Magnesium will turn red litmus
oxy-acids.
blue.
26
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Use of Bases: Alkali are of two types that Celsius) pure water is neither acidic nor
1. NaOH [Sodium Hydroxide] we consider according to subject point of basic and has a pH of 7.
• Sodium Hydroxide is also known as view : pH scale range from 0-14.
Caustic Soda. (i) Strong alkali – substances that are (SSC CGL 27.04.2014 & SSC CAPFS 01.07.2017,
04.07.2017 & SSC JE 29.01.2018)
• NaOH used in detergent, soap, paper completely ionized in aqueous solutions For acidic solution – pH < 7
industry, removes grease, etc. and produce large amounts of hydroxide (RRB NTPC RRB NTPC 02.04.2016, 03.02.2021)
• NaOH has a approx pH value of about ions (OH-).such as sodium hydroxide (Na For basic solution – PH > 7
14.(exact value is 13) OH), Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) etc. Strong Weak Strong
0 7 14
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 13.12.2022 Shift-2) (RRB GROUP-D 16.11.2018) 6.8 7.4
2. kOH [Potassium Hydroxide] (ii) Weak alkali – substances that are saliva blood

• It is used in shampoo, shaving cream, partially ionized in aqueous solutions

Neutral
mild soap, etc. and produce small or small amounts of eg. H2O, salt
3. Ca(OH)2 [Calcium Hydroxide] hydroxide ions (OH-). like NH4OH.
(SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-3) When a weak alkali acids reacts with Acidic Basic
• It is used in plaster, bleaching powder, strong acid, the obtained salt will be Distilled water (pH = 7)
(pure water – No metal, no chemical)
etc acidic in nature.
ALKALI: (RRB ALP 17.08.2018) 1
pH = - log[H3O+] = log
Alkali is a substance that reacts with Mg(OH) + H2SO4  MgSO4 + 2H2O H3O+ 
acids to form salts and water. the alkali is • pH value:-
It is defined as, the negative logarithm • From this the concentration of [H3O+] can
bitter in taste .this is a substance that
(base 10) of the H3O+ concentration in be written as
added to water then its pH exceeds more
mol per litre. [H3O+] = 1 × 10-pH
than 7.0, and it turns red litmus paper
pH Potential of Hydrogen/Power of • pOH: Just like pH, we can define pOH of a
into blue. Alkali reacts with acids to
Hydrogen/potenz(P stands for this) of solution as the negative logarithm of
neutralize it. The mixing of water in
hydrogen hydroxyl is concentration in moles per
alkali is an exothermic process .they are
(RRB GROUP-D 10.12.2018, SSC MTS 13.10.2021) litre.
soapy on touch.
(RRB GROUP-D 09.10.2018)
pH scale was given by S.P. Sorenson. pOH = - log{OH-}
It is basically a type of bases but not a Solutions with a high concentration of pOH = - log{OH+} ALKALINE SOLUTION.
base we say that all alkali are bases but hydrogen ions have a low pH and
all bases are not alkali. solutions with low concentrations of H+ (RRB ALP 17.08.2018)
ions have a high pH i.e it is used to pH meter is used to detect pH of a liquid
The taste of alkali is astringent, touching
specify how acidic or basic a water-based or acidity of aqueous solution It was
the alkali feels like soap, and it turns red
solution is. Acidic solutions have a lower given by Beckmen.
litmus paper to blue.
(SSC GL Tier-I Exam. 26.10.2014)
(RRB NTPC 29.04.2016) pH, while basic solutions have a higher
(RRB GROUP-D 16.11.2018 & 04.12.2018)
pH. At room temperature,(at 25degree

Some points to be remember:-

Substance pH PYQs
alkaline solution More than 7 (RRB JE 26.06.2019)

neutral solution 7 at 25 degree Celsius (SSC CGL 11.9.2016, RRB GROUP-D 25.09.2018 , RRB GROUP-D 12.11.2018, SSC
CPO 16.03.2019 &, SSC CHSL 18.03.2020 & SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-2)
Lemon juice less than 7 (approx. 2.2) ( SSC CHSL 10.11.2013, RRB JE 02.06.2019 & RRB NTPC 29.12.2020)

saliva 6.8, (at the time of tooth decay pH is (SSC MTS 08.08.2019)

5.5)
salts of strong acids and 7 (RRB GROUP-D 12.10.2018, 01.11.2018

strong base/ neutral

solution, distilled water
acidic substance Below7.0 (SSC CHSL 12.08.2021)

acid rain rainwater less than 5.6 (SSC CHSL 26.10.2020)

human body 7 to 7.8 (SSC Statistical Investigators Exam. 31.07.2005)

(SSC CPO 13.12.2019)
Human blood 7.4
Soda water Less than 7 (SSC MTS 04.10.2017)

Milk of magnesia also 10.5(highest pH) (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 12.01.2003)
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 08.02.2004,01.07.2012), 23.08.2021, 06.12.2022 Shift-2)
known as sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) What is “milk of magnesia” chemically?
Most acidic mixture 0 (RRB ALP 21.08.2018, RRB GROUP-D 11.10.2018)

Gastric juice ~ 1.2

Note: 2. A mixture converts blue litmus to red, it 3. If the pH value of river water is below 7,
1. At 298 K, the sum of pH and pOH is equal have a pH of 6.(less than 7) then it water is considered polluted with
to 14. (RRB ALP 14.08.2018 &
RRB GROUP-D 28.09.2018)

27
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acidic waste or if the value of pH is more It must coincide with the equivalence (iii) It is used in manufacture of dyes and
than 7 then it considered to be basic. point corresponding to stoichiometric drugs.
(RRB NTPC 31.01.2021) amounts of acid and base in The buffer action of blood is due to the
4. If the pH solution is 3 and then changes
neutralization reaction. presence of HCO-3 and H2O .
from 3 to 6 so the H+ ion concentration
• Indicator: It is an organic compound (SSC CHSL 16.11.2014)
decrease by 1000 times. Color Indicators
which gives different colours in different
(RRB ALP 10.08.2018)
medium. The colour change takes place 1. Litmus Paper
5. When the pH value increases from 7 to
14, it shows that increase in OH- within specific pH range. e.g. methyl Blue Acid Red
concentration. orange, phenolphthalein, bromocresol Litmus Litmus
(RRB ALP 17.08.2018, purple, methyl red, bromothymol blue,
RRB GROUP-D 19.09.2018, 05.12.2018)
thymolphthalein, turmeric, Litmus etc. Red Bases Blue
6. If the value of a salt is 12/14, then it is a
Geranium flowers, Red cabbage leaves, Litmus Litmus
salt of weak acid and strong base.
(RRB GROUP-D 11.10.2018 &
Litmus , Turmeric , Petunia flowers are (RRB JE 27.06.2019)
12.10.2018 & RRB JE 11.01.2019) natural acid-base indicator. Example sulphuric acid converts blue
7. When a sodium bicarbonate is placed on (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 06.12.2022 Shift-3)
litmus into red litmus.
a strip of pH paper, the color of the strip Thyme leaves is not a acid-base indicator.
(RRB GROUP-D 06.12.2018)
does not change. (SSC MTS 05.10.2021)
Neither acidic nor basic then it color is
(RRB GROUP-D 24.09.2018) Note: purple or we say that the color of inactive
8. Ammonium chloride is an example of Substance Common name litmus solution is purple.
basic salt whose pH value is less than 7.
Oil of vitriol H2SO4 (RRB GROUP-D 24.09.2018 &
(RRB GROUP-D 7.09.2018) RRBGROUP-D 05.10.2018)
9. Drinking soda is Acidic (sulphuric acid) (SSC MTS 08.07.2022)
Blue vitriol CuSO4.5H2O Litmus Paper is made up of Lichens
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005)
(used to make (SSC tax assistant 14.12.2008)
(RRB NTPC 08.01.2021)
• Hydrolysis of Salts pesticides and blue
Where,
A salt is said to be hydrolyzed if its pH ink)
Lichens = Algae + Fungi
changes. Only salts of strong acids with Red vitriol CoSO4.5H2O It is a green layer on tree trunk.
weak bases (they are acidic), salts of (cobalt sulphate) Due to algae, it is green in colour.
strong bases and weak acid(they may be Green vitriol FeSO4.7H2O Lichen is also known as Air Pollution
acidic/basic/neutral) can undergo (iron sulphate) Indicator as Lichens will be absent in
hydrolysis. Salts of strong acids and White vitriol ZnSO4.7H2O most polluted cities.
strong bases cannot be hydrolyzed, e.g., (zinc sulphate) Litmus turn Borax solution, into blue
CH3COONa  H2O CH3COOH  Na   OH Buffer Solution (RRB JE 23.05.2019)
• It is the solution whose pH does not The color of alkali is pink with
• Neutralization reaction: It is the
change by addition of small amount of phenolphthalein and yellow with methyl
reaction between acid (H+ ion) and base
strong acid or base. The ability of buffer orange.
(OH- ion)to form salt and water (H2O). (RRB JE 24.05.2019)
(SSC MTS 13.08.2019, 26.07.22) solution to resist the change in pH on
2. Yellow Turmeric Paper
Acid + Base  Salt+ Water addition of acid or base (small amount) is
(RRB ALP 21.08.2018 & called buffer action, e.g., CH3COOH + Yellow Turmeric Paper
RRB GROUP-D 16.10.2018)
When an ant bites, it injects acidic liquid CH3COONa, H2CO3 + HCl, NH4Cl + NH4OH
(formic acid) into the skin. Moist baking are buffer solutions.
No Change Red
soda should be applied to the skin to A solution of a weak acid and its Basic
Acids
neutralize it. Because the base is present conjugate base salt is called Buffer
3. Aqueous solution of copper sulphate
in baking soda and when an acid reacts solution.
(RRB NTPC 10.02.2021) (It turns blue litmus to red)
with the base it neutralizes & we get • Acidic buffer: It consists of weak acid (RRB ALP & TEC. 13.08.2018)
relief. 4. Hydrangea glum flowers are blue in
and its salt with a strong base. Its pH is
(SSC MTS 08.10.2021) color. It petals acquire a blue color in an
Bite of nettle plant sting releases formic less than 7, e.g., CH3COOH and
acidic environment and the actual of
acid or methanoic acid to neutralize it the CH3COONa, H2CO3 and HCl.
litmus is blue.
leaf of dock plant is used. • Basic buffer: It consists of weak base
(RRB GROUP-D 28.11.2018)
To neutralize too acidic soil both quick and its salt with strong acid. Its pH is 5. Phenolphthalein cannot be distinguished
and slaked lime is used. more than 7, e.g., NH4Cl and NH4OH, between acidic and neutral solution.

Titration H2CO3 and HCO3 (this buffer is present (RRB ALP 14.08.2018)
6. Thyme leaves are not a natural acid-base
• It is the volumetric method for in blood. pH = 7.4). indicator.
quantitatively estimating the • Application of Buffer Solutions. (SSC MTS 05.10.2021)
concentration of either acid or base when (i) pH of blood is maintained with the help Colours of Some Common Indicators
the concentration of the other is known. of buffer. in Different pH range
• Titrant: It is the solution of acid or base (ii) It is used for precipitation of hydroxides Acidic Basic
with which titration is performed. Indicator
of third group of qualitative analysis. colour colour
• End point: It is the stage at which the Methyl orange Red Yellow
neutralization reaction is just completed.

28
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RRB JE 28.05.2019 Yellow Blue SSC CHSL 02.11.2014, (SSC CAPFS 05.07.2017)
Bromocresol green RRB NTPC 22.04.2016,) It is produced by the action of Chloride
Red Yellow It is formed by the reaction of a strong
Methyl red on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH2)].
Yellow Purple acid or Hydrocholric acid ‘HCL’ with the (SSC CHSL 04.12.2011)
Bromocresol purple Orange Blue stong base ‘sodium hydroxide’ (NaOH)
Bromothymol blue Colourless Pink (RRB ALP 20.08.2018) Chlorine gas is used for the
Phenolphathalein NaOH + HCL  NaCl+ H2O manufacturing of bleaching powder. So
Colourless Blue
Thymolphthalein (RRB GROUP-D 17.09.2018) cold most common bleaching agent.
(SSC CGL 09.08.2015)
Methyl orange is suitable indicator This above equation is also a good (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-1)
when solution of sodium carbonate is example of a Neutralization reaction. The main component of liquid bleach is
The chemical name of the salt found in sodium hypochlorite.
mixed with sulphuric acid (SSC CHSL 06.12.2015)
seawater & Table salt are Sodium Uses:
(SSC S. O. Exam. 14.12.2003)
Olfactory Indicator Chloride. (i) To make water free from germs or
(SSC Combined Matric Level(PRE)
There are some substances whose odor Exam. 30.07.2006) bacteria or sterilizing water or
changes in acidic or alkaline medium, (SSC SO 06.01.2008)(SSC CHSL 18.03.2020, disinfectent
RRB NTPC 28.01.2021(& SSC STENO 17.11.2022)
such substances are called olefactory (SSC Tax Assistant Exam.
Potassium iodate is used to iodize 25.11.2007)
indicator. (FCI Assistant Grade-III Exam. 5.02.2012)
common salt.
(RRB GROUP-D 19.09.2018 & (ii) An oxidizing agent
26.09.2018) (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 09.09.2001) (iii) For bleaching cotton and linen in
For ex- vanilla, onion, clove etc. Uses: industry
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-4)
(i) Essential constituent of food. (iv) For bleaching wood pulp in paper
Universal Indicator (ii) Used in the manufacture of NaOH, factories
Universal indicator are commonly to Na2CO3 etc. (v) Bleaching washed clothes in laundry
measure the exact pH. (iii) Used for salting out of soap. NOTE:
(RRB ALP 17.08.2018) (iv) Used in freezing mixture. Lime water is not a form of Calcium
The pH value of 4 to 5 in universal (v) it is used to melt ice. Carbonate.Calcium hydroxide base is
indicator is weak acid. (RRB NTPC 18.04.2016)
present in lime water.
(RRB JE 22.05.2019) (vi) It is commonly used as an antiseptic in (SSC JUNIOR ENGINNER 27.01.2018)
Differentiate between weak acid and mouthwashes and toothpastes.(Silica, Baking Soda
strong acid can be made using universal aluminium oxide and limestone are Formula: NaHCO3`
(SSC JUNIOR ENGINEERR 29.01.2018)
indicator. used in the making toothpaste)Galena (SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-3)
(RRB GROUP-D 27.11.2018) Chemical Name: Sodium Hydrogen
is not used to make toothpaste.
Salt Carbonate
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005)
• A compound formed by the combination (SSC CGL 13.08.21)
(SSC MTS 21.05.2000,
30.07.2006,06.10.21,05.07.2219.07.22),
of an acid and a base or metal is called Caustic Soda (SSC SECTION OFFICE 05.06.2005,
salt. they are often solid. (SSC Combined Matric Level TAX ASSISATNT 29.03.2009,
(PRE)Exam. 24.10.1999) SSC CHSL 16.11.2014)
• Their melting and boiling point is high (SSC CGL 27.02.2000,
Formula: NaOH
and their aqueous solution is the Chemical Name: Sodium Hydroxide
11.06.19 13.12.2022 Shift-2)

conductor of electricity. Salts are often Baking soda is also known Sodium Bi-
When electricity is passed through an
formed by the neutralization reaction carbonate (Baking soda)
aqueous solution of Sodium (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 05.06.2005)
between acids and bases. Chloride(brine solution is excess salt + (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 29.03.2009)
(RRB GROUP-D 04.12.2018) Calcium is not a component of baking
water)
PH value of salt: (SSC MTS 16.02.2014) soda.
• Salts of a strong acid and strong base are to form Sodium Hydroxide. This process (SSC MTS 06.10.21)
neutral with value Ph 7. is called the Chlor-alkali process because It is produced using Sodium Chloride as
• The salts of strong acid and weak base the Chlor is obtained from Chloride and one of the raw material.
are acidic with value less than 7. The It is manufactured under Solvay’s
Alkali is formed sodium hydroxide.
process
salts of strong base and weak acid are Uses: In the laboratory, it is prepared by
basic with value more than 7. (i) In manufacture of Hard soap, sodium saturating an aqueous solution of sodium
Notes: metal, dyes, drugs etc. carbonate.
1. Deposits of solid salt are found in several (ii) In paper and textile industry for Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NaHCO3
parts of world. These large crystals are mercerization. It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in
often brown due to impurities. This is (iv) For preparation of pure fats and oils. water, the solution is alkaline.
called Rock Salt. (v) In preparation of artificial silk Rayon. It is an acidic salt since its pH is
2. Aluminum salt commonly used in stop (vi) In petroleum industry for refining somewhat less than 7
bleeding is Potash Alum.(Alumnium petroleum. Uses:
Potassium sulphate) (vii) In absorbing poisonous gases. (i) For making baking powder
(SSC CAPF 21.06.2015) (viii) As a reagent in laboratory. (ii) Used in antacids and Relives from excess
Common use of Salts: acid in Stomach.
Common Salt Bleaching Powder (iii) Soda- acid fire extinguishes
(RRB NTPC 02.04.2016) Formula: CaOCl2 (Dry powder fire extinguishers contain -
Formula: NaCL (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-3)
(SSC CGL 11.08.2017 & RRB ALP 30.08.2018) (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 01.12.2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-4) sand and sodium bicarbonate)
Chemical Name: Sodium Chloride Chemical Name: Calcium Oxy Chloride (SSC CPO S.I.Exam. 12.12.2010)
(SSC MTS 11.10.2021)
( SSC SECTION OFFICER 06.01.2008, COMMON NAME : Calcium hypochlorite

29
 Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
(iv) When baking soda is combined with If we again make them moisten then it
moisture and an acidic ingredient (e.g., appear blue.
yogurt, chocolate, buttermilk, honey), the ♦ Uses of Copper Sulphate:
resulting chemical reaction produces • It is toxic to human.
• Used in plants as a fungicide.
bubbles of carbon dioxide that expand (SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence
under oven temperatures, causing baked Officer) Exam. 27.05.2012)
goods to expand or rise as a chemical
The color of copper sulphate is Blue.
Leaveners. (SSC MTS 13.08.2019)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 16.06.2002 Gypsum
(SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-1)
Formula: CaSO4. 2H2O
(v) For the identification of carboxylic acids. (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-3)
Baking Powder: (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-2)
A mixture of baking soda (Sodium Chemical Name: Calcium Sulphate
hydrogen carbonate) and a mild edible It also possess water Crystallization.
Acid. It has two water molecule to make one
NaHCO3 + H+  CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt formula units of gypsum.
of acid ♦ Uses of Gypsum:
(Sodium hydrogen (Acid) Gypsum is used for improvement of
Carbonate) Saline soils
Carbon dioxide gases turn lime water
(SSC CAPFs SI & CISF ASI Exam.
milky. 23.06.2013)
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 11.12.2011
(SSCCPO 13.03.2019) Plaster of Paris (POP)
(SSC CHSL 17.03.2018)
The acid which falls to liberate carbon
dioxide from sodium bicarbonate is 1
Formula: CaSO4. H2O
carbonic acid 2
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 12.12.2022 Shift-3)
(SSC CONSTABLE 04.10.2015)
Chemical Name: Calcium Sulphate
Washing Soda Hemihydrate
(SSC CGL 01.07.2012, 26.10.2014)
Formula: Na2CO3. 10H2O (SSC CHSL 04.08.21)
(SSC CHSL 02.11.2014 & By heating Gypsum at 373k, it loses
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 06.12.2022 Shift-1)
Chemical Name: Sodium Carbonate water molecules and becomes Calcium
Decahydrate Sulphate Hemihydrate known as plaster
(SSC CHSL 10+2 DEO & LDC Exam. 16.11.2014) of paris.
(SSC CAPFS 06.07.2017)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 24.10.1999)
Recrystallization of Sodium Carbonate (SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax & Central Excise Exam.
gives washing soda. It is a basic salt. 12.11.2006)
Sodium Carbonate as a product
formed when sodium bicarbonate is It is a white powder.
heated strongly if we add water in pop then it gives again
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.29.08.2016 gypsum.
It is obtained by Solvay’s process, also Uses:
called Ammonia soda process. POP is used by doctors for supporting
On exposure to air it efflorescence and bones when it was fractured.
forms Na2CO3.H2O (monohydrate), on
further heating it becomes anhydrous as
(Na2CO3) but does not decompose
further. Anhydrous Na2CO3 is known as
soda ash.
Uses:
(SSC CHSL 17.03.2018 & SSC CGL 07.03.2020 , CHSL
04.08.21)
(i) Removing permanent hardness of water.
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 04.12.2011)
(SSC CGL 07.03.2020)
(ii) Used as cleaning agent in houses.
(iii) Manufacture Sodium Compounds such as
borax.
(iv) Used in glass, soap and paper industries.
Copper Sulphate
Formula: CuSO4. 5H2O
Chemical Name: Copper Sulphate (it is
referred to blue vitriol)
It have 5 molecule of crystalline water.
We removed water by heating Copper
Sulphate then its crystal appears white
and,

30
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6. S-Block and P-Block Elements

S-BLOCK ELEMENTS It burns in air so it is kept in kerosene oil.
Alkali Metals (Group 1) Electropositive Nature When sodium reacts with fluorine the
(RRB GROUP-D 12.10.2018 & These metals have only one electron in compound formed is a good conductor of
SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-3) their outer shell. Therefore they are electricity in the molten state.
Electronic
Element At. No. ready to lose that one electron in ionic Sodium Ores
configuration
bonding with other elements. They are
Li, lithium 3 [He], 2s1 highly electropositive. Chile salt petre- NaNO3
Na, Sodium 11 [Ne], 3s1 Na  Na+ + 1e– (SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO & PA/SA Exam, 06.12.2015
K, 19 [Ar], 4s1 Atomic and Ionic Radii Borax – Na2B4O7.10H2O
Potassium Order of atomic/ionic radii is:
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-1)
Rb, 37 [Kr], 5s1 It is used in making Borosilicate glass
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs
Rubidium (Pyrex glass) which is a heat sensitive
Atomic volume also increases in the
Cs, 55 [Xe], 6s1 glass with extra strength
same order. (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 05.06.2005)
Caesium Melting and Boiling Points (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.06.2011)
Fr, 87 [Rn], 7s1 The melting and boiling points of alkali This is made by a company named
Francium (SSC CPO
metals are very low because of weak Borosil.
2022,10.11.2022
inter metallic bonding due to large size. Potassium
Shift-2)
The melting and boiling points both Kalium (old name) is kept in Kerosene oil
H, Li, Na, K elements are included in the
decrease from Li to Cs due to decrease in or wax (because it Burns in
same group in the periodic table
(SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-1) metallic bond strength. air/water)(Reacts violently with cold
Radium elements do NOT belong to Ionization Energy water)
group 1 of the modern periodic table. (SSC MTS 25.07.2022)
Ionization energy of alkali metals is
(SSC STENO. 18.11.2022 SHIFT-3) Ores:
lowest in their period.
Radium is not a transition metal (a) Indian Salt Petre or Bengal salt petre
I.E. decreases from Li to Cs due to
The soft silvery metallic element which (KNO3) or Nitre
increase in size. (SSC CHSL 20.10.20)
ionizes easily when heated or exposed to
As I.E. values of alkali metals are low, the (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 12.12.2022 Shift-1)
light and is present in atomic clock is (Base + acid = salt)
tendency to lose as electron is high and
Cesium It is used in fire crackers.
thus they are powerful reducing agents.
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam, 16.08.2015
Li is the strongest reducing agent and the (b) Carnalite – KCl . MgCl2 . 6H2O
Alkali metals are s-block elements, If soil is more acidic, it is used to
ability to reduce decrease down the
(leftmost group of the periodic neutralize it.
group.
table)because last electron in these (c) Potash alum – K2SO4 . Al2 (SO4)3 . 24H2O
Lithium
elements enters the s-orbital. (fitkari) (double salt)
It is the lightest or lowest denser metal. It
(SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-3)
is used in Mobile batteries, Rechargeable Use – Blood Coagulation (stop bleeding)
These elements are collectively called as
alkali metals as the hydroxides of these Batteries (Nickel or Cadmium or (SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax &
Central Excise Exam. 12.11.2006)
metals are soluble in water and these Lithium)
Fitkari (salt) – so, Bacteria, virus can't
solutions are highly alkaline in nature. It is used in Artificial Pacemakers (A
survive so, similar fitkari can be used on
Alkali metals react vigorously with cold device used to replace the functioning of
many activities.
water resulting in the displacement of Sino atrial (SA-node) Node of human
Common alum is used for settling muddy
hydrogen. heart)
Lithium is first metallic element in the water
(SSC CHSL 15.04.21)
(SSC SO 10.12.2006)
Occurrence modern periodic table. Potassium Chloride, KCI
(SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-2) (RRB ALP & TEC. 14.08.2018)
Alkali metals are highly reactive and On combustion in excess of air, lithium It forms colorless cubic crystals like
hence do not occur in the free state but forms mainly the oxide. those of NaCl.
are widely distributed in nature in (SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-2) It is used as a fertilizer.
combined state in the form of halides, Lithium has highest specific heat Potassium Hydroxide (Caustic
oxides, silicates, borates and nitrates. Of (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004) potash), KOH
all the alkali metals, only sodium and Lithium exhibits the greatest tendency (i) Used in the manufacture of soft soap.
potassium are found in abundance in to lose electrons.(Among Fluorine, (ii) Used as a dehydrating agent for gases
nature, e.g., they are seventh and eighth Lithium, Oxygen, and Zinc) Lithium has which are basic in nature.
most abundant elements by weight in the the largest atomic radii. (iii) Used to absorb acidic gases such as CO2.
earth’s crust. The last member, francium, (SSC MTS 06.07.2022) Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2)
occurs only in traces as a radioactive Sodium Element At. Electronic
decay product because its half-life period Old name – Natrium No. configuration
is very small, i.e. 21 minutes. It was discovered by Hamphrey Devy Beryllium (Be) 4 [He] 2s2
(He discovered Sodium and pottassium)

31
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Magnesium 12 [Ne] 3s2 (iii) Be is least reactive as its ionization (ii) A paste of MgCl2 and MgO is used in
(Mg) . potential is high. However, it does react dental filing
(SSC CGL 24.08.21, with oxygen and nitrogen at higher Magnesium sulphate (Epsom Salt),
(SSC S. O. (Audit) temperature. MgSO4.7H2O
Exam. 06.01.2008)
(iv) Beryllium forms covalent compounds (SSC CGL 05.03.2020)

because of high charge density and Espuma

greater polarizing power, whereas other The term Espuma is Foam.
Calcium (Ca) 20 [Ar] 4s2 (SSC CPO 06.06.2016)
members from ionic compounds. Magnesium occurs as Kieserite (MgSO4.
Strontium (Sr) 38 [Kr] 5s2
(v) It dissolves in alkalies with evolution of H2O) and Epsomite (MgSO4.7H2O).
Barium (Ba) 56 [Xe] 6s2
hydrogen. (SSC MTS 12.10.2021)
Radium (Ra) 88 [Rn] 7s2
Be + 2NaOH + 2H2O → Na2BeO2.2H2O + Uses: It is used,
The group 2 elements are collectively called
H2 (i) In medicines as purgative.
as alkaline earth metals as the oxides of (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 13.05.2001)
Sodium beryllate
these metals are alkaline in nature and (ii) In dyeing and tanning industries.
Other alkaline earth metals do not react
existed in the earth. (iii) In preparing fire resistant textiles.
with alkalies.
The order of atomic and ionic radii is Be (iv) In the manufacture of paints and soaps.
Note:
< Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba. Atomic volume also NOTE:-
follows the same order. Beryllium Sulphate is less soluble in
Pyrolusite is an ore of Manganese dioxide
Melting and Boiling Points water due to - High inflammable
and is important as an ore of manganese.
They have low melting point and boiling energy (SSC CPO 12.12.2019)
point but higher than alkali metals. (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. year 1997) Compounds of Calcium
Ionization Energy (vi) Hydroxide of beryllium is amphoteric in Calcium salts used as fertilizer is calcium
The ionization energy values of group 2 nature, insoluble in water and covalent in carbonate.
elements is greater than those of group l nature. The hydroxides of other alkaline (SSC CGL 31.08.2016)

elements, yet the energy is sufficiently earth metals are basic, ionic and their Calcium Oxide (Quick Lime), CaO:
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 01.12.2022
low to form M2+ ion. However, for I.E.1, solubility increases on moving from Mg Shift-1 & 02.12.2022 Shift-4)
the order is (OH)2 to Ba (OH)2. It can be prepared by heating limestone at
Be > Mg > Ca > Sr > Ba > Ra (vii) Its salts can never have more than four 1073-1273 K.
The second ionization energy of group-II molecules of water of crystallization as it (The process is known as “lime burning”)
elements is lower than group-I elements. has only four available orbitals in its CaCO3⇌ CaO + CO2
Oxidation State valency shell. Other alkaline earth metals Properties:
They show both + 1 and + 2 oxidation can extend their coordination number to (i) It is a white solid.
states, however the + 2 state is more 6 by using d-orbitals (ii) It reacts with water and form Ca(OH)2.
stable even though the second I.E. value CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + heat
is much higher. This can be explained on Diagonal Relationship between This is an exothermic reaction because heat
the basis of inert gas configuration of + 2 Beryllium and Aluminum is evolved.
compounds. Group IIA Group IIIA (SSC Combined Matric Level(PRE) Exam. 30.07.2006
Flame Colouration Ca(OH)2 is called slaked lime and their
Second period Be B
In Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra, reaction is known as slaking of lime.
When these heated in a flame, the electrons Third period Mg Al (iii) It reacts with graphite at about 3275 K
absorb energy and jump to higher energy Beryllium shows some similarities in to form CaC2.
state. On coming back to the lower energy properties with Aluminum, the second CaO + 3C 3275 K CaC2 + CO
state, they emit light, which we can observe typical element of group IIA of the next Calcium Carbide
in Emission spectra and produces colors higher period. This type of relationship Uses: It is used
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 21.04.2013,)
between diagonally placed elements is (i) In the manufacture of CaC2, Ca(OH)2 etc.
Characteristic color to the flame as follows:
called diagonal relationship. This is due (ii) For lining of surface.
Element Ca Sr Ba Ra to the reason that these two elements (iii) In the manufacture of glass and
Flame Brick Crimson Crimson have the same electro negativity (Be = fertilizers.
Green
colour red red red 1.5, Al = 1.5) and the polarizing power i.e. (iv) As a drying agent.
Some Important Properties in which charge/radius ratio (Be2+ = 2/31 = 0.064 Calcium Hydroxide, (Slaked Lime)
Beryllium differs from the Rest of the and Al3+ = 3/50 = 0.060) of their ions are Ca(OH)2
Members of its Group are as Follows: very similar. (SSC CHSL 08.07.19)
(i) Beryllium is harder than other members Magnesium (Mg) • It is a white amorphous powder, very
of its group. This is due to the fact that (SSC CGL 23.08.21) slightly soluble in water. Its aqueous
maximum metallic bonding is present on Extracted from sea water suspension is called milk of lime.
account of smallest size amongst alkaline Compounds of magnesium • Reaction with chlorine:
earth metal. Magnesium Chloride, MgCI2.6H2O Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
(ii) It has higher melting and boiling points Preparation: (Solid) (Dry) (Bleaching
than the other members due to It occurs as Carnalite, KCl. MgCl2. 6H2O powder)
maximum metallic bonding. Uses: • Reaction with carbon dioxide
(i) It is used for lubricating cotton thread. Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

32
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(Lime water) (Milky) (SSC MTS 20.10.2021) (ii) Anhydrite (anhydrous CaSO4) is used for
Milkines observed on passing carbon Uses: “filling” paper.
dioxide through lime water due to (i) Limestone (CaCO3) is used in manufacture (iii) Calcium salts (calcium sulphate)used as
formation of calcium carbonate. of quick lime, cement, glass and washing fertilizers
(SSC MTS 14.05.2017) soda. Plaster of Paris, CaSO4.1/2H2O
On passing more CO2, milkiness (ii) Marble (CaCO3) is used for construction Preparation:
disappears due to formation of soluble (iii) Precipitated chalk (CaCO3) is used in It is prepared by heating gypsum to 393
bicarbonate paints, distempers, cosmetic powders, K.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2. medicines, tooth paste etc. Heat

(Soluble) (Calcium hydrogen Calcium Sulphate,(Calcium sulphate 2[CaSO4.2H2O]  2[CaSO4.1/2H2O] +

393 K
carbonate) dehydrate) CaSO4
3H2O
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 08.12.2022 Shift-1) (SSC CGL 03.03.20)
The clear solution on heating again gives • It occurs as gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). When (i) It is a white powder.
milkiness due to formation for pure white it is called alabaster and (ii) It absorbs water equal to one third of its
Ca(HCO3)2. CaSO4 (anhydrous) is called anhydrite. weights and sets into hard mass. The
Heat • It is a white solid, sparingly soluble in addition of common salt accelerates the
Ca (HCO3)2   CaCO3 + CO2↑ + H2O rate of setting, while borax or alum
cold water and its solubility decreases
(Milkiness) reduces its setting rate.
with increases of temperature.
In the molecule of calcium bicarbonate
• When gypsum is heated carefully in a CaSO4. H2O CaSO4 + H2O
(Calcium hydrogen carbonate)the number
kiln at 393 K, it loses water and forms the
of hydrogen atom is 2.
(SSC CPO 24.11.2020) hemihydrates, known as plaster of Paris. (anhydrous)
Uses: It is used 393 K  1  or
2[CaSO4.2H2O]  2 CaSO4 . H2O +
 2  (“dead burnt plaster”)
(i) In white washing and as a building
material. 3H2O
(ii) As a disinfectant. Uses: It is used in
(iii) For making bleaching powder, NaOH etc. If heated at 473 K, then anhydrous (i) Surgical bandages.
(iv) As lime water in laboratories. sulphate known as “dead burn” (since it (ii) Casting and molding.
Calcium carbonate : (CaCO3): loses its capacity to set with water) is (iii) Dentistry and in ornamental work.
Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3 occurs in nature obtained. (iv) Making chalks.
as limestone, chalk, marble (CaCO3); When plaster of Paris is mixed with (chalk powder insoluble in water)
dolomite (CaCO3. MgCO3) etc. water and is allowed to stand then it sets (v) Making statues.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 02.12.2022 Shift-2) to a hard solid mass. During setting it NOTE;-
(SSC MTS 13.07.2022) NaOH + CaO is soda lime.
expands a little and is, therefore, used in
Calcium carbonate is formed when the manufacture of moulds, casts of (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 01.12.2022 Shift-4)
carbon dioxide is passed through lime water. statues, toys, black-board chalks and in Limestone is found in association with rocks
Natural pearls contain more than 80% surgical setting of fractured bones. composed of calcium carbonates.
calcium carbonate. Uses:
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-1)
Whitewashed walls appear to be shiny after (i) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is used in the
three to four days due to the formation of manufacture of plaster of Paris, cement
calcium carbonate. of flooring plasters and in agriculture.

P BLOCK ELEMENTS
P Blocks Metals:
Metals + non metals + metaloids
  
Good conductor Bad conductor Semi-conductor

(a) Boron
Use (b) Silicon (used in solar plates)
Mobile Chip
(c) Germanium (Best)
(d) Arsenic
(e) Antimony
Group 13 Elements In Indium 49 [Kr]4d105s25p1 Gallium element of group 13 is a soft
Symbol Element At. Electronic Tl Thallium 81 [Xe]4f145d106s26p1 metal with a low melting point (303K)
No. Configuration (Discovered and is widely used in doping
by William semiconductors and producing solid-
B Boron 5 [He]2s22p1 Crookes) state devices such as transistors.
(SSC CGL (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 08.12.2022 Shift-1)
Al Aluminium 13 [Ne]3s23p1 07.06.19) Aluminum is not a donor atom as
Ga Gallium 31 [Ar]3d104s24p1 semiconductor

33
Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
(SSC CGL 03.09.2016) water (cold or hot). Aluminum reacts It is the trivial name of orthoboric acid
Occurrence readily in air and also with water at (H3BO3)
Aluminum is the most abundant of these ordinary temperature to form protective It is a white crystalline solid
elements while boron and gallium are layer of its oxide which protects it from Uses of boric acid: It is used
rare elements. They are present in the further action. (i) In making enamels.
form of compounds like borax, boric acid, Anomalous Behavior of Boron (ii) In glass industry.
bauxite, cryolite, mica, beryl, etc. Boron shows anomalous behavior due to (iii) As an antiseptic.
Atomic and Ionic Radii its small size, high nuclear charge, high Borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O)
Group 13 elements and their ions are electro negativity and non-availability of Borax is the most common of all the
smaller than group 2 elements. d-electrons. The main points of borates. Borax is found in Tibet, Ceylon
Atomic and ionic radii increase down in difference are California and in Puga valley of Ladakh in
the group. Boron is a typical non-metal whereas India. Boron forms strong bonds with
Melting and Boiling Points other members are metals. oxygen in borates. The basic structural
Boron shows a very high melting point Boron is a bad conductor of electricity unit in borates can have one or more
due to its existence as a giant covalent whereas others are good conductors. boron atoms linked together by
molecule with tetrahedral units. Gallium BORON intervening oxygen atoms in the form of
is a diatomic molecule with low melting Boron is a semi-metal(Metolloid) (behaves chains or rings. Borax contains tetra
point. chemically both as metal and nonmetal) nuclear units [B4O5(OH)4]2-. Its correct
Density closer to non-metallic nature whereas all formula is therefore. Na2[B4O5(OH)4].
Density increases on moving down in the other members are pure metals. 8H2O.
group with Aluminum lying in between (SSC CAPFs SI, CISF ASI & Action of Heat: On heating borax loses
having exceptionally low density. This is Delhi Police SI Exam, 21.06.2015)
water giving anhydrous spongy mass
(SSC MTS 20.07.2022)
due to its unexpectedly large molar which contracts to a colourless glass like
Boron shows the exception to the octet rule.
volume. solid.
Occurrence
Oxidation State At about 1000 K, sodium metaborate and
Boron occurs in nature in combined form.
Boron and Aluminum show +3 oxidation boron oxide (B2O3) are formed.
Chief ore as of boron are:
state. Ga, In and Tl show +3 and +1 1000 K
(i) Boric acid (H3BO3) Na2B4O7   2NaBO2 + B2O3
oxidation states, so stability order is
(ii) Colemanite, [Ca2B6O11.5H2O] On heating borax first swells on account
Ga3+> in3+> Tl3+
(iii) Borax, [Na2B4O7.10H2O] of escape of water and the anhydrous
Ga+< In+< Tl+ due to inert pair effect.
(iv) Boracite, [2Mg3B8O15.MgCl2] product then melts at 1013 K to give
Ionization of Enthalpy
(v) Boronatro calcite, [NaCaB5O9.8H2O] borax glass. Known as borax bead.
The first ionization energies of these
(vi) Borocalcite(CaB4O74H2O) Uses of Borax: It is used
elements are less than the corresponding
(vii) Kernite (Na2B4O7.4H2O) (i) As a flux for soldering and welding
values of s-block elements because p-
Physical properties (ii) In making glazes and enamels
elements are less penetrating and more
(i) It has two allotropes. (iii) In making boro-silicate glass
shielded than s-electrons, i.e. they are
(a) Crystalline boron: Black and chemically (iv) In making washing powders and soaps.
farther from the nucleus and hence held
inert. It is very hard in nature. (This is because H2O2 is released in
less tightly than s-electrons and thus can
(b) Amorphous boron: solution).
be easily removed.
(i) Brown and chemically active. The
Ionization energy of B is highest in group
transition between these forms is (v) Used as a water softener and cleaning
due to smallest size and less shielding
extremely slow process. agent.
effect.
(ii) It is poor conductor of heat and Diborane (B2H6)
Electropositive Character
electricity. Diborane is a colourless gas with foul
Electropositive character increases from
(iii) It has two isotopes; 10 B 5 (20%) and smell.
B to Al.
They are less electropositive than s-block
11
B (80%). Bonding in diborane  bridge bond,
5
elements. banana bond.
Uses of Boron: It is used
Nature of Compounds Reaction with ammonia:
(i) In making filaments which are used in
The tendency of formation of ionic making light composite materials for air- B2H6.2NH3  low B2H6 + 2NH3
temp.
compounds increases from B to Tl. Boron craft.
forms only covalent compounds whereas high (BN)n Boron nitride (Excess)
(ii) As semi-conductor in making electronic 
temp.
Al can form both covalent (e.g. devices.
anhydrous AlCl3) and ionic compounds. high temp.
(iii) In preparation of metal borides which 3B2H6 + 6NH3   2B3N3H6 +
Gallium forms mainly ionic compounds, are used as protective shields and control 12H2
although anhydrous GaCl2 is covalent. rods in nuclear reactors. (Ratio 1 : 2) (Borazine)
Thallium compounds are only ionic. (iv) In steel industry for increasing the The structure of boron nitride is very
Reactivity hardness of steel. similar to graphite (as the sum of valence
Pure boron is almost inert at ordinary Compounds of boron electrons of B and N is equal to that of
temperature. It reacts with oxygen only Boric acid (H3BO3) two C-atoms).
when heated. It does not react with Borazine is known as inorganic benzene.

34
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Aluminium The chemical formula for aluminum state while Pb (+4) is a strong oxidizing
It is a light metal. oxide is Al2O3. Alumina, commonly agent and is reduced to stable +2
It is not a donor atom. known as Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), is an oxidation states.
It is the most abundant metal in the inert, odourless, white amorphous Allotropy
Earth’s crust material often used in industrial Carbon exists in crystalline and
(SSC CAPFs (CPO) SI & ASI,Delhi Police SI Exam. ceramics. amorphous allotropic forms.
20.03.2016) RRB ALP 09.08.2018, 14.08.2018, Silicon exists in two crystalline and
(RRB GROUP-D 06.12.2018
(SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-3)
amorphous forms.
Important ores are: Germanium exists in two crystalline
Alloys of Aluminum
(i) Bauxite; Al2O3.2H2O (metallic mineral) - Aluminium forms.
a. Alnico
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 14.12.2003, 30.09.2007)
Aluminum + Nickel + Cobalt Tin exists in three allotropic forms white
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.07.09.2016
Use: - In making of magnets grey and rhombic tin.Symbol of Tin is Sn.
(ii) Cryolite; Na3AlF6 (Oxygen is absent in
(SSC CHSL 12.10.20)
this ore) b. Duralumin (Dura means Durable)
Nature of Oxides
(SSC CHSL 13.10.20) It is made up of Aluminum + Copper +
All elements of this group form two types
(iii) Feldsper; KAlSi3O8 Magnesium + Manganese
of oxides, monoxide (MO) and dioxide
(iv) Alunite; K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.4Al(OH)3 Use:- Pressure cookers are made up of
(MO2).
(v) Corundum (Al2O3) has two primary duralumin.
All the elements of group 14 except Si
gems that are Ruby and Safire (Varieties of It is used to make Aeroplane parts
form monoxide of general formula MO
natural alluminium oxide)
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.07.2008) i.e., Co, GeO, SnO and PbO.
Group 14 Elements
(SSC CPO 11.12.19) MO Nature
(vi) Potash alum At. Electronic
Symbol Element CO Neutral
K2SO4. Al2 (SO4)3. 24 H2O No. Configuration
GeO Acidic
It is a type of double salt. C Carbon 6 [He]2s22p2
SnO Amphoteric
It is a type of blood coagulant as it keeps Si Silicon 14 [Ne]3s23p2 PbO Amphoteric
in coagulation of blood Ge Germanium 32 [Ar]3d104s24p2 The acidic character of dioxides
Pure Aluminum is poisonous but when Sn Tin 50 [Kr]4d105s25p2 decreases down the group.
its utensils are made, oxide layer of Pb Lead 82 [Xe]4f145d106s26p2 MO2 Nature
Aluminum i.e. Aluminum oxide is formed Occurrence CO2 Weak acidic
over the Utensils which decreases the Carbon occurs both in native state and in GeO2 Very weak acidic
poisonous nature of Aluminum combined state. Silicon is second most SnO2 Amphoteric
Generally Metals are basic in nature and abundant element and occurs in PbO2 Basic
Non- metals are acidic in nature combined state. Germanium and tin Oxides that are not be acidic and not be
Note: . occur in trace amounts in earth’s crust. basic in nature. That means they are not
Ammonal an explosive is a mixture of Lead occurs in the form of galena (PbS) easily react with acid and base are
aluminum powder and ammonium anglesite (PbSO4) and cerussite (PbCO3). known as neutral oxide.
nitrate Atomic and Ionic Radii E.g. carbon monoxide (CO); nitrous oxide
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 09.11.2008) (N2O); nitric oxide (NO), etc
Atomic radii increases gradually on
In silvery paints, the main constituent (SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-1)
moving down in the group due to
present is Aluminum powder H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide)
addition of new energy shell at each
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 11.11.2012) It is poisonous, flammable and corrosive
succeeding element. Due to the
The mass of 4 mole of aluminum atoms is gas.
ineffective shielding of the valence
108 grams. Hydrogen sulfide is a chemical
electrons by the intervening d-and f-
Purification of bauxite (Baeyer’s compound with formula H2S.
electrons the increase in atomic radii
process): The ore is calcined and treated Silver gets corroded due to H2S in air-
from silicon onwards is small.
with hot NaOH solution in which Al2O3 Catenation (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.30.08.2016)

dissolves due to formation of soluble Hydrogen sulfide gas has an odour that
Carbon exhibits the remarkable property
sodium metal-aluminate while Fe2O3, is similar to the odour of rotten eggs.
of catenation i.e., to form chains of
clay etc. remain un-dissolved and hence identical atoms. This tendency of (SSC CHSL 02.08.19)

separated by filtration SO2 (Sulphur dioxide)

catenation decreases down the group as
Al2O3.2H2O + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2O It is naturally produced by volcanic
C > Si > Ge > Sn > Pb
Few crystals of Al(OH)3 are seeded in the eruption.
Metallic Character
filtrate and then agitated when slow It is Toxic gas.
Metallic character in case of group 14
hydrolysis of the aluminate results in the Sulphur dioxide bleaches colouring
elements increases in the order.
formation of precipitate of Al(OH)3 matter by Reduction
C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
NaAlO2 + 2H2O → NaOH + Al(OH)3 Non-metal → Metalloid → Metal (SSC CAPFs SI & CISF ASI Exam. 23.06.2013)
The precipitate is filtered off, washed and Carbon Monoxide
Oxidation State
ignited to get alumina (i) It is a colorless, tasteless gas, inflammable
In case of Sn and Pb, due to inert pair
 gas with a faint odor.
2Al(OH)3 
 Al2O3 + 3H2O effect, Sn (+2) is a strong reducing agent
(SSC CPO 06.09.2009)
and is oxidized to stable +4 oxidation (ii) It is very sparingly soluble in water.
35
Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
(iii) It is extremely poisonous, that is why it Starch (v) Kieselgulir (another form of SiO2) is a fine
is not advised to sleep with burning coal Uses of Carbon Dioxide powder and is used in filtration plants as an
in a closed room. (i) In aerate waters, e.g., in soda water, etc. abrasive and an inert filter.
(iv) It condenses to a liquid, when cooled Carbon dioxide is present under (vi) Silica is also used in making refractory
under pressure. Liquid CO can be pressure in soft drinks bricks for furnace lining sand (finely ground)
solidified at 68 K. (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 09.09.2001) and is used in the extraction of phosphorus
(v) Not servicing the vehicles results from phosphates.
incomplete combustion of (ii) CO2 is used in extinguishing fire. Silicones
In small-sized fire extinguishers, a Silicones are polymeric organo-silicon
carbonaceous matter in engine
solution of sodium bicarbonate reacts compounds containing Si-O-Si linkages.
which generates carbon monoxide causes with H2SO4 to produce CO2. Silicone is a polymer of Dialkyl dichloro
air pollution. This is the most serious air (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 25.11.2007)
silane
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 20.10.2013) (SSC
pollutant causing health hazard. CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.30.08.2016) (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.05.2013)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 12.05.2002) (iii) Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is used The name silicone has been given for
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 06.01.2008)
as refrigerant. similarity of their empirical formula
Uses of Carbon monoxide (SSC CGL 04.06.19 , MTS 19.08.19 , 03.03.20) (R2SiO) with ketones (R2CO).
(i) In the form of producer gas (N2 + CO) and (iv) In the manufacture of sodium carbonate
water gas (H2 + CO), it is used as fuel. Silicones have good thermal, oxidative
and sodium bicarbonate by the Solvay’s
(ii) In the metallurgy of nickel. stability. These are excellent water
process.
(iii) As a reducing agent. repellants and chemically inert
(v) For artificial respiration as a mixture of
(iv) For the manufacture of methyl alcohol substances. Liquid silicones are used as
95% O2 and 5% CO2 under the name
and synthetic petrol excellent lubricants.
carbogen.
Carbon Dioxide Silicon is required for solar energy
Silica
(SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-3) conversion. In solar panals, ICs and
Quartz (SiO2) is a mineral composed of
(i) It is a colourless and odorless gas. optical glass .
silicon (Sodium Silicate) and oxygen atoms in
(ii) It is about 1.5 times heavier than air. (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 16.06.2002
a continuous framework of SiO₄ silicon–
(iii) It is fairly soluble in water. Aerated (SSC CPO Exam. 26.05.2005)
oxygen tetrahedra.
water is a solution of CO2 in water. Silicates
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 16.06.2002
(SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam–2013, 27.04.2014) (SSC CPO (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 08.02.2004) Silicates are metal derivatives of silica
2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-1) (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.30.08.2016 ) acid, H4SiO4 or Si(OH)4.
(iv) The gas can be liquefied by increasing (SSC MTS 14.10.2021) Zeolites
pressure, even at room temperature. Quartz is a piezoelectric material and is used These are hydrated 3-dimensional
(v) Solid CO2, known as dry ice, is used as in crystal oscillators for radios and alumino silicates which are formed by
mobile refrigerant. computers, filters for frequency control and replacing some of silicon atoms by
(SSC MTS 19.08.2019) in electro-metallurgical devices. Aluminum ions Al3+ in some compounds
(vi)The Industry which produces CO2 in The working of the quartz crystal in the of silicon.
maximum amount is Cement Industry watch is based on piezoelectric effect [ZSM-5 (a type of zeolite use convert
(vii) Carbon monoxide is the major harmful (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 26.06.2005)
alcohols directly into gasoline)
gas emitted by automobile vehicle causes air (i) The coloured varieties of quartz are used
Note:
pollution. as gemstones e.g., amethyst, jespar, opal,
Mica which is group of alumino-silicate
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 12.01.2003) etc.
minerals is widely used in making
China, USA, European Union, India is the (ii) Vitreous silica is used for laboratory glass
electrical insulators.
correct sequence of countries in terms of ware and for optical components such as
Lead (Pb)
maximum carbon dioxide emission. lenses and prisms and cells for samples (SSC MTS 09.08.2019)
in UV-visible spectrophotometers. These Old name – Plumbum
(viii) Carbon dioxide is a reducing agent.
uses are based on the following Ore→ Galena (PbS) (most important ore
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 30.03.2008
properties of vitreous silica. of lead)
Chemical properties
(a) It has low co-efficient of expansion. (SSC (South Zone) Investigator Exam. 12.09.2010)
(i) It turns lime water to milky due to the
formation of insoluble calcium carbonate. (b) It is quite resistant to shock. (SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO & LDC Exam.
28.11.2010)
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3↓ + H2O (c) It transparent to visible and U.V. light.
(SSC CHSL 02.07.19)
Lime water (Milky) (iii) Silica gel is used as a drying agent, a
Less reactive so occurs as in Free State.
(ii) Carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants in catalyst, in chromatography. Silica gel is
amorphous and very porous. TEL → Tetra
Silica Ethyl
gel is alead + Petrol
- drying agent→ leaded
the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll petrol
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.30.08.2016)
(the green coloring material in plant TEL was added in petrol to save engine by
(iv) Opal (It is a mineral) is used as a white
leaves) to produce sugar, starch., this
or pearl like gem-stone. It is hard amorphous the knocking effects of petrol elements
process of CO2 fixation by plants is called
silica gel. present inside the petrol. So, it is used as an
photosynthesis.
Note: gem stone are Topaz(It is a silicate of Anti-knocking agent.
6CO2 + 6H2O  hv  C6H12O6 + (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010, 08.07.2012)
Chlorophyl fluorine and aluminum),Opal, Pearl
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 05.06.2005) But now-a-days, unleaded petrol is used
6O2 (SSC CGL 16.08.2021) because lead reaches in atmosphere affects
Sugar brain of Humans.
xCO2 + xH2O → (C6H10O6)x + xO2

36
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This metal pollutes the air of a city having (ii) Liquid N2 is used to preserve biological
Phosphorus P 15 [Ne] 3s23p3
large number of automobiles can cause materials, in freezing food article.
cancer (iii) It is used in cryosurgery.
As
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.02.2000) (SSC CPO [Ar] (iv) It is used in making gas thermometers
Arsenic 33
(SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO 23.11.2 3d104s24p3 and electric bulbs.
& LDC Exam. 28.11.2010) 0) (v) It is used to provide inert atmosphere in
(SSC CGL 26.06.2011)
A disease that occurs due to presence of lead Antimony metallurgical operations.
in air → Plumbism was Stibium [Kr] (vi) It is used as diluents for O2 and thus
(Sb) Sb 51 makes combustion in air less vigorous.
It affects Brain i.e. a type of neurological 4d105s25p3
Disorder Haber’s Process for Manufacture of
Note: Ammonia
[Xe] This process is based upon the following
Maggi and chocolates contain lead Bismuth Bi 83
(SSC CPO S.I.Exam. 12.12.2010
4f145d106s26p3 reaction,
But maggi also contains MSG (Mono sodium 200 atm
N2 + 3H2 
 2NH3
Glutamate) or Azinomotto where Azinomoto 673 K , Fe , Mo
Anomalous behaviour of Nitrogen
is a taste Enhancer The main points of difference are: Ammonia (NH3) can also be obtained
Natural MSG occurs in tomato & Mushroom Nitrogen is a gas while other members are from coal. When coal is distilled for the
Alloys of lead solids. manufacture of coal gas or coke,
1. Solder = lead + Tin Nitrogen exists as diatomic molecule ammonia is recovered by scrubbing the
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam.
gases with water. The resulting solution,
12.05.2002)    
(Pb) + (Sn)  N  N  while other elements except Bismith known as ammoniac liquor, after being
  separated from coal tar is mixed with
Fuse wire form tetra-atomic molecules such as P4, As4
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 11.11.2012) lime to produce ammonia.
and Sb4.
It requires 400 – 500°C to melt
The catenation property is more pronounced
2. Type metal
in nitrogen. Chains containing up to eight
Used in printing press so we are advised not
nitrogen atoms are known but in other
to eat newspaper wrapped food.
elements catenation is limited to two atoms
It is made up of lead + Tin + Antimony Ammonia (NH3)
only. (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-2)
{Pb+Sn + Sb}
Physical Properties
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 03.09.2006, 27.05.2012) Nitrogen (N2) (i) It is a pungent smelling gas.
Type metal does not expand on going from The major constituent of air is nitrogen (ii) It is highly soluble in water.
liquid state to solid state (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 25.11.2007) (iii)It is lighter than air.
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 09.09.2001) (SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO &
(iv)It turns red litmus into blue showing its
Among lead, zinc, silver and tin, tin has the LDC Exam. 27.11.2010)
(SSC MTS (Non-Tech.) Staff Exam. 23.02.2014,) basic nature (in aqueous solution).
lowest melting point. (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 04.12.2011)
Nitrogen in water is commonly found in the
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 03.09.2006) (SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO & PA/SA Exam, 06.12.2015)
form of Nitrate
(SSC CGL 06.0320) (v) It can be readily liquefied under
Carborundum is another name of Silicon (SSC CAPFs SI, CISF ASI & Delhi
pressure.
Police SI Exam, 21.06.2015
carbide (vi) Ammonia molecule is trigonal pyramidal
The highest volume of gases in lower
(SSC CHSL 10+2 DEO & LDC Exam. 16.11.2014)
atmosphere is comprised of nitrogen. with nitrogen atom at the apex. It has
Group 15 Elements (Nitrogen Family- three bond pair and one lone pair.
Nitrogen gas is used in electric bulb.
Pnicogens) (SSC MTS 13.10.2021)
Uses of Ammonia
Group 15 contains 5-elements, namely Physical properties (i) Liquid ammonia is used as a non-
nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and (i) It is a colourless, odorless and tasteless aqueous solvent.
Bismuth. These elements (except gas. (ii) Ammonia is used in the manufacture of
phosphorus) do not occur very abundantly in (ii) It is non-poisonous gas; it is slightly nitric acid (Ostwalds’s process).
nature. heavier than air. Conversion of ammonia to nitrites is
These elements contain five electrons in the (iii) It is insoluble in water. known as nitrification.
valence shell-two in the s-orbital and three 14
(iii) Liquid ammonia is used as a refrigerant.
(iv) It has two isotopes 7 N and 15
7 N. The ratio by mass of nitrogen and
in p-orbital. Their valence shell electronic
configuration is ns2, npx1, npy1, npz1 or ns2np3. (v) Nitrogen forms a variety of compounds in hydrogen in ammonia is 14 : 3.
Where, n = 2 to 6. All elements except all oxidation states ranging from–3 to + 5 (SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-1)

Bismuth show Allotropy

(SSC Constable (GD) & Nitric Acid (HNO3)
Rifleman (GD) Exam. 22.04.1912) Preparation of Nitric Acid is done by
Electronic Configuration (vi) Nitrogen can absorbed both in cation Ostwald Process
Atomic Electronic and anion form It has corrosive actions on skin and
Element Symbol
number configuration (SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam. (2013) causes painful yellow blisters.
Uses of Dinitrogen (N2) Commercial nitric acid is coloured because it
Nitrogen N 7 [He] 2s22p3
(i) It is used as an inert gas in steel industry. contains dissolved Nitrogen dioxide

37
Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.02.2000) There are three principal allotropic with knife touch
Nitric acid does not react with Gold forms of phosphorus. These are white Smell Garlic smell Odorless
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.31.08.2016) phosphorus, red phosphorus and black Uses of Phosphorus
The chemical formula of ammonium phosphorus (i) In match industry.
hydroxide(window cleaner) is NH4OH. White Phosphorus or yellow (ii) White phosphorus is used as rat poison.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-4) This is the most reactive phosphorous.
Phosphorous
(SSC MTS. 13.08.2019,08.07.22)
It is a soft waxy solid (m. pt. 440C) with (iii) In preparation of other phosphatic
The chemical formula for ammonium
garlic smell. compounds.
phosphate. (NH4)3PO4
More reactive form of phosphorous so (iv) Radioactive phosphorus is used in
Use of Nitric Acid
always kept under water. treatment of cancer.
(i) It is used for making explosives like TNT
(SSC CISF ASI 29.08.2010) Phosphine (PH3)
(tri nitro toluene), nitroglycerine organic (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.31.08.2016
Colourless gas having smell of garlic or
dyes. It is extremely poisonous in nature. rotten fish, slightly soluble in water and
(ii) It is used in pickling of steel (i.e. to It turns yellowish on exposure to light. slightly heavier than air.
remove oxide layer) For this reason, it is also called yellow It is used in preparing Holme’s signals
(iii) It is used for etching of metals. phosphorus. for the ships to know about the position
(iv) It is used as an oxidizer in rocket fuels. It undergoes spontaneous combustion in of rocks in the sea.
(v) It is used for the purification of gold and air and produces greenish glow ( Phosphine gas is produced naturally
silver phosphorescence or chemiluminescence).
(SSC CGl 18.08.21) through the anaerobic decay of
(because its ignition temperature is phosphorus-containing organic
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2):
very low) and that’s why preserved in materials.
When conc. H2SO4 is added to dry KNO3,
water. (SSC CGL 24.08.2021)
brown fumes are evolved. These fumes are (SSC CISF ASI Exam. 29.08.2010)
Phosphorus trichloride (PCI3)
due to NO2 (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.01.09.2016
Uses of PCl3: As a chlorinating agent.
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 04.02.2007) Persons working with phosphorus
Uses of PCl5 : It is used as chlorinating
Supersonic aircrafts depletes the develop a disease in which the jaw bones
agent.
stratosphere / ozone layer . decay. This disease is known as phossy
Group 16 Elements (Oxygen Family-
(SSC CGL01.07.2012) jaw.
CHALCOGENS)
Uses of Oxides of Nitrogen Red phosphorus
240250/573K 
The elements oxygen, sulphur, selenium,
(i) Nitrous oxide is uncreative and is used as White phosphorus 

 Inert atomsphere 

tellurium and polonium constitute group
anesthetic in minor dental surgery. 

Red phosphorus 16 of periodic table.

(ii) Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are
It is a violet red powder and non- Selenium is not a metal.
used in manufacture of HNO3 and nitrate (SSC MTS 06.08.19)
fertilizers. poisonous in nature.
Selenium is not a Halogen element.
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen are emitted during It is used in match industry(safety (SSC CHSL 15.04.21)
burning of oil and coal in thermal power matches) Electronic configuration: Their valence
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) shell electronic configuration is ns2np4
stations and exhaust fumes of vehicles.
Exam. 12.05.2002)
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen cause acid rain and when n = 2 to 6.
(the rubbing surface of a matchbox has
photo chemical smog Element Symbol Atomic Electronic
powdered glass and a little red
(v) NO (Nitrous Oxide), inspite of its reactive Oxygen O 8 [He] 2s22p4
phosphorus) Sulphur S 16 [Ne]3s23p4
and harmful nature occurs in biological
and making smoke bombs. Selenium Se 34 [Ar]3d104s24p4
system in traces. It acts as neuro
Black phosphorus Tellurium Te 52 [kr]4d105s25p4
transmitter and plays a significant rule in
It is of two types: Polonium Po 84 [Xe]4f145d106s26p4
control of blood pressure by relaxing
1.  black phosphorus (prepared from Occurrence and abundance: First four
blood vessels. It provides protection
red phosphorus by heating it at 803K elements are known as chalcogens (ore
from bacterial infections.
temperature) forming), since a large number of ores
And important causing factor for
2.  black phosphorus (prepared from are either oxides or sulphides.
greenhouse effect
(SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam, 30.08.2015)
white phosphorus at 473K temperature) Oxygen is the most abundant element in the
Phosphorus It is a good conductor of electricity. earth crust.
Phosphorus is the most abundant It has metallic luster. (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004,14.12.2008) .
(SSC CAPFs SI, CISF ASI &
element of group 15 in earth’s crust. It is It is most stable and inactive form of
DelhiPolice SI Exam, 21.06.2015)
extremely reactive hence occurs only in phosphorus. And also it is found in maximum percentage
the combined state generally in the form It has a layer type polymeric structure. in the human body
of phosphates in rocks and in soil. Physical Properties (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 14.12.2003)
Phosphorus is also found in living Property White Red Black It exists in Free State in the atmosphere as O2
phosphorus phosphorus phosphorus makes up to 21% by volume of the
organisms. It is an essential constituent
Color White, but Dark red Black atmosphere.
of DNA, RNA, bones, teeth, blood and
turns yellow
nervous system. The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere
on exposure
Allotropic Forms of Phosphorus remains relatively constant because it is
State Waxy solid, Brittle Crystalline
can be cut powder with greasy given off by Plants

38
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(SSC CAPFs SI, CISF ASI & (SSC CHSL 07.03.2018) Note: The U.V. rays are harmful to the eyes.
Delhi Police SI Exam, 21.06.2015) Oxidation state: Oxygen exhibits – 2 These rays are utilized to convert O2 to O3. So
In combined state it exists as water, oxides, oxidation oxygen except in F2O (+2) and ozone acts as a screen.
carbonates, etc. Sulphur is found in Sulphur H2O2 (–1) Other elements show oxidation Ozone (O3): (3 oxygen atom in a molecule of
beds and as sulphides of metals. Se and Te states of +2, +4 and +6 due to presence of ozone)
are less abundant. Polonium is radioactive. vacant d-orbitals. (SSC 12.10.21)
Atomic and ionic radii: Atomic and Oxygen has (+1) oxidation number only Allotrope of oxygen (O2)
ionic radii increase as we move down the in OF2 (SSC CPO 06.09.2009)

group due to increase in the number of Allotropy: All the elements of this group Ozone – O3 secondary pollutant
energy shells. show allotropy. Oxygen exists in two (SSC MTS 21.08.19)
Ionization Energy: The ionization non-metallic forms i.e., O2 and O3. The presence of ozone in the stratosphere is
energies of the elements of oxygen family Sulphur provides a very good example of responsible for checking the penetration of
are less than those of nitrogen family. elements that exhibits allotropy. ultra-violet rays to the earth.
This is due to the reason that nitrogen Oxygen (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)Exam. 21.05.2000)
(SSC SO. 09.09.2001)
family has exactly half-filled orbitals and Physical Properties
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
thus configuration is stable. As we move (i) It is a colourless, odorless and tasteless (SSC (10+2) Level DEO & LCD Exam. 04.12.2011,
down the group from oxygen to gas. However liquid oxygen has a pale 11.12.2011)
polonium, the ionization energy colour. (FCI Assistant Grade-III Exam. - I, 5.02.2012)
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.30.08.2016
decreases due to increase in atomic size. (SSC Delhi police SI Exam 19.08.2012)
CFC contains chlorine so it depletes Ozone
Melting and Boiling Points: The melting
layer.
and boiling points increase with the (ii) It is slightly heavier than air. (SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) Exam. 25.09.2005)
increase in atomic numbers because of (iii) It is slightly soluble in water. Solubility is (SSC GL Tier-I Exam.19.10.2014)
the increase in magnitude of the vander ~ 30 cm3 at 293 K. (SSC MTS 07.08.19)
(CGL 06.06.19)
Waals forces. (iv) Dioxygen (O2) is paramagnetic due to
Preparation of ozone
Electro negativity: Elements of group presence of two unpaired electrons.
Ozone is prepared by passing silent
16 are more electronegative than (v) Due to high bond dissociation energy
electric discharge through pure and dry
corresponding elements of group 15due (493.4 kJ mol-1), it is inert
oxygen. 10-15% oxygen is converted to
to their smaller atomic size.  •• • • ••  ozone.
Electron affinity: The elements of this  • O=O•  although it is the second most
  Electric discharge
family have high electron affinity. The 3O2 (g)  2O3(g); ΔH
value decreases from sulphur to electronegative element. = + 284.5 kJ mol-1
polonium. Oxygen turns into liquid at the lowest The apparatus used is called Siemen's
Note: Oxygen has lower electron affinity temperature. Ozoniser.
than sulphur. This is attributed to the Uses of oxygen Uses of Ozone
small size of oxygen atom so its electron (i) It is required for combustion. (i) Bleaching ivory, delicate fabrics, etc.
cloud is distributed over a small region of (ii) It is used for roasting of sulphide ores. (ii) As germicide and disinfectant, for
space and therefore, it repels the (iii) It is used in oxy-hydrogen and oxy- sterilizing water.
incoming electron. acetylene flames for cutting and welding (iii) Manufacture of KMnO4 and artificial silk.
Metallic Character: They have very less metals. Sulphur
metallic character due to high ionisation (iv) It is used in the manufacture of steel for Sulphur is the 16th most abundant
energy. Their metallic character removal of impurities by oxidation. element and constitutes 0.034% by
increases down the group from oxygen to (v) Mixed with helium, it is used for artificial weight of earth’s crust.
polonium because of decrease in respiration by deep sea divers. It occurs in combined form as sulphite
ionization energy. Oxygen and sulphur (vi) Liquid oxygen is used as fuel for rockets ores and sulphate ores.
are typical non-metals, Selenium and and missiles. Native Sulphur can be obtained from
tellurium are metalloids and polonium is (vii) A mixture of carbon dust and liquid volcanic sources in many places. It can be
radioactive metal. oxygen is used as a substitute for present as H2S in natural gas and crude
dynamite in coal mining. oil and organic Sulphur compounds in tar
Occurrence of Ozone: A very small amoun sands, oil shale and coal. Frisch process is
tof ozone is present in the upper layer of used to obtain Sulphur. Sulphur shows
atmosphere (about 20 km above sea level in allotropy in the liquid state.
stratosphere) Allotropes of Sulphur
(SSC MTS (Non-Technical) Staff Exam. 20.02.2011 ,
07.08.19)
(a) Plastic sulphur or -sulphur: It can be
which is produced by the exposure of obtained by suddenly chilling boiling
Multiple bonding: Oxygen exists as a atmospheric oxygen to U.V. rays of sun. sulphur by pouring it into cold water. It
diatomic molecule due to formation of (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002) forms a soft rubber like mass, called
p-p bonds. Other molecules are linked (SSC FCI Assistant Grade-III Exam. 11.11.2012 )(CGL plastic sulphur. Its specific gravity is 1.95
06.03.20)
by single bonds and form polyatomic and it is not soluble in CS2. When allowed
3O2 
U.V
 2O3 to stand, it slowly hardens and changes
molecules. S8 and Se8 have puckered ring
structure. into rhombic sulphur.

39
 Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
(b) Milk of sulphur: It can be obtained by Colourless matter + [O] → Coloured Fluorine F 9 [He] 2s22p5
adding a solution of calcium matter. Thus, bleaching by sulphur Chlorine CI 17 [Ne] 3s23p5
pentasulphite to HCl. dioxide is a temporary process. [Ar]
(c) Colloidal sulphur: It is obtained by Uses of SO2 Bromine Br 35
3d104s24p5
passing H2S gas through a solution of SO2 (i) As a disinfectant and fumigant. [kr]
in water. (ii) For bleaching delicate articles. Iodine I 53
4d105s25p5
SO2 + H2S → 2H2O + 3S (iii) As an antichlor. [Xe]
(Colloidal) Sulphuric Acid, (H2SO4) Astatine At 85
4f145d106s26p5
Uses of Sulphur It is the most important inorganic oxoacid of Tennessee New element
(i) In powdered form as a fungicide and Sulphur (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-2)
insecticide. (SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam. The most reactive among the halogens is-
(ii) For fumigation during epidemic days, (2013 20.07.2014) Fluorine
houses are fumigated by burning and is known from ancient time. It is called
(SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO & LDC Exam.
Sulphur. “oil of vitriol” because in early days it was 28.11.2010)
(iii) For preparation of sulpha drugs and skin prepared from green vitriol and had an oily First element of group- 17 in the modern
ointments used to cure skin diseases.
appearance. Because of its large applications periodic table is Fluorine is being the most
(iv) In the manufacture of matches,
in industries it is also known as “King of reactive element.
fireworks (RRB GROUP-D 23.10.2018, SSC CGL Pre. 2022,
chemicals.”
(Green colour in it due to chloride salt of 05.12.2022 Shift-1)
On the commercial scale it prepared by Astatine is the rarest element.
barium)
Contact Process. (SSC CHSL 26.10.2020)
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.07.2008 , CGL 20.08.21)
(SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-2)
Properties Halogens occur in combined state due to
(SSC CHSL 13.04.21) (i) It is a colourless syrup liquid and is reactive nature. Astatine is radioactive
(SSC MTS.27.10.2021). soluble in water. element with a very short life.
(v) In vulcanization of rubber (sulphur (ii) The most suitable vessel for storing Atomic and ionic radii: The halogens have
content is 3-5%) concentrated sulphuric acid is- Glass the smallest atomic radii in their respective
(SSC GL Tier-I Exam. 19.10.2014) vessel periods due to maximum effective nuclear
Sulphur dioxide, SO2 (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004) charge. Atomic radii increase down the
It contains S in +4 oxidation state. Uses of H2SO4 group.
It is a colourless, toxic gas with a pungent (i) In refining of petroleum Ionization energies: The ionization
and suffocating odor. It is heavier than air. (ii) In the manufacture of artificial silk (Not energies of halogens are very high. I.e.
a natural fibre) or rayon decreases from fluorine to iodine due to
Major gaseous pollutant of the thermal
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-1) increase in size.
power station (iii) In lead storage batteries. Melting and boiling point: The melting and
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 29.03.2009)
(SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax & Central Excise Exam. boiling points of halogens increase with the
Causes the worst air pollution. 12.11.2006,. 25.11.2007) increase in atomic number as we go down
(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam.
(iv) In the manufacture of dyes, drugs and the group.
27.05.2012)
detergents. Electron affinities: All these have maximum
Chemical Properties (v) In the manufacture of explosives like electron affinities in their respective periods.
(i) Thermal decomposition: Sulphur nitroglycerine, T.N.B. and T.N.T. This is due to the fact that the atoms of these
dioxide decomposes when heated to (vi) In the manufacture of fertilizers like elements have only one electron less than
about 12000C to Sulphur trioxide and superphosphate of lime, ammonium the stable gas (ns2np6) configurations.
Sulphur. sulphate, etc. Therefore, they have maximum tendency to
3SO2 → 2SO3 + S accept an additional electron. In general,
However, when subjected to electric Group 17 Elements (Halogens Family) electron affinity decreases from top to
discharge, it decomposes to sulphur (RRB GROUP-D 11.10.2018 & bottom in a group. This is due to the fact that
monoxide and oxygen. (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-2)
the effect of increase in atomic size is much
Electric  2SO + O2
2SO2  Group 17 of periodic table contains more than the effect of increase in nuclear
Discharge fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and charge and thus the additional electron feels
(ii) Combustibility: The gas is non- astatine, collectively known as the less attraction by the large atom.
combustible and does not support halogens mean salt producing. Halogens Consequently, electron affinity decreases.
combustion. are most reactive non-metals, and Fluorine has unexpectedly low electron
(i) Bleaching action: In the presence of placed in right side of periodic table. affinity than chlorine. Therefore, chlorine has
moisture, sulphur dioxide acts as a (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 05.12.2022 Shift-1)
the highest electron affinity in this group.
Disproportionation reactions are
bleaching agent The lower electron affinity of fluorine as
household bleaching agents using compared to chlorine is due to very small
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
phosphorous, Sulphur and chlorine size of the fluorine and thus, the incoming
(i) SO2 + 2H2O → H2SO4 + 2H
Nascent hydrogen formed. electron feels repulsion due to high charge
The nascent hydrogen bleaches vegetable (SSC CHSL 09.08.21) density at F. Therefore its electron affinity is
colouring matter to colourless matter. Halogens does not have oxygen. small.
Colouring matter + [H] → Colourless (SSC MTS 20.08.2019) Thus, electron affinity among halogens
matter Electronic configuration: The elements varies as:
On exposing the bleached article to air, have electronic configuration ns2np5 F < Cl > Br > I
the reverse process takes place, i.e. when n = 2 – 7 Colour: All the halogens are colourful.
colour is restored due to the atmospheric Halogens have seven electrons in their Colour of different halogens due to fact that
oxygen. outermost shells. their molecule absorb radiations from visible
(SSC CGL 16.08.21) light which results in excitation of outer
Atomic Electronic electron to higher energy level.
Element Symbol
Number Configuration
40
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Fluorine  pale yellow (small size  require (iii)For manufacture of chloroform, Neon
large excitation energy) bleaching powder, bromine, D.D.T., synthetic (SSC MTS
Ne 10 [He] 2s22p6
plastics and rubber. 21.07.22
Chlorine  greenish yellow
)
Bromine  red brown colour (vi) It is used to treat/purify water.
(SSC MTS 13.10.2021) Argon Ar 18 [Ne] 3s23p6
Iodine  dark violet (large size  require
small excitation energy) Note: [Ar]
Krypton Kr 36
Pseudohalids: Some of the monovalent ions the amount of chlorine available in water 3d104s24p6
made of electronegative atoms and after disinfection is called as-residual [kr]
Xenon Xe 54
possessing properties similar to halide ions 4d105s25p6
chlorine
are known which are called pseudo halide [Xe]
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 14.12.2008) Radon Rn 86
ions. The corresponding dimmers having no 4f145d106s26p6
Chlorine is a micro-element. Oganesson
charge on these pseudo halide ions are called Newly
pseudo halogens. (c) Bromine: It is used last (118)
(i) As an oxidizing agent in organic discovered
Pseudohalide ions Pseudo halogens element
Cyanide ion (CN-) (CN)2cyanogens synthesis. Hydrogen is not a noble gas.
Thiocyanate ion (SCN-) (SCN)2 (ii) As a constituent of tear gas. (SSC CPO 11.12.2019)

thiocyanogen (iii) For manufacture of ethylene dibromide Their general electronic configuration is
Cyanate ion (OCN-) (OCN)2oxycyanogen which is used to increase the efficiency ns2np6. They have fully filled stable
Occurrence of Halogens of TEL, an antiknock agent. configuration due to which they do not
(i) Fluorine: It occurs mainly as fluorspar, (iv) For the manufacture of AgBr which is participate in chemical reactions under
CaF2; used in photography. normal conditions. Due to their chemically
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 12.05.2002) un-reactive nature they are also called inert
Cryolite, Na3 AlF6; fluoraptite, 3Ca(PO4)2. (SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) Exam. 30.09.2007’
CaF2; gases.
(V) Also it is used in making sensitive (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.01.09.2016
(ii) Chlorine: It mainly occurs as sodium
emulsion on photographic plate. Uses of Noble Gases
chloride in the form of sea salt or rock
Helium: It is used
salt and also in carnallite
(v) In the manufacture of dyes, drugs and (i) For filling air ships and in gas balloons
(iii)Bromine: It occurs in sea water as
bromide salt but to a much smaller disinfectants. instead of hydrogen gas because it Is non-
extent as compared with sodium (d) Iodine: It is used combustible and light in weight.
chloride. It is also present in carnalite (i) In the manufacture of dyes, drugs and (SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit Exam. 26.11.2006)
(iv) Iodine: It is mainly recovered from Chile (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.07.2008)
iodoform.(used as an antiseptic)
(SSC CPO 28.08.2011)
salt peter and ashes of sea weeds (chief (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 26.06.2011) (ii) helium-oxygen mixture is used to assist
source for iodine) breathing in asthma.
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 24.10.1999) (ii) As medicines in the form of tincture of (iii) helium-oxygen mixture is used by deep
(SSC DEO Exam. 31.08.2008)
iodine or solution of potassium iodide sea divers in preference to nitrogen-
F  Most electro-negative element as it oxygen mixture.
(2% alcoholic solution of Iodine) and
gains e– most rapidly so, F– is (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 04.12.2011)
obtained. Iodex(Iodex, a pain relief balm, has the
(SSC CGL 19.05.2013, 27.08.2016)
Hydrogen + halogen  Acidic smell of Methyl salicylate)
(iv) Liquid helium is used as a cryogenic fluid
(SSC Tax Assistant 12.11.2006)
Most acidic: to attain low temperature.
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.02.09.2016)
HI > HBr > HCl > HF (v) Helium gas is used as a heat transfer
Uses of Halogens (iii) Radioactive iodine is used in the
detection and treatment of goiter agent in gas cooled atomic reactors of its
(a) Fluorine: It is used (enlargement of thyroid gland) high thermal conductivity and inert
(i) In making dichlorodifluoromethane (iv) To test the presence of starch nature.
(CF2Cl2) which is used in air- (vi) In metallurgy to maintain an inert
(v) To test presence of unsaturated fat atmosphere.
conditioning plants and refrigerators (vii) As a filling agent for gas thermometers
(SSC MTS Staff Exam. 24.03.2013,)
under the industrial name “Freon”. used for low temperature.
(vi) As an antiseptic (blue chemical) on
(SSC CHSL 21.10.20) In addition to hydrogen, the other
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 13.05.2001) wounds.
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 26.06.2011) abundant element present on Sun’s
While iodized salt is beneficial for
(ii) In making Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) surface is Helium
thyroid function
which is used in high voltage (SSC MTS (Non-Technical) Staff Exam. 20.02.2011)
(SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax & Central Excise Exam.
insulations.
12.11.2006)
(iii) In making stannous fluoride (SnF2) Neon:
which is used in making tooth pastes to Group 18 Elements (Noble Gases)
(RRB GROUP-D 24.10.2018) Neon is a monoatomic gas.
prevent decay of teeth. In 1898, William Ramsay with Morris W.
Group 18 consists of helium, neon, argon,
(iv) In making uranium hexafluoride (UF6) Travers chemist discovered neon by
krypton, xenon and radon. All the noble
which is used in separation of uranium cooling a sample of air to a liquid state,
gases have 8 electrons in their valence
isotopes. heating the liquid and capturing gases
shell Except Helium which has 2
(v) In making polymer of upon boiling.
electrons.
tetrafluoroethylene which is used as (SSC Stenographer 2022, 18.11.2022 Shift-1)
Among sodium, neon, potassium and
plastic under the name Teflon.
Hydrogen , neon comes first in the It is used
Fluorine does not form oxyacid
periodic table of elements. (i) In “Neon Signs” giving intense scarlet
(b) Chlorine: It is used (SSC CPO 12.12.19)
(I) As a bleaching agent in paper and textile Atomic Electronic light. These are used for advertisement
industry. Element Symbol purposes.
number configuration
(ii) For extraction of metals like gold and (SSC Combined Matric Level(PRE) Exam.30.07.2006)
Helium He 2 1s2
platinum.
41
Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
The colour in the tube is varied by mixing As it is the only inert gas which forms
Neon with other gases e.g. compounds
Gas in tube Colour of Colour of (SSC Stenographer (Grade 'C' & 'D')
glass tube light product Exam. 09.01.2011)
(a) Neon Colourless Orange red It reacts with oxygen and Fluorine so,
(b) Neon Light red Deep red stranger gas.
(c) Ne + Ar + Colourless Light blue (iv) Xenon is used for anesthesia.
Hg Vapours (SSC MTS 02.08.2019)
(d) Ne + Ar + Green Light green Radon (Heaviest gas): It is used
Hg Vapours (i) In the treatment in radiotherapy of
(e) Ne + Ar + Purple Dark blue cancer.
Hg Vapours (SSC SAS Exam. 26.06.2010)
(ii) In “Neon Lamps” (giving intense red (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.06.2011)
light), which are used for marking signals (ii) In radioactive research work.
at night for aero planes and marine
services. (iii) Radioactive gas (Releases , , )
(iii) Neon gas gives an orange glow when (iv) Heaviest Gas
electricity is passed through it. Not present in atmosphere, so stays
Fluorescent tube lights (High shine) below atmosphere only or inside earth's
(SSC CHSL 08.07.2019) crust.
(iii) In safely devices for protecting electrical Formed on breaking of Uranium
equipment like voltmeters, relays, It can cause lung cancer if present in
rectifiers, etc. direct contact.
(iv) In fog lights When volcano erupts and earth quake
(vi) When it is used with Krypton, it gives occurs. Radon is ejected out from
very shiny effect so used highly shines earth's inner core.
advertisement boards. Radon is formed in the alpha decay of
(vii)Neon chemical element from group 18 of Radium.
the modern periodic table, whose atomic Properties of Inert Gases
number is 10, contains a mixture of three All of them are colourless, odourless,
stable isotopes commonly used to make monoatomic gases.
signal and gas lasers and as a refrigerant. They possess very low m.p. and b.p.
(SSC Stenographer 2022, 17.11.2022 Shift-2) because the only forces between atoms
Neon gas is used as beacon light of noble gases are weak Van der Waals
Argon: forces.
Third largest and most abundant inert gas in They cannot be easily liquefied because
the atmosphere of presence of weak Vander Waals
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 06.01.2008) forces operating between their atoms.
All of these liquefy only at very low
It is used temperatures.
(FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012) He (2)  is S-orbital exceptional as
(i) Along with oxygen or nitrogen for arc outer most orbital
welding. Because of its low reactivity Ne (10) Ar (18) Kr (36)
with the metal Xenon (54) Radon (86)
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.01.09.2016)
(ii) In gas chromatography.
(iii) Filled in normal bulbs and has lowest
electron enthalpy.
(FCI Assistant Grade-III Exam. 5.02.2012)
(SSC CGL 09.03.20)

(iv) Mercury vapor and argon together are

filled in CFL's or fluorescent tubes.
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 12.01.2003)
(SSC CGL 11.05.2003)
(v) CFL(Compact Fluorescent lamp)
Krypton: It is used
(i) In filling in candescent metal filament
electric bulbs.
(ii) In discharge tubes.
(iii) Used in airport Runway lights
(iv) Used in advertisements Boards, along
with Neon.
Xenon: (stranger gas) It is used
(i) In filling in candescent metal filament
electric bulbs.
(ii) In electronic flash tubes for high speed
photography
(iii) In car headlights

42
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7. THE D-AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS

D BLOCK ELEMENTS
These are also called Transition elements as they lie in between s and p block elements and they show transitional behavior from s block to p
block elements.
Elements whose last two shells are incomplete are called transition elements.
(RRB ALP & TEC. 10.08.2018)

43
Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
Zn(zinc), Cd(cadmium) and Hg(mercury) called diamagnetic substances. They do not (RRB GROUP-D 18.09.2018 & 25.09.2018,
RRB JE 31.05.2019
may be treated with transition elements have any unpaired electrons e.g. Zn, Cd, Hg. SSC CHSL 13.10.2020)
though they do not fit in the above definition. Para magnetism: It is the property of a (SSC MTS 26.10.2021)
However they are quite similar to other substance by virtue of which it is attracted Ore : - Greenockite
transition elements in their properties. into a magnetic field when kept into it. (SSC CHSL 13.10.20)
'Z' represents Atomic number and 'A' (unpaired electron) Melting point of Hg = -38.83° C
represents mass number Ferromagnetism: It is a special type of Room Temperature = 25 – 27°C
Electronic Configuration paramagnetic in which permanent magnetic Human body Temperature=37°C (98.6°F)
(RRB NTPC 23.02.2021)
The general electronic configuration is (n - moment is acquired by substance. Such
So, at room temperature, Mercury is
1)d1-10 ns1-2 substance have a large number of unpaired
obtained in liquid state so, it is a liquid
Transition Series: The transition elements electrons i.e. Fe.
metal
consist of three complete rows of ten Formations of Alloys
(SSC Stenographer (Grade 'C' & 'D')
elements. These rows are called first, second, Alloys are homogeneous mixture of two or Exam. 26.09.2010)
third and transition, series which involve the more metals or a metal and a non-metal. Mercury has least melting point.
filling of 3d, 4d and 5d-orbitals respectively. Since transition elements have nearly same Uses of mercury
These series are called Transition Series. atomic size they can easily take up position Dental filling in case of RCT (Root Canal
First transition series (3d-series) includes of one another in crystals to form alloys. eg. Treatment)
elements from Scandium (Z (atomic number) Brass (Cu + Zn), bronze (Cu + Sn), alnico (Al It is mixed with gold, silver or tin to form
= 21) to Zinc (Z = 30). + Ni + Co), etc. an amalgam and this amalgam is filled in
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.05.2013) Properties of D- Block Elements tooth
Second transition series: (4d-series) Copper Mercury is a base metal of amalgam alloy
includes elements from Yttrium (Z = 39) to Ores of copper Any metal + Mercury → Amalgam
Cadmium (Z = 48). a. Copper pyrite (CuFeS2) or Chalcopyrite (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005)
Third transition series: (5d-series) (RRB JE 22.05.2019, RRB JE 31.05.2019 (RRB GROUP-D 22.10.2018)
includes elements from Lanthanum (Z = 57). & RRB NTPC 15.03.2021) Mercury is not an insulator.
Hafnium (Z = 72) to mercury (Z = 80). b. Malachite (Green marble) – CuCO3.CU (SSC CGL 07.03.20)

Fourth transition series: starts from (OH)2 But mercury do not form amalgams with
actinium (Z = 89) and is still incomplete.
(RRB JE 22.05.2019, RRB JE 31.05.2019 iron, platinum or Tungsten. So, it can be
& RRB NTPC 15.03.2021)
stored in containers made from these
c. Cuprite CUO2 metals. But Iron Container will be more
General Properties of Transition (SSC CGL 05.03.2020)
Elements economical
Copper is found in many minerals which
1. They have incompletely filled d-orbitals Mercury + gold/silver → Solidifies and
occurs in deposits large enough to mine.
in their atoms or simple ions. can be used for filling and this is not
These include : azurite, malachite,
2. They have metallic nature i.e., they are Harmful for Humans now.
chalcocite, acanthine, chalcopyrite and
hard, strong and have high m.p. and b.p. Galinstan is used as a substitute of
bornite.
Excepting Hg is the lowest melting (SSC CPO 11.12.2019) mercury in thermometer.
(SSC CGL 05.03.2020)
transition metal. Copper the only metal that is antibacterial.
(SSC CGL 06.03.2020) Harmful Effects of mercury
3. They are good conductors of heat and
Copper substance when exposed to air Minamata disease
electricity, malleable and ductile.
gains a green coating and loses its shiny This was the first disease due to Hg that
4. They form alloys amongst themselves
brown surface due to the formation of happened to the people of Minamata
and with other metals.
CuCO3.CU (OH)2 creek of Japan. It gives paralytic attack
5. Some transition elements have low
(SSC CAPFS 20.03.2016) i.e. affects Brain.
electrode potential values and so they do (SSC CHSL 16.04.21) Arsenic
not react with acids e.g. Au, Pt, Ag (Noble Note: copper is the first metal used by a If water is kept all over the night, open
metals). man and in morning, you get a yellow layer
6. They show variable valency. (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005) over water, it means it contains an excess
7. They form coloured ions. Zinc of Arsenic which can he proved harmful
8. They form complexes. Ore → Calamine (ZnCO3) for our body.
9. They are generally paramagnetic in Calamine is the common name of a Surface water is a better source of
nature. natural admixture mineral of zinc carbonate drinking water because it is poor in
10. They show some horizontal similarities and hydrous zinc silicate. Arsenic.
not found in main group elements. (SSC CGL 24.08.21)
(SSC MTS Staff Exam.10.03.2013,)
11. They show good catalytic activity. Mercury (Hg)
12. They form interstitial compounds. Old name → Hydragyrum This is a major problem in areas of Bihar,
13. Tendency to gain electron is not a It is also known as Quick silver Jharkhand. Arsenic problem in India is
characteristics of transition metals. (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002) primarily due to over-exploitation of
Magnetic Properties but percentage silver in quicksilver = 0% ground water in the affected areas.
Diamagnetism: It is the property due to If Hg is kept on floor it is very difficult to pick Arsenic is a major component of water
which certain substances are repelled by an it up pollution n Bengal basin.
applied magnetic field. Such substances are Ore: - Cinnabar (HgS)
(SSC CHSL 10+2 Tier-I (CBE) Exam. 15.01.2017)

44
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Disease due to Arsenic → Black foot (SSC MTS 07.10.2021) Rusting of iron is due to oxidation (oxygen
Disease Conductivity: Silver > Copper > Gold > and water) of Iron and iron is protected from
Arsenic element found in water is Aluminum rusting by coating zinc on iron.
responsible for cancer. Ag > Cu > Au > Al (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 25.11.2007)
(SSC MTS 05.08.2019) (Cheap) (SSC CPO 28.08.2011)

If all bullets could not be removed from Silver nitrate solution is kept in brown Rusting is an electrochemical process.
(SSC MTS Staff Exam.10.03.2013)
gunshot injury of a man, it may cause bottles in laboratory because brown bottles
Note: Philospher’s wool: ZnO (Zinc oxide)
poisoning by Arsenic stops the passage of light through it (SSC (SSC 10+2 Level DEO &
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010) Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. LDC Exam. 21.10.2012, 04.11.2012)
Gold 12.05.2002) Chromate and Dichromate ions
Old Name→Aurum(Au) (v) Silver halides are used in photographic Potassium dichromate is used:
(SSCMTS06.08.2019) plates because they are reduced by (i) In dyeing and calico printing.
Gold is known as “King of Metals” light (ii) In photography for hardening gelatin
(SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO & (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010)
film,
PA/SA Exam, 15.11.2015)
Iron Potassium permanganate, KMnO4
Ore – (i) Calaverite (AuTe2) where Te Preparation
Ore
means Tellurium Potassium permanganate is prepared from
i. Hematite (Fe2O3) → Found in large
(ii) Sylvanite (AuAgTe). It contains gold, mineral pyrolusite (MnO2). The preparation
quantities in Earth‘s crust
silver, tellurite. of KMnO4 involves the following steps:
ii. Magnetite (Fe3O4) → contains higher %
(SSC MTS 20.10.2021)
of iron(72%) (i) Conversion of pyrolusite ore to
Gold is costlier because nearly 3000 kg of
(SSC Statistical Investigators Grade–IV Exam. potassium manganate : The pyrolusite
ore calaverite gives us only 300 g of gold. 13.08.2006) (MnO2) is fused with caustic potash
Generally, Compounds of silver are not (FCI Assistant Grade-III Exam. 5.02.2012)
(SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam–2013, 27.04.2014)
(KOH) or potassium carbonate in the
available
iii. Limonite (Fe2O3.3H2O) presence of air to give a green mass due
The purity of gold is expressed in carats.
iv. Siderite (FeCO3) to the formation of potassium
The purest form of gold is 24 carats
Iron Pyrite (FeS2) → Fool’s gold manganate.
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 16.12.2007)
(SSC CPO 09.12.2019) 2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2  Heat 2K2MnO4
The ratio of pure gold in 18 carat gold is
Artificial jewelry is made of iron pyrite
75% and 25% other metal (Potassium Magnate) + 2H2O
Burning pyrites ore gives out sulphur
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)Exam. 24.10.1999) (Green mass)
dioxide gas.
(SSC CPO Exam. 26.05.2005) 2MnO2 + 2K2CO3 + O2 → 2K2MnO4
(SSC STENOGRAPHER 09.01.2011)
Gold is the most ductile metal. (Potassium Magnate) + 2CO2
The manufacturing of iron ore involves
Gold is a single atomic unit. the process of reduction. (ii) Oxidation of potassium manganate to
Types of Iron potassium permanganate: The green
Silver
Pig Iron (Direct from Hematite) – Impure mass is extracted with water resulting in
Old name → Argentum (Ag)
Iron green solution of potassium manganate.
Ore: Sylvanite (AuAgTe)
↓ The solution is then treated with a
Compounds of silver
0Cast iron current of chlorine or ozone or carbon
(i) Horn silver (AgCl)
↓ (2-5% carbon is added in iron for dioxide to oxidize potassium manganate
(ii) Ruby silver (Ag3SbS3)
hardness) to potassium permanganate. The solution
Uses
(SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam–2013, 27.04.2014) is concentrated and the dark purple
(i) AgCl. (silver Chloride)
Wrought iron (0.2 to 0.3% carbon) crystals of potassium permanganate
Used in making of Photo Chromic glass
It is the purest form so used for making separate out.
(used in white photography)
permanent magnet 2K2MnO4 + Cl2 → 2KCl + 2KMnO4
Darkening property of photo-chromatic
(FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012) 2K2MnO4 + O3 + H2O → 2KMnO4 + 2KOH
glass is due to the presence of silver (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005, 19.10.2014)
+ O2
Bromide) It is the purest form of iron so it breaks
(SSC CGL01.07.2012) 3K2MnO4 + 2CO2 → 2K2CO3 + MnO2↓ +
easily No rusting occurs on this iron 2KMnO4
(ii) AgBr (silver Bromide) (used in white
Stainless Steel: - Iron + Chromium (10- Alternatively, the alkaline potassium
photography)
15%) + Nickel /Manganese (5%) manganate solution is electrolytically
Coating of glass in making it a mirror (SSC Constable (GD) Exam. 12.05.2013)
(iii) AgI (Silver Iodide) (used in white oxidized.
→ % of carbon – 1-2% carbon give
photography) Electrolytic method. The potassium
hardness to stainless steel
For Artificial rain or cloud seeding (i.e. (SSC SO 06.01.2008) manganate solution is taken in an
making of clouds) (SSC SAS26.06.2010) electrolytic cell which contains iron
(SSC SAS Exam. 26.06.2010) (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.29.08.2016) cathode and nickel anode. The potassium
(SSC CPO S.I.Exam. 12.12.2010) → Chromium adds shine to the steel manganate solution is taken in anodic
(iv) AgNO3 (silver nitrate or lunar caustic) → It does not rust easily. compartment while dilute alkali solution
It is used as Voter’s Ink Note: Due to oxidation of cellulose, pages of is added in the cathode compartment.
(SSC CPO SI, ASI Online Exam.05.06.2016, book become brownish in color. When current is passed, the manganate
Silver has the highest thermal conductivity of (SSC MTS (Non-Tech.) Staff Exam. 23.02.2014,)
ion is oxidized to permanganate ion at
any element and the highest light reflectance.

45
Download Free PDFs & e-Books from Neon Classes App web. : www.neonclasses.com
anode and hydrogen is liberate at It is used: The fourteen elements immediately
cathode. (i) As an oxidizing agent in the laboratory following Lanthanum (Z = 57) constitute the
K2MnO4 ⇌ 2K+ + MnO42 and industry to purify drinking water. first transition series. These are known as
(ii) As a disinfectant for well water. Lanthanides. These elements are from
At anode: MnO42 → MnO4 + e- (SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO & LDC Exam. cerium (Z = 58) to lutetium (Z = 71) in
28.11.2010)
(Green) (Purple) which 4f-orbitals are being filled up. They
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.02.09.2016
At cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → 2H (iii) In qualitative and quantitative analysis, are also called rare earths elements.
(From water) (iv) Alkaline potassium permanganate is
(SSC CGL 10.06.19)
2H → H2 Lanthanide are members of 14 naturally
used in organic chemistry under the
Properties KMnO4 occurring metallic chemical elements whose
name Baeyer’s reagent.
1. Colour and Melting point: It is a dark atomic numbers are between 58 and 71.
The F-Block Elements (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-3)
violet crystalline solid having a metallic f-block elements are also called inner
luster. transition elements. These are divided
2. Solubility: It is fairly soluble in water into two series of elements.
giving a purple solution. Lanthanides

Lanthanum La 57 Carl Gustav Mosander 1839

Cerium Ce 58 Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger 1803
Praseodymium Pr 59 Carl Auer von Welsbach 1885
Neodymium Nd 60 Carl Auer von Welsbach 1885
Promethium Pm 61 Jacob .A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, and Charles D. Coryell 1945
Samarium Sm 62 Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1879
Europium Eu 63 Eugène-Anatole Demarçay 1901
Gadoliniuum Ge 64 Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac 1880
Terbium Tb 65 Carl Gustav Mosander 1843
Dysprosium Dy 66 Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1886
Holmium Ho 67 Per Teodor Cleve 1878
Erbium Er 68 Carl Gustav Mosander 1843
Thurium Tm 69 Jöns Jacob Berzelius 1829
Ytterbium Yb 70 Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac 1878
Lutetium Lu 71 Georges Urbain 1907

Physical Characteristics Uses of Lanthanides blowers as they absorb the bright yellow
All the lanthanides are soft, malleable The pure metals have no specific uses light.
and ductile with low tensile strengths. and therefore, these metals are extracted (iv) Cerium salts are used in dying cotton.
They are not good conductors of heat and as mixtures or alloys. These are called They are also used as catalysts.
electricity. The atomic volumes and misch metals. (v) Lanthanide compounds are used as
densities of these elements increase in (i) Addition of about 3% misch metal to catalyst for hydrogenation,
general with increase in atomic number. magnesium increases it's strength and is dehydrogenation, oxidation and
Magnetic Properties used in making jet engine parts. petroleum cracking. They are also used
Ions which contain all paired electrons (ii) Steel mixed with La, Ce, Pr and Nd is used in magnetic and electronic devices for
are diamagnetic while those containing in the manufacture of flame throwing their paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
unpaired electrons are paramagnetic. tanks. properties.
Among the lanthanide, La3+ and Lu3+, (iii) Lanthanides oxides are used for (vi) Cerium-magnesium alloys are used in
which have 4f0 or 4f14 electronic polishing glass. Neodymium and flash light powders.
configurations are diamagnetic and all Praseodymium oxides are used for
other trivalent lanthanide ions are making coloured glasses for goggles.
paramagnetic because they have These are particularly useful for glass
unpaired electrons.
Actinides
These are elements of second inner transition series and consist of fourteen elements immediately following actinium (Z = 89). They include
elements from thorium (Z = 90) to lawrencium (Z = 103). In these elements the 5f-orbitals are successively filled up.
Curium(Cm) is an actinide.
(SSC CGL 10.06.2019)
(SSC MTS 12.10.2021)
Element Symbol Atomic Scientist
number
Thorium Th 90 Jöns Jacob Berzelius 1829
Actinium Ac 89 Andrew Debierne 1899

Protactinium Pa 91 Kasimir Fajans and Otto Göhring 1913

Uranium U 92 Martin Heinrich Klaproth 1789
Neptunium Np 93 Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson 1940

46
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Plutonium Pu 94 Glenn Seaborg and colleagues 1940
Americium Am 95 Glenn Seaborg and colleagues 1944
Curium Cm 96 Glenn Seaborg and colleagues 1944
Berkelium Bk 97 Stanley Thompson, Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn Seaborg 1949
Californium Cf 98 Stanley Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn
Seaborg 1950
Fermium Fm 100 Albert Ghiorso and colleagues 1953
Mendelevium Md 101 Albert Ghiorso and colleagues 1955
Nobelium No 102 Georgy Flerov and colleagues 1963
Lawrencium Lr 103 Georgy Flerov and colleagues 1965

Uses of Actinides Formation of N2 provides the eruption effect. 92U235 is just in 1-2% amount present in
(i) Thorium is used in the manufacture of Ferrous metals: The elements Fe, Co and Ni whole world so, this is also transported by
fine rods for atomic reactors. are collectively called ferrous metals. the name of 'yellow cake’
(ii) Thorium salts are also nowadays used in Platinum metals: The elements Re, Rb, Os, The long range potential of nuclear energy
medicines in the treatment of cancer. Ir and Pt are collectively called platinum in India depends on its reserves of- uranium
(iii) Uranium salts impart green color to metals. (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
glass. Coinage metals: The metals Cu, Ag and Au
(iv) Uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear are collectively known as coinage metals. 1 kg uranium = 55000 kg of coal, both
reactor for producing electricity and nuclear Trans-uranium elements: Elements release out the same amount of energy
energy by nuclear fission beyond uranium (Z = 92) are called trans- As uranium is a very useful element so it is
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 09.09.2001, uranium elements. These are radioactive and also known as 'metal of hope'.
30.11.2008)
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 09.11.2008)
are synthetically prepared. These are also 92U238 is more stable than 92U235 so it can’t be
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 12.11.2006, 14.12.2008) called man-made element or synthetic used in nuclear reactor
(v) Uranium salts are used in textile industry, elements. But 92U235can be easily converted to 92U236 by
ceramic industry as well as in medicines. bombarding neutrons and the energy
(vi) Plutonium is fissionable material and is Radioactive Elements releases.
used for fueling atomic reactors. It is A radio-active substance has a half life of Radioactive disintegration of uranium
used as an ingredient of atomic explosive six months. Three-fourth of the ultimately results in formation of Lead
weapons. It can also be used to make substance will decay in twelve months. (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005)
atomic bombs. Thorium (SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam.
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005) 28.08.2011 (Paper-1)
(vii) Uranium The radio-active element is
used in heart pacemaker.
(RRB NTPC 17.02.2021) Most unstable form of Uranium → 92U236
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 09.09.2001)
In India, it is available in sand on sea So, it further breaks up to stabilize
(viii) In the Canada Deuterium Uranium beaches of Kerala where it causes 141
92U235 + n01 → 92U236 → Barium 56
→Krypton
(CANDU) reactor, a natural uranium-fuelled radioactive pollution.
92
reactor, the function of moderator and Chernobyl disaster is the result of 36

coolant is performed by heavy water. pollution by radioactive waste. Total Atomic no. = 56 + 36 = 92
(SSC CPO 12.12.2019) i.e. no loss of proton
Some Important terms Ore: Monazite But Total mass = 141+ 92 = 233
Misch-metal: It is an alloy of cerium Uranium i.e. loss of 3 neutrons
(approx. 25%) and various other lanthanide Ore: - Pitch Blend So, these neutrons further react with 92U235
metals. It also contains iron up to 5% and Highest producer of uranium after 2016 and continue the process to make it a chain
traces of sulphur, carbon, silicon, calcium, → Kazakhstan Reaction
aluminum. It is a pyrophoric material and Highest producer of uranium till 2016 → (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002)
is used in lighter flints. Australia If this chain Reaction occurs in controlled
Galvanization: This is the process of The mineral called carnotite is an closed Environment it is a controlled chain
covering iron sheets with a thin layer of zinc. important source of Uranium. Reaction.
(SSC CGL 06.06.19) (SSC MTS 22.10.2021)
(SSC MTS. 13.08.2019) Uranium is the heaviest naturally If this chain Reaction occurs in open
Galvanization can be carried out by passing occurring element uncontrolled Environment it is an
clean metal sheets through a bath of molten (SSC CAPFs SI & CISF ASI Exam. 23.06.2013) uncontrolled reaction
zinc. Ex: Explosion of Atom is triggered by
Rusting: It is a redox reaction. It refers to In world 98% uranium U238 is present but uncontrolled chain reaction
corrosion of iron. this is not used in Nuclear Reactors rather (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam. 10.09.2016)
(SSC CHSL 08.07.2019) we use 92U235 In this enormous amount of energy released
Chemical volcano: When dry ammonium (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 30.11.2008)
in an explosion of an atomic bomb is due to
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010 )
dichromate (NH4)2Cr2O7, is ignited, it the conversion of neutrons into protons
(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam.
undergoes exothermic decomposition with 27.05.2012) (SSC MTS Staff Exam.10.03.2013,)
sparks. This reaction is known as chemical
volcano. But in closed environment such as Nuclear
(NH4)2Cr2O7 → Cr2O3 + 4H2O + N2 + heat Reactor Boron and cadmium rods are

47
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present which absorb extra neutrons making Nuclear energy is a mineral based energy
it a controlled Nuclear Reaction. Here boron source.it is derived from Uranium,
and cadmium act as control rods. Thorium and plutonium
(SSC Combined Matric Level(PRE) Exam. 30.07.2006 (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 14.12.2008)
(SSC CPO S.I.Exam. 12.12.2010) (SSC CAPF SI &ASI 23.06.2013)
(SSC CGL 19.06.2011)
Radioactivity 6. Nuclear fallout contains Alpha particles.
Metals with symbols:-
Column-A Column-B (Group of
Term given by Discovered By
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022,
Madam Curie Henry Bequerel 13.12.2022 Shift-3)
element in the
Unit of radioactivity → Curie and Becquerel periodic table)
(SSC CGL 24.02.2002) i. Na a. Alkali metal
Radioactive element Radium was discovered ii. Cu b. Transition metal
by Marie curie and Pierre.
c. Alkaline earth
Device used to measure Radioactivity → iii. Mg
metal
Geiger Muller counter (G-M Counter)
d. Zero group
Principle of Atom Bomb by → Ottoman iv. He
element
(Germany)
Atom Bomb invented by →J. Robert
Openheimer. (America)
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 24.02.2002)
(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit Exam. 26.11.2006)
Hydrogen bomb invented by → Edward
Teller (America)
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 24.02.2002)
Skin of the human body is the first most
affected part by nuclear radiations.
(SSC Tax Assistant 12.11.2006)

There are two nuclear processes,

Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission both
processes are exothermic i.e. they release out
heat.
Fission reaction produces the most harmful
radiation.
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.06.2011)
Examples of Nuclear fission are Atom Bomb
and nuclear reactors
(SSC MTS Staff Exam. 30.04.2017)
Examples of Nuclear Fusion are Hydrogen
Bomb (uncontrolled fusion reaction), solar
light, and Star light.
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.06.2011)
(SSC MTS 21.08.2019)
Parts of Nuclear Reactor
1. Fuel Rods → Thorium, Uranium
Plutonium
2. Control rods → Boron, Cadmium,
Zirconium (Zirconium not a radioactive
element
(SSC CPO Exam. 26.05.2005)
3. Moderator (used to slow down neutrons)
– D2O (Heavy water) (Deuterium
Oxide),Ordinary water, Graphite
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.05.2013, 26.10.2014)
4. Coolant → D2O, H2O, Liquid Sodium (Na)
5. Radiation Proof Jackets → Lead coated
jackets
Note: White lung disease: Due to fibers of
cotton
Textile workers are affected by this
disease
Lungs cancer: - Due to Radon

48
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8. Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry: It deals with the study Sources of Organic Compounds (v) Homologous series: It refers to a series
of hydrocarbons (compounds for carbon and (i) Plants: Sugars, starch, cellulose, dyes, of similarly constituted compounds in
hydrogen elements) and other compounds drugs, acetic acid, oxalic acid, methyl which the members possess the same
regarded as derivatives of hydrocarbons. alcohol, etc. functional group and similar chemical
Some organic compounds may also contain (ii) Animals: Proteins, fats, vitamins, urea, properties and the two consecutive
nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, enzymes etc. members differ in their molecular
halogens, etc. (iii) Coal Tar: Benzene, toluene, xylene, formula by – CH2. The various members
Vital Force Theory: In 1815, Berzelius naphthalene, phenol, pyridine, dyes, drugs, of a homologous series are called
proposed that organic compounds could only perfumes etc. homologues.
be produced by some mysterious force (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 12.05.2002) (RRB ALP 21.08.2018 &
RRB GROUP-D 01.11.2018 RRB JE 02.06.2019)
existing in living organisms. The laboratory
(iv) Petroleum: Petrol, kerosene oil, Example of homologous series are C2H6
preparation of these compounds is not
lubricating oil, Vaseline, paraffin wax etc. and C3H8 , CH4 and C2H6, C4H4 and
possible because of the absence of such
(v) Synthetic methods: At present about C5H10.
mysterious force. This simple generalization
95% of organic compounds are prepared It is not a example of homologous series
was called Vital force theory.
by synthetic methods C2H6 and C3H9.
Friedrich Wohler succeeded in preparing (SSC STENO. 17.11.2022 SHIFT-2)
urea in laboratory (NH2 – CO – NH2) from Note: A biochemical compound is ant
The next higher homologue of C6H14 is
ammonium cyanate (NH4CNO). Urea was carbon-based compound found in living
things.
C7H16
the first organic compounds to the
Some Definitions (SSC Constable (GD) &
prepared in the laboratory in 1828 A.D. Rifleman (GD) Exam. 22.04.1912)
(SSC CHSL 10+2 DEO & LDC Exam. 16.11.2014) (i) Catenation: The property of atoms of an
Hydrocarbon
(SSC CAPF 21.06.2015) element to link with one another forming
Kolbe (1845) synthesized acetic acid All compounds which contain just carbon
chains of identical atoms in called
(CH3COOH) a natural product containing and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
Catenation or catenation is the bonding
two carbon atoms. Sources of Hydrocarbons
of atoms of the same elements into a
(SSC CGL MAINS ,2022) • Hydrocarbons: Compounds of carbon
series.
Hennel synthesized ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH). and hydrogen only are called
(SSC CGL 04.06.2019)
At present about 95% of organic compounds Carbon exhibits catenation to the hydrocarban. e.g., CH4, C2H6, C2H4, C2H2,
have been synthesized in laboratory. maximum extent. C6H6 etc.
Marcellin Berthelot French chemist was (ii) Isomerism: It is the property by virtue • Sources of Hydrocarbons: Coal,
one of the first scientists to synthesise of which two or more compounds have petroleum and natural gas are major
organic compounds such as formic acid, the same molecular formula but different sources of hydrocarbons.
methane and acetylene from their elements. (SSC CPO SI 06.06.2021)
physical or chemical properties.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-4) Mica is the natural sources of hydrocarbon.
(RRB GROUP-D 31.10.2018)
He also Discovered the synthesis of ethyl These compounds have different • Composition of Coal and Petroleum:
alcohol from ethylene by treatment with structural formula e.g. C2H6O represents Coal mainly consists of carbon. Coal is
sulfuric acid. the compounds C2H5OH and CH3OCH3. also a source of aromatic hydrocarbons
(SSC CGL MAINS ,2022)
The compounds having same molecular like benzene, toluene, xylene,
Chemistry of carbon compounds is known as naphthalene and naphthalene besides
formula but different structural formula
organic chemistry. These compounds are some organic compounds containing N
are called isomers.
poor conductor of electricity and low melting and S. Crude oil is a natural source of
and boling points. aliphatic hydrocarbons (Acyclic
(SSC MTS 21.10.2017)
Coordination isomerism exists in
compounds containing two or more compounds)
Organic Compounds: These are compounds (SSC MTS 18.07.2022)
of carbon and hydrogen (called complexes, each of which contains a
with much lesser content of aromatic
hydrocarbons) and their derivatives. Organic different set of ligands that can in
hydrocarbons and organic compounds
compounds are covalent compounds. principle be replaced with a ligand of the
containing N and S.
Carbon element that must present in a other complex.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 08.12.22 Shift-1)
compound to classify it an organic
(iii) Formation of multiple bonds: Because
compound.
(SSC CHSL 02.07.2019 & SSC CHSL 19.10.2020)
of its small size carbon atom is capable of
forming multiple bonds with other atoms
and this gives a variety of compounds.
(iii) Functional group: It refers to an atom
or group of atoms which largely
(iv) determines the properties of the organic
compounds.

49
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Classification of Hydrocarbons
-Hydrocarbons

Acyclic (Aliphatic) Cyclic

Saturated (Alkenes and (Cycloalkanes, Aromatic

(Alkanes) Alkynes) cycloalkenes and (Arenes)
cycloalkynes)

(a) Open chain hydrocarbons: These resemble aliphatic hydrocarbons in most • Adding Cl2 to benzene in the presence of
hydrocarbons contain an open chain of of their characteristics, e.g AlCl3 is an example of substitution
carbon atoms in their molecules which CH2 CH2 reaction.
may be either a straight chain or a (SSC CAPFS 20.03.2016)
H2C – CH2 H2 C CH2 H2C CH2
branched chain. ; ; • Chemical name of Gammaxane is
They can be further divided into H2C – CH2 H2C – CH2 H2C CH2 Benzene hexa chloride
(i) Saturated hydrocarbons: (SSC CAPFs SI, CISF ASI &
(RRB GROUP-D 01.10.2018 & Cyclobutane Cyclopentane CH2 Delhi Police SI Exam, 21.06.2015
10.10.2018, 05.11.2018) Cyclohexane
• Cumene an alkylbenzene widely used as
They contain single covalent bonds (ii) Aromatic Hydrocarbons: These are also
a chemical intermediate in the
between C – C atoms. Their general known as arenes. They have a cyclic
production of phenol.
formula is CnH2n + 2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…… structure consisting of one or more (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 12.12.2022 Shift-2)
e.g. methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), hexagonal rings of carbon atoms which • The constituent of light oil is benzene.
propane (C3H8), Butane(C4H10) etc. they double bonds in alternate positions. E.g. NOTE:
are called alkanes. between naphthalene, tropoane, azulene. Polycyclic hydrocarbons in automobile
(RRB GROUP-D 05.11.2018 & MTS 09.08.19 They generally burn with smoky flame. exhaust can cause cancer
(SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-3) Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Coal (FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012)
Saturated carbon compounds can form • Coal is commercial source of arenes Heterocyclic compounds: heterocyclic
straight chain and branched chain (aromatic hydrocarbons). When coal is compounds are organic compounds with a
structure. heated in absence of air to 1270 – 1675 ring structure that contains in the cycle at
(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons: K(pyrolysis), it is partly broken down least one carbon atom and at least one
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-2)
into simpler, volatile material consists of other element, such as N, O, or S.
In this, carbon atoms are linked to each coal gas, ammonia and a viscous liquid, For example: furan
other by double bonds (C = C) or triple known as coal tar which is a source of (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam.10.11.2013)
bonds (- C ≡ C-). aromatic compounds. Coke is used as Different types of carbon atoms in
The molecules containing double bonds reducing agent in metallurgy and as a alkanes.
(C = C) are called alkenes. General fuel. (i) Primary carbon atoms (1°): These are
formula for alkene= CnH2n Benzene is an aromatic hydrocarbon the carbon atoms which are linked
(SSC CHSL 15.03.2018,
that has the chemical formula C6H6. The directly to none or one carbon atom.
RRB ALP TEC 30.08.2018 ,
RRB GROUP-D 12.12.2018, & RRB JE 02.06.2019, structure of Benzene is planar. The (ii) Secondary carbon atoms (2°): These
SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-3) structure of benzene was first described are the carbon atoms which are linked
The molecules containing triple bonds (– by a scientist named Fredric August directly to two carbon atoms.
C ≡ C-) are called alkynes. General Kelkule, according to him, benzene is a (iii) Tertiary carbon atoms (3°): These are
formula for alkyne= CnH2n- compound with a ring carbon chain the carbon atoms which are linked
(RRB JE 14.12.2014, structure in which ring contains a single directly to three carbon atoms.
RRB GROUP-D 16.10.2018, 31.10.2018, 16.11.2018 )
bond and double bond in alternating (iv) Quaternary carbon (4°): These are the
Unsaturated carbon compounds burn in carbon atoms which are linked directly
order and each carbon which has the
oxygen with excessive black smoke to four carbon atoms.
hydrogen atom is joined by a single bond.
providing a flame with yellow sooty
A molecule of benzene has 3 double 10
CH3
flame.
(RRB JE 24.09.2018 & SSC MTS 12.10.2021)
bonds. And the double bonds are cyclic .
Unsaturated hydrocarbon add hydrogen The bond angle in the structure of a
10 40 20 30 10
benzene molecule is 120° CH3 - C- CH2 - CH - CH3
in the presence of catalyst such as Nickel
and palladium. it is found naturally in petroleum.
(RRB GROUP-D 04.10.2018) Benzene is more dense medium than air, CH3 CH3
10 10
(b) Closed chain or cyclic hydrocarbons: turpentine, and water.it is an
These compounds contain one or more unsaturated hydrocarbon. the bond angle The straight chain alkanes with primary
closed chains or rings of atom in their in benzene molecule is 120. or secondary carbon atoms are called n-
molecules (RRB NTPC 03.04.2016, RRB GROUP_D, 26.09.2018, alkanes
27.09.2018 08.10.2018, 23.10.2018, & The straight chain alkanes with tertiary
Types of closed chain hydrocarbons: SSC CGL 07.03.2020)
(i) Alicyclic hydrocarbons: In these carbon atoms are called secondary
• Benzene cannot undergo Elimination
molecules a ring containing three or alkanes.
(SSC MTS 10.03.2013)
more carbon atoms are present. They

50
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The straight chain alkanes with +2or R – H where R is CnH2n + 1. The group CH3
quaternary carbon atoms are called R is termed as alkyl group and is a |
tertiary alkanes. e.g., univalent radical. CH3 — C — CH2 — [Neopropyl]
10
CH3 - 20
CH2 - 20 0
CH2 - 1 CH3
0
CH3 - 3 CH - CH3 Group Name |
CH3 - methyl CH3
n-alkane ; CH3 ; CH3 – CH2 - ethyl
(n-butane) Secondary
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 - n-propyl CH3 — C — CH2 — CH3 Sec Butyl
(iso-butane)
(normal propyl) |
CH3
CH3 OH
40 CH - isopropyl CH3
CH3 – CH2 – C – CH3
CH3 |
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – n-butyl CH3 — C — CH3 — ter-butyl
CH3
Tertiary (normal butyl) |
(neo-hexane) CH3 — CH — CH2 — [Isobutyl] OH
Alkyl Groups: These are univalent |
frameworks derived from alkane by the CH3
loss of one hydrogen atom. Alkanes are
represented by the general formula CnH2n
Names and formulae of alkanes
Formulate Name Formula Previous year asked
CH4 Methane C11H24 RRBGROUP D10.10.2018 07.12.2018& RRB NTPC 30.12.2020

C2H6 ethane C12H26 RRB GROUP-D 07.12.2018

C3H8 propane C13H28 RRB ALP 10.08.2018 & 14.08.2018

RRB GROUP-D 24.09.2018, SSC CGL 07.03.2020
RRB NTPC 27.03.2021,
C4H10 butane C14H30 RRB GROUP-D 18.09.2018, 07.12.2018, 11.12.2018 & RRB JE 28.05.2019, SSC CHSL 19.03.2020

C5H12 pentane C15H32

C6H14 hexane C16H34 hexadecane
RRB ALP 21.08.2018
C7H16 heptane C17H36
C8H18 octane C18H38
C9H20 nonane C19H40
C10H22 decane C20H42
Butane is NOT an unsaturated carbon compound.
(SSC MTS 09.05.2019)
Chloropropane have 7 hydrogen atoms.
Some functional groups and their corresponding class of compounds (SSC CGL MAINS ,2022)
Functional Group Class
Structure Name General formula Name
- OH Hydroxyl R – OH Alcohol
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 12.12.2022 Shift-3)
- NH2 Amino R – NH2 Amine
C=O Carbonyl R–C–R Aldehyde
||
O
H Aldehyde H Aldehyde
(RRB JE 22.05.2019)
—C=O R—C=O
O Carboxyl O Carboxylic acid
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 05.12.2022 Shift-1)
|| ||
— C — OH R—C
|
OH
-C≡N Cyanide —C≡N Nitrile
O Nitro R – NO2 Nitroalkane
-N
O
- X (Cl, Br, I or F) Halo R–X Alkyl halide
- C = CH - Alkene RCH = CHR Alkene, olefin
-C≡C- Alkyne R–C≡C—R Alkyne
Ether R–O–R Ether
-C–O–C-
- CONH2 Amido R – CONH2 Amide

51
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Prefixes to be used for secondary functional groups
Functional group Prefix Functional group Prefix
- COOH Carboxy - OH Hydroxy
- COOR Alkoxycarbonyl - OR Alkoxy
- SO3H Sulphonic - SH Mercapto
- COX Halocarbonyl -O- Epoxy
- CONH2 Carbamoyl - X (Cl, Br, I) Halo (chloro, bromo, etc)
-N=N- Azo - NO2 Nitro
- CHO Formyl - NH2 Amino
- CN Cyano - NHR N-alkylamino
- NC Isocyano
— C — OH Keto - NR2 N, N-dialkyl amino
||
O
Some Facts: NOTE: • It is used in medicines such as tincture
2. Optical Activity is measured by Pyroligneous acid or wood vinegar iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.
(RRB ALP 20.08.2019)
polarimeter. obtained from wood contains 10% acetic
• Ethanol is soluble in water and small
6. The first fractional product of petroleum acid quantity of drinking ethanol called
from top to bottom is Petroleum ether. (SSC CGL01.07.2012)
drunkenness.
7. Tetra Ethyl Lead is used as anti-knocking Hydrogen atoms are present in choloro • When overdose of ethanol is consumed,
agent. propane. it slows down the metabolic process and
(SSC JE 22.01.2018) degrades the central nervous system.
8. Chloroform on warming with Silver (Ag)
The addition of carbonic acid adds fizz to soft (SSC CONSTABLE 02.03.2019)
powder gives C2H2.
drinks.
9. Baeyer's Reagent is used in laboratory (RRB NTPC 16.01.2021) Rectified sprit is 95% ethyl alcohol or we
for detection of double bond. Aldehydes : can say 5% water.
10. The homologue of Ethylene is C3H6. The formula for aldehyde is CH2CHO  (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 30.11.2008)
Some compounds with Formula:- (SSC CGL 21.04.2013)
ethanol  acetaldehyde (SSC CGL 21.04.2013, SSC MTS 16.02.2014)
Compound Formula (RRB GROUP-D 26.11.2018 & (RRB ALP 31.08.2018)
1. Acetic acid CH3COOH RRBNTPC 09.02.2021)
Denatured alcohol is unfit for drinking as
2. Choloroform CHCl3 Propanal is an aldehyde. it contains poisonous substances
(SSC CGL 04.06.2019)
3. Ethanol CH3CH2OH (SSC CGL08.07.2012)
Aldehydes are strong reducing agent. Denatured spirit is ethanol mixed with
4. Methane CH4
The chemical used in embalming biological Pyridine
Ethanoic acid:
materials is formaldehyde in water (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 06.01.2008)
• Formula = CH3COOH
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)
(SSC CHSL 22.01.2017 &
Exam. 21.05.2000)
The chemical formula of glycerol is
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 12.12.2022 Shift-4) C3H8O3.
• Melting point = 290k Alcohol • Reaction with alcohol:
• Ethanoic acid is commonly known as • Formula = C2H5OH. (i) Ethanol react with sodium then it gives
acetic acid. It is also known as glacial • boiling point = 78°C. evolution of hydrogen with sodium
acetic acid. (RRB GROUP-D 31.10.2018) Ethoxide.
(SSCMTS 18.10.2021) • Alcohol is commonly known as Ethanol.  2CH3CH2O Na   H2
2Na  2CH3CH2OH 
• It belongs to group carboxylic acids. Whose formula is C2H5OH. Sodium ethoxide 
(RRB GROUP-D 04.10.2018)
• If we add 5 to 8% of acetic acid in water is (ii) Ethanol with unsaturated hydrocarbon
• Ethanol is formed during Anaerobic
called vinegar and used in preservative respiration in yeasts. Heating ethanol at 443k with excess
in pickles. (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 12.05.2002) concentrated sulphuric acid gives
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 24.10.1999) (SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam. dehydration of ethanol gives ethane.
(RRB GROUP-D 18.09.2018) 27.05.2012) Hot Concentrate
CH3CH2OH  CH2  CH2  CH2O
H SO
2 4
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.02.09.2016) (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.09.09.2016
(SSC CHSL 10+2 Tier-I (CBE) Exam. 15.01.2017) (RRB NTPC 11.03.2021) METHANOL
Reaction with ethanoic acid: • Ethanol obtained by sugarcane. Methanol is the simplest alcohol. it is
• When acid and alcohol are reacting then (Molasses a by-product in the obtained by distillation of the wood, that’s
it formed esters. manufacture of sugar from sugarcane, is why it is called wood spirit.
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 04.12.2011,
• Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute converted into alcohol)
21.10.2012)
alcohol in presence of catalyst to give an (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) 05.05.2002)
(RRB GROUP-D 09.10.2018)
(FCI Assistant Grade-II Exam. 05.02.2012)
ester When formaldehyde and potassium
(RRB NTPC 28.03.2016 & SSC MTS 14.05.2017)
• Ethanoic acid react with a base then it • Ethanol is liquid at room temperature hydroxide are heated, we get Methyl alcohol
gives salt. • Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 04.02.2007
• Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and present in alcohol.
(RRB JE 14.12.2014)
To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced
hydro carbonates to give rise to a salt. for industrial use, it is used as a toxic
Carbon dioxide and water. The salt In one molecule of ethyl alcohol one substance methanol is mixed with it to make
produced is commonly called sodium oxygen atom is present it unsuitable for drinking.
acetate. (RRB GROUP-D 30.10.2018)

52
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Formalin is a mixture of an aqueous RRB JE 24.05.2019 & SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 02.12.2022
formaldehyde and methanol. Shift-1)
(RRB JE 14.12.2014) Earlier used anesthesia → Chloroform
The formula for methyl propane is n- butane. (CHCl3) (James Simpson invented chloroform
as anesthetic)
(SSC CGL 04.06.2019)
(FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012)
Methyl alcohol and H2O used as an anti-
freeze in radiators of automobiles is (IUPAC name of chloroform is tri –
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 21.10.2012) Chloromethane)
NOTE: (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-3)
(i) Power alcohol is a mixture of petrol and
ethyl alcohol. Some points to be remember:-
(RRB NTPC 22.02.2021) • Compounds with exactly two double
(ii) The colors are added to the alcohol to carbon – carbon bonds are knows as Trisulfur is an allotrope of sulphur not
make it blue, so that it can be easily Dienes. carbon.
identified. This alcohol is called (SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-2) (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-2)
poisonous alcohol. • Phenols organic compounds are found in 1. Diamond
(RRB GROUP-D 24.10.2018) the cells of apples, and when these are (RRB NTPC 07.01.2021 &
(iii) As a dehydrating agent to convert exposed to oxygen in the air, for example RRB NTPC 30.01.2021 & 22.02.2021)
ethanol to ethane concentrated through slicing, the oxygen causes The chemical formula of diamond is C.
Sulphuric acid is used . reaction. Natural hardest material, it is harder than
(RRB GROUP-D 22.09.2018) (SSC STENO. 17.11.2022 SHIFT-3) graphite because of difference in layers
(iv) When phenolphthalein is added to • In organic compounds, nitrogen is
vinegar, the solution becomes colorless. of atoms
(RRB GROUP-D 22.09.2018)
estimated by Dumas method. (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002)
(SSC MTS 17.3.2013)
(v) The molecular formula masses of (SSC CPO Exam. 26.05.2005)
• An organic compound with the formula No flow of electrons so bad conductor
methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol differ
CH3OC6H5 used as a perfume, fragrance (SSC CGL 08.09.2016 )
from 14 units.
(RRB GROUP-D 20.09.2018) and solvent is Anisole. Hardness = 71-150 GPa
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 02.12.2022 Shift-4) m.pt. = 1000°C (melting point)
(vi) Each member of the hydrocarbon family
differs from the previous member by a • Cyanides are amongst the few carbon – Used for glass cutting & Jewelry, surgical
group of Methylene. containing compounds NOT classified as blade tips.
(RRB GROUP-D 20.09.2018) organic Diamond shape: Tetrahedral structure
(vii) Methyl alcohol is used to denature (SSC CGL 07.06.2019)
In Diamond all carbon atoms are
ethanol Cyanide (prussic acid) poisoning causes
quaternary in nature
death in seconds because it causes (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)Exam. 05.05.2002 )
cardiac arrest It is an amorphous (fixed shape) or
(viii) Alcoholic (– OH) group can be crystalline
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam, 09.08.2015)
identified by FeCl3 Test. It is a natural hardest material
(SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO & LDC Exam. Angle – 109°
• Carbon compounds cannot get oxidized
27.11.2010)
on combustion. Refractive index = Highest due to which
(viiii) Alcohol is one of the liquids commonly (SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-2) diamonds are glittering and attractive
used in liquid-in-glass thermometers. • 2, 4, 6-trinitrophenol is the IUPAC because light incident on them
(SSC CHSL 10.07.2019)
name of an organic compound and used undergoes multiple internal
as an explosive, an antiseptic drug and a reflections
ESTER
fixative. (SSC Tax Assistant
• Formula CH3COOH2H5. (SSC STENO. 18.11.2022 SHSIFT-2) (Income Tax & Central Excise Exam. 12.11.2006)
(RRB NTPC 21.01.2021)
• Common name of ester is formaldehyde
Carbon & its Allotrope
• Ethyl acetate/ethyl Ethanoate is the
Allotropy: The presence of an element in 2. Graphite (Black Lead)
ester.
(SSC CGL 04.06.2019) two or more forms in which its physical (SSC CHSL 26.10.2020)

• Esters are sweet smelling/ fruit like odor properties are different but the chemical It is named so because it was first time
substances. are the same is known as allotropy. seen in lead mines.
(RRB JE 22.05.2019 & SSC MTS 08.08.2019 For example- various allotrope of carbon Non-metal but Good conductor
• They are used in perfumes and flavoring are diamond, graphite, fullerene etc. (exception)
agents.
(RRB GROUP-D 31.10.2018) ( SSC MTS 14.08.19) It has Hexagonal structure
(SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-2) It is used as moderator in nuclear
(RRB JE 14.12.2014&
RRB GROUP-D 15.10.2018, RRB NTPC 31.07.2021) Allotropes of Carbon (C) reactions
• Esters reacts in the presence of an acid or 1 carat diamond = 200 mg (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.07.2008)
base to give back alcohol and carboxylic (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 11.12.2011
It is used as a solid lubricant in heavy
acid. machines
(RRB GROUP-D 10.10.2018) 5 carat = 1 gm
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 09.09.2001)
• Ester treat with sodium hydroxide, which
It has high melting point. It has a lower
is an alkali, the ester is converted back to
density than diamond and good conductor of
alcohol & sodium salt of carboxylic acid.
heat.
This reaction is saponification because it (SSC MTS 12.10.2021)
used in preparation of soap. A lead pencil has (0%) lead (100%
Chloroform graphite)
The formula for chloroform is CHCL3 (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 12.05.2002)
(SSC CAPFS 05.03.2019 & (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 06.01.2008)

53
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(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010) A single layer of graphite is called
3. Fullerene graphene and has extraordinary
(SSC CGL 04.06.2019 & electrical, thermal, and physical
RRB NTPC 15.03.2021)
properties. It can be produced by epitaxy
made by R.E. Smeley (1985) (got noble on an insulating or conducting substrate
prize) or by mechanical exfoliation (repeated
Fullerene have limited number of peeling) from graphite. Its applications
carbons (Maximum = 350) may include replacing silicon in high-
But carbon number are unlimited in performance electronic devices. With
Graphite. two layers stacked, bilayer graphene
When Graphite is heated, it changes to results with different properties.
fullerene (C – 60) (no. of carbon = 60) 7. Carbon nanotubes
C-60 is also known as Buckminster Carbon nanotubes, also called
fullerene buckytubes, are cylindrical carbon
(RRB JE 01.06.2019 &
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-2)
molecules with novel properties that
It is used for cancer detection. make them potentially useful in a wide
Buckminster fullerence structure: Soccer variety of applications (e.g., nano-
ball, cage like structure, football shape, electronics, optics, materials
bucky ball. applications, etc.). They exhibit
extraordinary strength, unique electrical
4. Charcoal properties, and are efficient conductors
It works on the principle of Adsorption of heat
(i.e. it absorbs from the surface) 8. Carbon Nano buds
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & Carbon Nano buds are a newly
LDC Exam. 21.10.2012) discovered allotrope of carbon in which
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.29.08.2016 ) fullerene like "buds" are covalently
It is made in the absence of Oxygen (i.e. attached to the outer sidewalls of the
incomplete combustion) from wood or carbon nanotubes. This hybrid material
bones of dead animals. has useful properties of both fullerenes
It is used in A.C. filters to absorb and carbon nanotubes. For instance, they
poisonous gases. have been found to be exceptionally good
If water smells bad, then that odor can be field emitters.
removed by adding activated carbon or 9. Schwarzites
Schwarzites are negatively curved
charcoal
carbon surfaces originally proposed by
(SSC CHSL 10+2 Tier-I (CBE) Exam. 16.01.2017) decorating triply periodic minimal
Activated charcoal: When charcoal is heated surfaces with carbon atoms. The
at high temperature in order to increase the geometric topology of the structure is
number of holes in it so that it may absorb determined by the presence of ring
more. This product is known as activated defects, such as heptagons and octagons,
charcoal. to graphene's hexagonal lattice (Negative
It is used to remove colouring matter from curvature bends surfaces outwards like a
pure substances by absorption. saddle rather than bending inwards like
Animal charcoal is used to decolorize a sphere.)
brown sugar solution
(SSC Combined Matric Level 10. Lonsdaleite
(PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002 ) Lonsdaleite is a hexagonal allotrope of
5. Soot the carbon allotrope diamond, believed
It is a result of incomplete combustion of to form from graphite present in
Hydrocarbons such as petrol/diesel. meteorites upon their impact to Earth.
The great heat and stress of the impact
Amorphous carbon is the name used for
transforms the graphite into diamond,
carbon that does not have any crystalline but retains graphite's hexagonal crystal
structure. Coal and soot or carbon black lattice.
are informally called amorphous carbon.
However, they are products of pyrolysis
(the process of decomposing a substance
by the action of heat), which does not
produce true amorphous carbon under
normal conditions.
(SSC CAPF SI &ASI 23.06.2013)
Note: Carbon black is used as filler in tyre
of rubber.
(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) Exam. 25.09.2005)

6. Graphene(allotrope of carbon)
(SSC MTS 02.08.09)

54
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9. Hydrogen and Water

Hydrogen the light hydrogen molecules and so it is The resulting mixture (containing H2, CO,
Hydrogen gas was discovered as first not found in earth’s atmosphere. In the CO2) is scrubbed with cold water under
atom by Henry Cavendish and the crystal rocks it is 10th in the order of high pressure (≃ 25 atm) when CO2
structure of hydrogen was given by Neils abundance (0.15% by weight). dissolves and is separated. The resulting
Bohr. Hydrogen is the most abundant element gaseous mixture is washed with
(SSC CGL MAINS ,2022) by number in the living system ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride
Position of Hydrogen (SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO & to remove traces CO when only H2 is left.
The position of hydrogen at the top of PA/SA Exam, 15.11.2015) Hydrogen economy: Hydrogen can be
alkali metals in group l of the periodic Harold C Urey credited with discovering used as a source of energy. It involves the
table is not justified because it resembles the hydrogen isotope, or heavy hydrogen, production of large quantities of
alkali metals as well as halogens (group for which he later received the 1934 hydrogen electrically and its storage in
17). Therefore, the position of hydrogen Nobel Prize in Chemistry. liquid form in vacuum insulated
in the periodic table is anomalous. (SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-1) cryogenic tanks (maintained at low
(SSC CGL MAINS ,2022) Isotopes of Hydrogen: Hydrogen has temperature) is used in space
Resemblance with Alkali metals: three isotopes programme. Hydrogen can be the future
(i) Its electronic configuration is similar
to alkali metals. (i) Protium  H  : It has l electron, l proton
1
1
source of energy.
Properties of hydrogen
(ii) It is good reducing agent like alkali and no neutron. Physical properties
metals.
(iii) It can lose one electron to form H+
(ii) Deuterium  H :
2
1 It has l electron, l 1. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless
gas.
ion like alkali metals. proton and l neutron. It is also called 2. It is lighter than air and collected by
(iv) It is liberated at cathode when HCl is heavy hydrogen. Terrestrial hydrogen downward displacement of water
electrolyzed. contains 0.0156% of deuterium mostly in because it is insoluble in water.
(v) It is electropositive like alkali metals. the form of HD. HD is a molecule of 3. It is highly combustible.
(vi) It shows + 1 oxidation state likes hydrogen only comprising only an atom 4. It is neutral towards litmus.
alkali metals. of protium 5. It is lightest of all elements.
Resemblance with Halogens:
(i) It is non-metal.
(iii)Tritium  H  : It has l electron, l proton
3
1
Chemical properties
1. It is less reactive at room temperature
(ii) It forms diatomic molecules. and 2 neutrons. It is radioactive. It is because of high bond dissociation energy
(iii) It is gas like F2 and Cl2. about l atom per 1018 atom of protium. (436 kJ mol-1) due to smaller bond
(iv) It shows -1oxidation state. Tritium is a beta-emitting radioactive length.
isotope of hydrogen that has one proton 2. It forms compounds with almost all
Some Unique Properties of Hydrogen and two neutrons in its nucleus, making elements except noble gases under
1. It does not have metallic characteristics it three times as heavy as a hydrogen suitable conditions.
at ordinary temperature and pressure nucleus and one and a half times heavier 3. Reaction with elements to form hydrides:
but under very high pressure it is than deuterium. (t1/2 = 12.33 years)
4. When Hydrogen starts burning in air, it
expected to behave like a metal. (SSC STENO. 17.11.2022 SHIFT-3)
Tritium is the lightest radioactive produces Water
2. It shows – 1 and + 1 oxidation states.
3. H2O is amphoteric (can react with acid as element (SSC Stenographer (Grade 'C' & 'D')
Exam. 26.09.2010)
well as base) whereas halogen oxides are (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 28.10.2012
Uses of Hydrogen
acidic and alkali metal oxides are basic.
Bosch process: This process is used for (i) In the manufacture of ammonia (NH3) by
the industrial preparation of hydrogen Haber’s process.
When H2 gas is allowed to expand from
gas. In this process, hydrogen is obtained (ii) It the manufacture of methanol.
a region of high pressure to a region of
from water gas (a mixture of CO and H2). (iii) In the hydrogenation (Palladium used
low pressure, the temperature of the gas
Water gas along with excess of steam is as catalyst)
increases. (SSC CGL 05.03.2020)
(SSC CGL08.07.2012) passed over a heated catalyst (Fe2O3 +
Cr2O3) at 725-775 K when CO reacts with of vegetable oils
Occurrence of Hydrogen
steam to form hydrogen (H2) and carbon ( for preparation of ‘Dalda or
It is the most abundant and lightest gas
element in universe (70% of the dioxide (CO2). Vanaspati’ ghee) (reduction)
(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) Exam. 30.09.2007)
universe’s total mass). Jupiter and Saturn CO + H2 + H2O (SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO & LDC Exam.
consist mostly of hydrogen. Half of the 27.11.2010)
mass of sun and some other stars (water (steam) (SSC CPO 28.08.2011)
Hydrogen is the third most abundant gas) (FCI Assistant Grade-III Exam. 5.02.2012 )
Catalyst (Fe2O3 + Cr2O3) (SSC CGL08.07.2012)
element on the surface of globe. In
725 - 775 K to solid fats. Solid fats are used in
combined form it forms 15.4% of the
manufacture of soaps and candles etc.
earth’s crust and oceans. Earth does not
(iv) In atomic hydrogen torch and oxy-
have enough gravitational pull to retain CO2 + 2H2; ΔH = –42kJ.
hydrogen torch to attain high

55
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temperature of about 4275 K and 3075 K (ii) Aeration (SSC Statistical Investigators Exam. 31.07.2005)
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.11.09.2016,
respectively. Such a torch is used for (iii) Chlorination
Soft water: Water which forms lather
welding of metals. (vi) ozonisation etc.
with soap easily is called soft water.
(v) In the manufacture of synthetic petrol. Iron and manganese present as pollutants
Cause of hardness of water: Hardness
(vi) Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel in water cannot be removed by
is due to the presence of calcium and
along with oxygen as oxidizer. chlorination.
magnesium salts in water.
(vii) Atomic hydrogen is used as a reducing • Heavy water (D2O) also called
(SSC MTS 06.08.2019,SSC Delhi Police SI Exam.
agent. deuterium oxide is obtained by 19.08.2012)
Note: Nascent (i.e. newly born) hydrogen continuous and prolonged electrolysis of Soft water is free from calcium and
is more active and better reducing agent. water. magnesium salts.
• Diprotonium: It is correct term for H2 (SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam.
Water containing calcium carbonate at
27.05.2012)
1
which contains H isotope.
1 (SSC CONSTABLE 04.10.2015 & SSC CHSL 31.07.2016) concentration below 60 milligrams per
• Dihydrogen: It is used for H2 molecule Physical Properties of H2O and D2O liter generally considered as soft.
while referring to isotopic mixture with S.No. Property H2O D2O
natural abundance for H and D. 1. Molecular 18.015 U 20.028 U Types of hardness of water: It is of
• Hydron: It is an isotopic mixture of H+ 2. mass 273.2 K 276.8 K following two types
and D+. 3. Melting 373.3 K 374.4 K (i) Temporary hardness: It is due to the
Hydrochloric acid (HCL) & Hydrogen 4. point 0.997 g 1.104 g presence of soluble bicarbonates of
sulfide (H2S) Boiling cm-3 cm-3 calcium and magnesium. It is also called
(SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-2) point carbonate hardness.
Hydrochloric acid is found in stomach of Density (ii) Permanent hardness: It is due to the
human being. It protects our stomach Amphoteric nature: Water acts as a presence of soluble chloride and sulphate
from infection and bacteria that comes base towards acetic acid and as an acid of calcium and magnesium. It is also
with food. towards ammonia. called non-carbonate hardness.it remove
Hydrogen sulfide is usually used to H2O + CH3COOH → CH3COO- + H3O+ by adding sodium carbonate.
produce sulfuric acid and sulfur. It is also Base Acid (SSC MTS 04.12.2011)
used as dyes, pesticides etc. (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 21.10.2012

H2O + NH3 → NH + OH- 4 (SSC CHSL (10+2) DEO & LDCExam. 16.11.2014,
Due to constant exposure in presence of
Acid Base The method will be employed to test the
Hydrogen sulphide(H₂S) Brass gets
hardness of water is formation of leather
discolored in air
with soap.
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 21.04.2013,)
(SSC CPO 2022, 10.11.2022 Shift-2) Water softening: It is the process of
The gas that is used in the manufacture removal of dissolved calcium and
of Vanaspati ghee is hydrogen. magnesium ions from hard water.
(FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012) Structure of Water (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 29.03.2009)
Water It is a bent molecule in gas phase with Methods of Removal of Temporary
Occurrence: Water constitute about 75% of HOH bond angle 104.50 and O-H bond Hardness
earth’s surface in the form of oceans, lakes, length of 95.7 pm. (i) By boiling: On boiling water, the soluble
rivers etc. It can exist as solid, liquid or Polarity of water: Oxygen is the second bicarbonates decompose into insoluble
gaseous form. It is a universal solvent, 70% of most electronegative element, that is carbonates which settle at the bottom of
our body weight is water. Water plays a vital why, molecule is highly polar. Liquid the vessel. The insoluble material is
role in the life processes of animals and water has intermolecular H-bonding and removal by decantation.
vegetable matter. Water is a colorless, water molecules are held together by Boil
Metal bicarbonate   Metal
hydrogen bonds in dynamic equilibrium.
mobile, volatile liquid. It has many unusual carbonate + H2O + CO2
Autoprotolysis: Water (H2O) dissociates
properties. The purest form of water is (ii) By Clark’s method (i.e., by adding
into H+ and OH- ions. H2O combines with
obtained from rainwater lime): When a calculated amount of lime
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 14.12.2008)
H+ ions to form H3O+ ions.(atoms of
oxygen combines with hydrogen to give is added to hard water then soluble
The oxygen that keeps us alive come from bicarbonates are converted into
Water water)
(SSC CGL 18.08.21) insoluble carbonates as follows:
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.02.2000) (SSC SAS Exam.
26.06.2010) H2O (l) + H2O (l)⇌ H3O+ + OH- Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2⇌ 2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O
Water cycle refers to constant movement of acid1 base2 acid2 base1 Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 ⇌ 2CaCO3↓ +
Hydrolysis: The reaction of the Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O
water from ocean to land and back to ocean
compound with water to form new (lime)
once again.
compounds is called hydrolysis. It leads Removal of Permanent Hardness
Transpiration, Evaporation, Condensation
to change in pH of the solution. (i) Additional of washing soda: It is
are processes of water cycle.
(SSC MTS 09.08.2019) Hard and soft water hydrated sodium carbonate,
Preparation: The water required for Hard water: Water which does not Na2CO3.10H2O. Sodium carbonate
human consumption (also called potable forms lather with soap easily and hence converts calcium and magnesium salts to
water) is purified from natural water by is unfit for washing is called hard water. insoluble carbonate which can be filtered
one or more of the following processes. The metallic constituents of hard water of.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 06.12.2022 Shift-1)
(i) Sand filtration are Calcium, magnesium and iron

56
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(ii) Permutit process: Both temporary and (SSC GD 12.05.2013)
permanent hardness of water can be D2O is a type of moderator in nuclear
removed by ion-exchange resins. The reactor. In fast reactor D2O is used and in
inorganic ion-exchanger used is zeolites Slow Reactors, Graphite is used.
or hydrated sodium Aluminum silicate NOTE: BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research
called permutit centre)
NaAlSiO4. + Ca2+⇌ Ca(AlSiO4)2 + 2Na+ Only this organization is licensed to make
The zeolites (or permutit) can be Heavy water
regenerated by treatment with NaCl Father of atomic energy in India – Homi
solution. Bhabha
(iii) Synthetic resins: Hard water can be Hydrogen gas effuses out of football
softened by using synthetic cation bladder most quickly.
exchangers. They are more efficient than (SSC Tax Assistant 05.12.2004)

zeolite and permutit. These cation

exchangers are large organic molecules
containing sulphonic acid (RSO3 - H)
group and are water insoluble.
The ion-exchange resin is first changed
to the sodium form by treatment with
NaCl solution and then used for softening
of water.
(iv) De-ionized water: Pure de-mineralized
(deionised) water free from all soluble
mineral matters is obtained by passing
water successively through a cation
exchanger (in the H+ form) and an anion
exchanger for removal of cations and
anions.
• Calgon: It is sodium polymetaphosphate,
[Na(PO)3]n. It is used to removal
permanent hardness of water.
• Soaps: They are sodium or potassium
salts of higher fatty acids such as stearic
acid, plamitic acid, oleic acid etc. e.g.
C17H35COONa (sodium stearate).
• Fatty acids: Those acids which contain
higher alkyl chains (C15 – C17) are called
fatty acids e.g. C15H35COONa C17H35COOH
etc.
• Reactions of hard water with soap:
Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in hard water
reacts with soap (e.g. sodium stearate) to
form corresponding calcium or
magnesium salts which precipitate out.
(SSC CPO 11.12.2019)
Disadvantages of Hard water
(i) It is unsuitable for laundry washing and
drying purposes.
(ii) It is harmful for steam boilers because
the inner surface of boiler gets coated
with ‘boiler scale’ which is mainly CaSO4,
CaCO3 and MgOCl2 which reduces
efficiency of the boiler and also damages
it. It is necessary to make water soft
before it use in boilers.
Heavy Whater (D2O)
• Heavy water is produced by the repeated
electrolysis of ordinary water.It is
manufactured at Trombay.
• Uses of heavy water: It is used as a
moderator in nuclear reactors.
Heavy water is so called because it
contains heavy isotopes of hydrogen.

57
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10. Chemical Reactions

A process in which a substance is powder. This white powder is (magnesium oxide)(water) (magnesium
converted into one or more different magnesium oxide called white ash. hydroxide)
substance is called the chemical (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 12.12.2022 Shift-3) 2H2(g)+O2(g)→2H2O(l)
reactions. Formation of water.
3. Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2
For example Burning of paper, baking an On burning carbon in oxygen, carbon
Zinc + sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate +
egg and digestion of food etc. dioxide is produced is combustion
hydrogen.
The passage of an electric current reaction.
(SSC MTS 05.10.2021)
through a conducting liquid causes (RRB ALP 21.08.2018)
The substance which take part in chemical
chemical reaction. Ex- the explosion of crackers, burning of
reaction is called reactants. They show in
(SSC CGL 20.08.2017) coal are example of combustion reaction.
the left side in equation.
Kinetics is the study of the rate of (SSC CGL 10.06.2019 &
The new substance produced as a result SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 01.12.2022 Shift-1)
chemical reaction, how fast reaction go
are called products. They show in right • Reaction in which heat is released along
and the mechanism and paths of the
side in equation. the formation of products are called
molecules take in joining from one
The reactants are written on the left hand exothermic chemical reactions.
reactant to products.
(SSC CPO 05.06.2016) side while the products are written on the (RRB NTPC 19.01.2017 SSC CGL 10.08.2017, &
RRB GROUP-D 18.09.2018, 28.09.2018, )
left hand side.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
To determine whether a chemical The state of matter reactants and
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
reaction take place: products is designated with the symbols
Example of Exothermic reaction are:-
(RRB GROUP_D 09.10.2018) (s) for solids, (l) for liquids, (g) for gases.
(RRB NTPC 01.03.2021)
The arrow signifies that the reactions 1. The decomposition of vegetable matter
• Change in state into compost.
“forms” or “yields”.
• Change in color (RRB GROUP-D 15.10.2018)
In a reaction of the type A+BC+D one 2. Process of mixing acid (H2SO4) and is
• Evolution of gas
could ensure it to be a increasing the exothermic nature.
• Change in temperature.
concentration of a reactant. (RRB GROUP-D 03.10.2018,
Note:- (SSC CHSL 06.12.2015) RRB GROUP-D 10.10.2018)
Change in height is the observation We balanced chemical equation corresponds (RRB NTPC 08.01.2021)
which does not help in determining to law of conservation of mass. 3. The merging of acid or alkali water is
wheather a chemical reaction has taken (RRB JE 31.05.2019) exothermic reaction.
place. The sum of masses of the reactants and (RRB GROUP-D 24.09.2018)
(SSC CHSL 20.10.20) products remains unchanged is also a 4. Reaction of water with quick lime is
principle of conservation of mass. exothermic reaction.
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (RRB GROUP-D15.10.2018) (RRB JE 30.08.2019)
Writing the chemical reaction in the form 5. Dissolving sulphuric acid in water is very
of word is known to be chemical • Types of chemical reactions: exothermic reaction.
equation. 1. Combination Reaction:
A single product is formed from two or 6. Combustion of a candle.
Examples:
(SSC MTS 23.02.2014)
1. Fe (s) + S (s) Fes (s) more reactants is known as combination
reaction. 7. Respiration is a exothermic process.
Iron + Sulphur Iron sulphide
(SSC MTS 16.08.2019)
When iron react with sulphur then it (SSC JE 27.01.2018 & SSC CHSL 07.03.2018) 8.Burning of naturalgas.
gives iron suphide. Burning of coal is a combination reaction.
2. 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) MgO(s) C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Magnesium + oxygen Magnesium (SSC MTS 02.11.2021)
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 01.12.2022 Shift-1)
oxide
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-1) CaO (S) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 + Heat
Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling (quick lime) (water) (slaked lime)
white flame and changes into a white MgO + H2O Mg(OH)2
2. Decomposition reaction:
The single reactants breaks down to give simpler products are known as decomposition reaction.
The decomposition reaction requires heat, light or electrical energy to break the reactants.
(RRB GROUP-D 15.10.2018)
The opposition of combination reaction is decomposition reaction.
(RRB GROUP-D 04.10.2018)
Heat
(a) CaCO3 (s)  CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
(Limestone) (Quick lime)

58
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Heat
(b) 2FeSO4 (s)  Fe2O3 (s) + SO2 (q) + SO3 (g)
(Ferrous sulphate) (ferric oxide)
Heat
(c) 2Pb (NO3)2 (s)  2PbO (s) + 4NO2 (q) + O2 (g)
(lead Nitrate) (Lead Oxide) (Nitrogen Dioxide) (Oxygen)
Sunlight
(d) 2AgCl (s)   2Ag (s) + Cl2 (g)
(Silver Chloride) (Silver) (Chloride)
White silver chloride turns grey in sunlight.
Sunlight
(e) 2Ag Br (s)   2 Ag (s) + Br2 (q)
(Silver Bromide) (Silver) (Bromine gas)
Silver bromide turns in silver metal with (RRB GROUP-D 27.11.2018) • Reducing agent: The chemical species
bromine gas. It is used in black and white Stalactites and stalagmites form due to the which undergoes oxidation during
photography. precipitation of CaCO3. chemical reaction by losing electrons is
(SSC CHSL 06.12.20015)
called reducing agent or reductant.Ex-
Any reaction that produce a precipitate can
zinc, coke, sodium, hydrogen etc.
be called a Oxidation and Reduction (RRB GROUP-D 02.11.2018)
Reactions in which heat is absorbed are
• Oxidation: It is a process in which an • Redox reaction: It is a reaction in which
known as Endothermic reactions.
(RRB NTPC29.04.2016)
atom or ion loses one or more electrons. electrons are transferred from one
(RRB NTPC 09.02.2021 &
Decomposition of sulphate reaction is an SSC JE 27.01.2018)
reaction to another i.e. oxidation and
example of an endothermic reaction. In a reaction, the loss of hydrogen by reduction takes place simultaneously. e.g.
(RRB je 25.05.2019) (RRB GROUP –D 26.10.2018)
substance called as oxidation.
3. Displacement Reaction: (SSC JE 24.01.2018)
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
A chemical reaction in which a more Eg. Na → Na+ + e- Concept of Oxidation Number of
reactive element displace a less reactive Cu → Cu2+ + 2e- Oxidation State
element from its compound. Mgo +Co Mg+CO2 • Redox changes in ionic compounds can
(a) Fe (s) + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu (RRB JE 27.05.2019) be easily understood by transference of
The copper sulphate change in the iron 2 PbO + C2pb+CO2 electrons but in case of covalent
sulphate. (RRB GROUP-D 03.10.2018) compounds redox changes cannot be
(SSC CGL 19.05.2013) SnCL2 + 2HgCL2 HgCL2+SnCL2 easily explained in terms of transference
(RRB ALP 13.08.2018) of electrons because the loss or gain or
The Iron nails become brownish after being
dipped in copper sulphate solution. The oxidation cause of bad odor in foods is of electrons could not be easily explained.
(SSC CPO 23.11.2020) fat and oils. For such reactions concept of oxidation
(RRB ALP & TEC 09.08.2018)
(b) Zn (s) + CuSO4 (q) ZnSO4 + Cu number or oxidation state has been
Oxidation reaction that produces heat and
The copper sulphate change into the zinc introduced.
light is combustion.
sulphate (insoluble in water) • Oxidation number (O.N.): The oxidation
(RRB GROUP-D 28.09.2018)
(c) Pb (s) + CuCl2 PbCl2 + Cu (s) Rusting of iron by the oxidation. number of an element is defined as, the
The copper chloride change into the lead (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 25.11.2007) residual charge which its atom appears
chloride. (SSC CHSL 04.12.2011) to have when all other atoms from the
(SSC MTS 13.08.2019)
4. Double displacement reaction or molecule are removed as ions by
Photo oxidation process is initiated by light.
metathesis reaction- counting the shared electrons with more
(SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax &
Reaction in which two reactants Central Excise Exam. 14.12.2008) electronegative atom.
exchange ions to form two new • Reduction: It is a process in which an Note: In most of the cases oxidation
compound is called double displacement atom or ion gains one or more electrons, number is equal to oxidation state but
reaction. and addition of hydrogen e.g. not in all cases. Oxidation state cannot be
(RRB NTPC 04.04.2016, (RRB GROUP-D 20.09.2018)& (SSC CGL 08.07.2012, 08.08.2017) in fraction or zero, e.g. in pb3O4, oxidation
23.10.2018)
Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+ number of Pb = + 8/3 whereas oxidation
Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2NaCl Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl- state is + 2 and + 4(2PBO.PbO2). In CrO3
(Sodium (Barium (Barium (Sodium Ag+ + e- →Ag oxidation number of Cr is + 10 whereas
Sulphate) Chloride) Sulphate) Chloride) H2O2+Cl22HCL+O2
(RRB GROUP-D 28.9.2018)
oxidation state is + 6.
(RRB ALP & TECH. 10.08.2018) The oxidation number of nickel in
The reaction of sodium sulphate and During the reduction reaction, electrons
barium chloride solution is an example of K4(Ni(CN4) is Zero.
are added into the atom. (SSC MTS 10.03.2013)
double displacement reaction. (RRB GROUP-D 12.10.2018)
(RRB JE 26.05.2019)
• Oxidation is the increase in oxidation
• Oxidising agent: The chemical species number by loss of electrons.
Insoluble substance is known as which undergoes reduction during
precipitation. • Reduction is the decrease in oxidation
chemical reaction by gaining electrons is number by gain of electrons.
(RRB GROUP-D 15.10.2018)
called oxidizing agent or oxidant. • Oxidising agent is that substance which
It form in double displacement reaction. (RRB
GROUP-D 15.10.2018) They are good for purification of drinking undergoes decrease in oxidation number.
The precipitation reaction produces the water. • Reducing agent is that substance which
(RRB NTPC 29.03.2016)
insoluble salts. undergoes increase in oxidation number.
Fluorine is the strongest oxidizing agent.

59
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Application of Redox Reactions When water itself combines chemically with
(i) In extraction of metals e.g. reduction of some element or mineral it is called-
metal oxides by coke or by electrolysis. Hydration
(ii) In Industrial processes such as (SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO & LDC . 28.11.2010)

manufacture of heavy water (D2O), Warming ammonium chloride with sodium

electroplating, electrotyping, electro hydrochloride in a test tube is an example of
refining etc. Open system.
(iii) Source of energy in space capsules. e.g. In a chemical reaction catalyst speeds up
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. chemical reaction.
(iv) In photosynthesis, CO2 is reduced to Spontaneous change is one in there is a
carbohydrate (C6H12O6) while H2O is lowering of free energy.
oxidized to oxygen.
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
(v) In combustion of fuels,
Fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat energy.
Redox Reaction
Reduction + Oxidation
  
Gain of electron Loss of electron
Any individual element will always have
oxidation number = 0
NOTE:-
Rancidity
Rancid is basically occur when the
fatsandoils within them get oxidized(oxygen
causes rancidity) and the taste and smell of
food change.
(SSC MTS 07.08.2019)
Note:-
1. Sodium Thiosulphate or Hypo
(Na2S2O3)
It is a photographic fixer used in studios
for best colour quality. It is used only in
hard copy photographs not in Digital
photography.
(SSC SECTION OFFICER 30.09.2007,
SSC CHSL 28.10.2012), (SSC CHSL 09.11.2014)
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 05.12.2022 Shift-1)
2. Substances that contain fat and oil we
added antioxidant in them.
3. Keep food in air tight container.
4. Chips are packed in air tight packets with
nitrogen gas to prevent from oxidation.
(SSC MTS 16.08.2019)
5. Refrigerators keep food unspoiled
because at its low temperature, bacteria
and moulds are inactive
(SSC CHSL (PRE) 24.10.1999) (SSC DEO Exam.
02.08.2009)
Catalyst: A substance which does not
take part in the reaction as a reactant. It
is not changed by the reaction or used up
during the reaction. It is still there in the
same form when the reaction is
complete.
(SSC Tax Assistant 12.11.2006)
In the preparation of oxygen by way of
decomposition of potassium chlorate
Manganese dioxide acts as a catalyst.

Note:
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11. CHEMICAL BONDING

Chemical bond: It refers to the structure. It was given by Lewis and • •
Na3P ; 3Na + •• P •• → Na+ [ •• P ••] Na+
attractive force which binds various Kossel (1916) and was extended by
Na+
constituents (atoms, ions, molecules, Langmuir (1919). It assumes that the
etc.)in different chemical species. combination of atoms occurs due to Since the ion has a uniform field of
rearrangement of electrons in their influence around it so the ionic bond is
outermost shell. The rearrangement may non-directional in nature.
involve either transference of electrons Energy Changes during Formation of
from one atom to another or mutual Ionic Bond
sharing of electrons. The formation of ionic bond may the
Ionic or Electrovalent Bond following three stages:
The metallic ion atom or electropositive (i) Formation of gaseous cation
Octet rule: An atom tends to gain, lose or atom loses its valence electrons and A(g) + I.E. → A+(g) + e-
share electrons during molecule changes into positive ion (cation) The energy required for this step is
formation so that there are eight while a non-metallic atom gains called ionisation energy (I.E.)
electrons surrounding it. electron and changes into negative ion (ii) Formation of gaseous anion
or (anion). The oppositely charged ions are X(g) + e- → X-(g) + E.A.
The atoms of different elements take part held together by electrostatic force of The energy released in this step is called
in a chemical combination in order to attraction. Thus ionic bond may be electron affinity (E.A.)
complete their octet (i.e. to have eight defined as the electrostatic force of (iii) Packing of ions of opposite charges to
electrons in the outermost or valence attraction holding the oppositely charged form ionic solids
shell) or duplet (i.e.to have two valence ions. It is formed by complete transfer of A+(g) + X-(g) → AX-(s) + U
electrons) in some cases such as H, Li, Be, electrons from one atom to the other. The energy released in this step is called
etc. (SSC CAPFS 06.07.2017 & 07.07.2017) lattice energy.
Lewis symbols: Lewis introduced The compounds which contain the ionic Note: In Ionic compounds, ions attract
symbols to represent the valence or electrovalent bonds are known as each other and are strongly joined by
electrons in an atom. These symbols are ionic or electrovalent compounds e.g., electrostatic forces.
(RRB GROUP-D 02.11.2018,
called Lewis symbols. NaCl, BaCl2, CaF2, etc.
RRB GROUP-D 21.11.2018)
In Lewis symbols, the valence electrons For the formation of a stable ionic
are represented as dots surrounding the Formation of NaCl
compound, the net energy released
symbol of an atom or ion. e.g. Lewis • •• ••
Na + •Cl •• → Na+ [••Cl•• ]- or should be larger than the energy
symbol for sodium is Na similarly for ••
Na+••
Cl- or NaCl required.
some other atoms these Hence for the formation of stable ionic
are (2, 8, 1) (2, 8, 7) (2, 8) (2, 8, 8) bond
 
            (a) Ionisation energy of cation forming atom
Li,Be,  B ,  C ,  N ,  O  ,  F  ,  Ne  , et The number of electrons which an atom should be low.
   
losses or gains while forming the ionic bond (b) Electron affinity of anion forming atom
c.
is called its electrovalency. should be high.
These symbols are also called electron
The atom which loses electron is called (c) Lattice energy should be high.
dot symbols.
electropositive atom. Lattice energy (U): It is the amount of
Importance of Lewis Symbols
The atom which gains electron is called energy released when one mole of ionic
(i) They represent the number of valence
electro negative atom. solid is formed by the close packing of
electrons.
If there is one million Mg2+ ions in MgCl2, gaseous ions of opposite charges.
(ii) They also give information of the valency
of element. Valency is equal to either the Two million chloride ions are there Note:TwoThemillion
magnitude of lattice energy
(SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO &
number of valence electrons or (8 - gives us idea about the inter ionic forces.
PA/SA Exam, 01.11.2015,)
number of valence electrons) e.g., the Electron Dot Representation of Some Factors on which lattice energy
valency of Li, Be, B and C is 1, 2, 3, 4, Ionic Compounds depends: It depends upon the following
respectively and that of N, O, F and Ne is 2
factors:
3 (8-5 = 3), 2, 1, 0, respectively.

    
 (i) Size of the ions: Smaller the ions, lesser is
In 1919 year did Langmuir reform the K2O ; 2K + O  → K+  O   K+ ⇒ CaF2 inter nuclear distance and greater will be
   
Lewis concept by abandoning the idea of   the inter ionic attraction hence larger
a stable cubical arrangement of the octet  
will be the magnitude of lattice energy.
and introducing the term ‘covalent bond’.


      (ii) Charge on the ions: Larger the charge on
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 05.12.2022 Shift-3) Ca  + 2 F  → F  ca2+ F 
   ions, higher is the value of lattice energy.
  
Electronic Theory of Valency     Variable valency: There are many
This theory explains the combination of elements which exhibit variable valency,
atoms in terms of their electronic

61
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e.g. Fe shows valency of + 2 and + 3; Pb Multiple covalent bonds: If atoms share O = O → O or O = O+ - O-
shows valency of + 2 and + 4. one electron pair it is called single Limitations of Octet Rule
(a) In case of transition elements with covalent bond, if two electron pairs are (i) It is not able to explain the formation of
electronic configuration (n - l) d1-10ns1-2, shared it is called double covalent bond, covalent molecules such as BeH2, BeCl,
the attainment of noble gas configuration if three electron pairs are shared it is BF3, etc. where central atom does not
is not possible because it is not called triple covalent bond. The double acquire octet even though the bonds are
energetically favourable to lose so many and triple covalent bonds are collectively formed by mutual sharing of electrons.
electrons. Therefore, normally they lose called multiple covalent bonds e.g. (ii) Violation of octet rule is observed in
valence electrons to form cations with 
   
    compounds such as PF5, SF6, IF7, etc.
lower valency, but the electronic O + O → O O or O = O where the central atom has more than
       
configuration of such an ion is not stable        
eight electrons in their valence shell.
(as it is not a noble gas configuration), so N  +  N → N   N or N≡ N (iii) This rule is not able to explain the
   
they may lose one or more d-electrons to energy changes during the bond
The covalency of an element is the
exhibit the higher electro valency. formation.
number of electrons which it contributes
(b) In case of heavier elements of p-block, (iv) This rule is based on the fact that noble
for sharing while forming a covalent
the variable electro valency is exhibited gases are inert and do not take part in
bond.
due to inert pair effect. In heavier bond formation but recent researches
Carbon tetrachloride is a covalent
elements of p-block, the effective nuclear have shown the participation of some
compounds.
charge experienced by valence electrons noble gases like Kr and Xe in bonding.
(SSC MTS 23.04.2014)
becomes larger due to poor shielding of Some of their compounds are XeF2, XeF4,
General Characteristics of Covalent
inner d-and f-orbitals and due to this the Bond (or Covalent Compounds) XeOF2, XeOF4, XeF6, KrF2, etc.
s-electrons in valence shell start Quantum Theory of Covalent Bond
(i) Covalent compounds exist as individual
becoming inert towards bonding. This molecules and they generally have low According to modern wave mechanical
reluctance of s-electrons of valence shell model of atom, a covalent bond is formed
m.p. and b.p.
to participate in bonding is called inert (ii) They are insoluble in water (polar by overlapping of atomic orbitals.
pair effect. It has been found that the energy of
solvent) but soluble in non-polar
Due to inert pair effect, only p-electrons solvents (e.g. CC14, CS2, etc) hydrogen molecule is less as compared to
of valence shell participate in bonding energy of two hydrogen atoms.
(iii) They give molecular reactions.
and a cation of lower valency is formed. (iv) The covalent bonds are generally poor H(g) + H(g) → H2(g) + 433 kJ mol-1
Under drastic conditions when s- Thus we can say that there is always a
conductors of electricity
electrons also participate in bonding, the (SSC CHSL 19.03.2018) decrease in energy whenever atoms
cation of higher valency is formed. e.g. (v)They have weak intermolecular force. combine to form a molecule.
Pb  -2e- pb2+  -2e- pb4+ (SSC CHSL 19.03.2018) Actually when atoms are far apart they
(v)Organic compounds are Covalent do not have any force of interaction
[Kr]4d105s25p2 [Kr]4d105s2 [Kr] 4d10
compounds (attraction or repulsion), as they tend to
[Inert pair effect]
(SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam. (2013) come closer, two different forces operate.
General Characteristics of Ionic
(vi)The reaction is fast, this statement is not (i) The nucleus of one atom is attracted
Compounds
correct regarding covalent compounds. towards the electrons of the other and
(i) They are crystalline solids and are
(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) vice-versa. Energy is released in
generally brittle. Exam. 27.05.2012) attraction.
(ii) They have high m.p. and b.p
(RRB NTPC 20.01.2021)
(ii) The nuclei of the atoms as well as their
Coordinate-Covalent Bond or Dative
(iii) They are good conductors of electricity. electrons repel each other. Energy is
Bond
(iv) They are soluble in polar solvents, e.g., needed to overcome the force of
This type of bond is formed by mutual
water. attraction.
sharing of electrons between two atoms
(v) They give ionic reactions. A stable molecule will be formed, if
but shared pair of electrons is
Covalent Bond magnitude of attractive forces >
contributed by only one of the two
It is formed by mutual sharing of magnitude of repulsive forces.
atoms, the other atoms simply
electrons between the two atoms with Note:
participates in bonding.
each atom contributing equal number of (i) When two hydrogen atoms approach each
The atom which donates electron pair is
electrons for sharing e.g., other the overall potential energy of the
called donor. The atom which accepts the
(SSC CHSL 30.01.2017 & system decreases. Hence a stable
electron pair in order to complete its
RRB JE 29.05.2019 &RRB NTPC 11.01.2021) molecule of hydrogen is formed.
octet is called acceptor.
 •• ••
  •• ••  (ii) In case of approach of helium atoms, the
Cl•+•Cl → Cl •• Cl •• or Cl - Cl The coordinate-covalent bond is
 •• ••   •• ••  overall repulsive forces are more than
represented by an arrow (→) pointing
the attractive forces and so a molecule of
The bond can be shown by a line (—) towards acceptor or by putting formal
helium is not formed.
between atoms instead of a bond pair. positive charge on donor, formal
Orbital concept of covalent bond:
The valence electrons not involved in negative charge on acceptor and covalent
According to it, a covalent bond is formed
sharing are called non-bonding electrons bond between them e.g., ozone molecule
as a result of overlap of orbits belonging
or lone pairs or unshared pairs. (03).

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to the two having opposite spins of maximum stability. It is measured in nm if XA -XB < 1.7, bond A - B is mainly
electrons. (nanometres) or pm (picometres). covalent.
Conditions Favourable for Orbital The bond length is influenced by the Dipole moment: Dipole moment of a
Overlapping following factors. molecule is the product of its net positive
(i) Only the atomic orbitals with one electron (i) Size of the atoms: Larger the size of atoms or negative charge and distance between
(half-filled) can take part in overlap. forming the bond larger is the bond the atoms. It is represented by arrow
(ii) At the time of overlap, the combing length. pointing from positive to negative end. It
orbitals must have opposite spin of (ii) Multiplicity of bond: More is the is usually designated by a Greek letter μ .
electrons. multiplicity of bonds, smaller is the bond Mathematically, µ = e × d, where e= net +
(iii) The overlap must be maximum. length. ve or –ve charge, 'd' is distance between
Types of Orbital Overlap (Sigma and (iii) Types of hybridisation: Greater the s- the atoms. Its unit is Debye, where 1
pi bonds) character associated with a particular Debye = 10-18 esu cm. Its S.I. unit is Cm
Sigma bond: The bond which is formed bond, smaller will be the bond length, e.g. (Coulomb-metre).
by the head overlapping of half-filled sp3C-H (111 pm) > sp2C-H(110 pm) > sp Dipole moment and molecular
atomic orbitals along the inter nuclear C-H(108 pm) structure
axis is called sigma bond. The relation between bond length and (i) In diatomic molecules, the dipole
Pi bond: The bond which is formed by bond energy is higher the bond energy, moment of the bond also gives the dipole
the side wise lateral overlapping of half- shorter the bond lengths. moment of the molecule.
filled atomic orbitals in a direction (SSC CGL 19.01.2017)
(ii) In polyatomic molecules, the dipole
perpendicular to the inter nuclear axis is Bond angle: It is the average angle
moment is the resultant of the vectors
called pi bond. between two (molecular orbitals) bonds
which represent various bond dipoles.
Note: meeting at the same nucleus in a
The resulting dipole in such cases
(i) s-half-filled atomic orbital is always polyatomic molecule. It is measured in
depends upon the geometry of the
involved in axial overlapping only since it degrees and minutes.
molecule and the spatial orientation of
is spherically symmetrical, it always Coordinate-Covalent Bond
various dipoles.
takes part in sigma bond formation. The It is a special type of covalent bond in
Tri atomic molecules
sigma-bond formation may involve s-s, s- which shared pair of electrons is
p or p-p overlapping. supplied only by one of the atoms
(ii) π-(pi) bond is formed only in addition to forming the bond. The atom which
a sigma-bond. supplies the electrons is called donor
The number of pie and sigma bond bonds while the other atom which only uses the (a) In linear molecules (e.g. CO2) the two
in benzene are 12 and 3. shared pair of electrons is known as dipoles cancel each other and the
(RRB ALP 13.08.2018) acceptor. It is shown by arrow-head (→). resultant dipole moment is zero.
Bonding Parameters Orbital concept of coordinate bond: (b) In case of bent molecules (e.g. H2O) they
Bond energy: It is the amount of energy According to orbital concept, a do not cancel each other and the resultant
required to break one mole bonds of a coordinate bond is formed by the overlap dipole moment is there. µ for H20 is 1.83
particular type between the atoms in the of a filled orbital of one atom with empty D.
gaseous state of a substance. It is orbital of the other. Similarly, we can find the resultant
measured in kilo joules (kJ). Polar covalent bond: If covalent bond is dipole moment for other polyatomic
When a chemical bond is formed formed between two dissimilar atoms molecules.
energy is always released having difference in electronegativity, Covalent Character in Ionic Bonds—
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. year 1997 then the shared pair of electron is more Fazzan’s Rule
towards more electronegative atom Polarising power: It refers to the power
It depends upon the following factors
which acquires δ - charge and other atom of the positive ion to cause distortion in
(i) Size of the atom: Larger the size of
acquires δ + charge. This type of bond is the electron cloud of the negative ion.
participating atoms, more will be the
Polarizability: The ability of negative
bond length and smaller will be the bond called polar covalent bond. The
ion to undergo polarisation is called
energy. compounds having polar covalent bond
polarizability.
(ii) Multiplicity of bond: Greater the bond form ions in an aqueous solution. It is
The % of covalent character in an ionic
multiplicity, more will be the bond also called ionic character of the covalent
bond depends upon the polarising power
energy. bond.
of the cation and the anion.
The extent of ionic character of a
Factors on which Polarizing Power
Note: When a bond is formed between covalent bond depends upon the
Depends
two atoms, the total energy of the difference in electro negativity values of
(i) Size of the cation: Smaller the size of
system will remain the same. the two atoms forming the bond. Greater
cation, larger will be its polarizing power
(SSC CHSL 16.11.2014) the difference in electro negativity
e.g. Li+ is smaller than K+ ion, so LiCl has
values, greater is the percentage of ionic
Bond length: It is the average distance more covalent character than KC1.
character. If xA and xB represent electro
between the centres of the nuclei of the (ii) Electronic configuration of cation: For
negativities of atoms A and B.
two bonded atoms in a molecule two cations of similar size and charge,
if XA -XB = 1.7, bond A - B is 50% ionic.
corresponding to minimum energy and the cation with noble gas configuration
if XA -XB > 1.7, bond A - B is mainly ionic.
63
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has smaller polarizing power, e.g. and a highly electronegative element
polarising power of Cu+ (96 pm) > Na+ (such as N, O or F) within the same
(95 pm). Thus, CuCl is more covalent molecule or another molecule of same or
than NaCl. different compounds.
Factors on which Polarizability of
Anion depends Conditions for Hydrogen Bonding
Size of the anion: Larger the size of the (i) The hydrogen atom must be linked to
anion higher will be its polarizability, e.g. highly electro negative atom such as F, O,
Lil is more covalent than LiCl. and N.
Bonding in Solid State, Hydrogen Bond (ii) The size of electronegative atom must be
Andresonance small. Smaller the size of the atom,
Ionic crystals: In ionic crystals, the units greater will be polarization of covalent
occupying crystal points are positive or bond with hydrogen atom and so greater
negative ions e.g. NaCl. will be extent of dipolar attraction.
Types of Ionic crystals Types of Hydrogen Bond
(i) AB type: Such crystals contain equal (i) Intermolecular hydrogen bond: For
number of cations and anions, e.g. NaCl, the formation of this type of bond, both,
CsCl. ZnS. etc. hydrogen atom and the electro negative
(ii) AB2 type: In such crystals, the number of atom, (atoms forming hydrogen bond)
anions is twice the number of cations e.g. must belong to different molecules e.g.
CaF, TiO2, etc. H— F...H— F.
(iii) AB3 type: In such crystals, the number (ii) Intra-molecular hydrogen bond: It is
of anions is three times the number of formed when hydrogen atom and the
cations e.g. AlF3, electronegative atom taking part in
(iv) Layer structure hydrogen bond formation belong to the
Covalent solids: In such solids covalent same molecule e.g. o-Nitro phenol,
bonds extend throughout the solid and so Salicyaldehyde, o-Nitrobenzaldehyde.
they may be considered as very large The weakest bond in nature is hydrogen
molecules e.g. diamond, graphite etc. bond.
They are also known as atomic solids. NOTE:
Molecular solids: In such solids the Ethylene is a nonpolar molecule.
(SSC CHSL 16.01.2017)
individual covalent molecules are held
Ammonium is a cation.
together by van der Waals forces of
(SSC CGL 07.03.2020)
attraction e.g. sugar, urea, ice, camphor, Note: ammonium chloride possesses ionic ,
etc. covalent and coordinate bonds.
Metallic solids: In such solids the metal
atoms are held together by metallic When two ice cubes are pressed over each
bonds. In metallic bonding, a regular other they unite to form one cube, because of
lattice of positive kernels is held together hydrogen bond formation.
by a cloud of loosely bound electrons. (SSC Tax Assistant 05.12.2004)
These electrons are free to move
throughout the lattice e.g. Ag, Au, Na, Cu,
Fe, K, Al, etc. All metals and alloys have
metallic bonds.
Metals: Those elements which can lose
electrons are called metals. They are
mostly solids except mercury and
gallium. They are good conductors of
heat and electricity. Some of them are
malleable and ductile.
Hydrogen Bond

It is weak electrostatic force of attraction

between hydrogen atom of one molecule

64
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12. Polymers
These are compounds of very high molecular is not regarded as a polymer because it polymer e.g. nylon-66, polyester,
masses formed by the combination of a large does not contain monomers. Bakelite, etc.
number of simple molecules. Examples of Classification of Polymers on the Basis
polymers are Plastics, synthetic fibers, of Source
synthetic rubber, etc. • Natural polymers: Polymers found in
nature mostly from plant and animal
sources, are called natural polymers e.g.
starch, cellulose, protein, silk, wool,
natural rubber, etc.
(SSC CGL 06.09.2016)
• Synthetic polymers: The polymers
Type of Polymerization Reactions
which are prepared in the laboratory are
Classification of polymers • Addition polymerization: This type of
known as synthetic polymers or
• Monomers or monomer units: The polymerization generally occurs between
manmade polymers e.g. polyethylene,
small molecules which constitute the molecules containing double or triple
synthetic rubber, polystyrene, nylon,
repeating units in a polymer are called bonds. In this type of polymerization, the
PVC, Teflon, orlon, etc.
monomer units. monomers simply and together forming
Classification of Polymers on the Basis
• Polymersation: The process by which polymeric chains e.g. polypropylene.
of Structure
the monomers are transformed into • Chain growth polymerization: It is a
polymers is called polymerisation. result of addition polymerization. For
The polymerization of Ethylene is this type of polymerization some
used in manufacturing of polythene in initiator, like some organic peroxide is
industry always needed for the production of free
(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) Exam. 25.09.2005, • Linear polymers: These are the radical, the monomers are then added to
10.12.2006) polymers in which monomer units are this free radical produced and addition
• Homo polymers: Polymers formed from linked together to form long straight takes place in a chain fashion e.g.
one kind of monomers are called homo chains e.g. polyethylene. ethylene, propylene, butadiene,
polymers e.g. polyethylene • Branched chain polymers: Those tetrafluoroethylene, vinyl chloride etc
polymers in which monomeric units are undergo chain growth polymerization.
nCH2 = CH2 (— CH2 – CH2 —)n linked to constitute long chains (called • Step growth polymerization: It is a
Ethylene Polythylene main chains). There are side chains of result of condensation polymerization.
(Addition polymer) different lengths which constitute The condensation takes place step by
branches. Such polymers have lower step. The condensation may take place
• Polyethylene terephthalate is a very with or without elimination of smaller
tensile strength and lower melting points
familiar form of polyester. It is used for molecules such as water etc. e.g.
compared to linear polymer.
making bottles. polymerization of adipic acid and
• Cross-linked polymers: In such
• Copolymers: Polymers formed from hexamethylene diamine to from nylon-
polymers the monomeric units are linked
more than one kind of monomer units 66., terphthalic acid and ethylene Glycol
together to constitute a three
are called copolymer or mixed polymer to form polyester (terylene). Phenol and
dimensional network. Such polymers are
e.g. Buna-S (1, 3 – butadiene and styrene) formaldehyde to from Bakelite
hard, rigid, and brittle e.g. Bakelite.
• Biopolymers: Various biomolecules (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam.10.12.2006)
Classification of Polymers on the Basis
such as carbohydrates, proteins which Classification of polymers on the Basis
of Mode of Synthesis
are polymers are called biopolymers. of Magnitude of Intermolecular Forces
• Addition polymers: When monomer
They are biodegradable polymers. Present in Them
units are separately added to form long
Biodegradable polymers are those which • Elastomers: These are the polymers in
chains without the elimination of any by
can be degraded by microorganism. which the polymer chains are held
product molecules. The product is known
• Macromolecules: A large number of together by weakest intermolecular
as addition polymer e.g.
synthetic polymers are long chain forces e.g. natural rubber.
nCH2 = CH2 → (— CH2 – CH2 —)n
organic molecules and they contain
thousands of monomer units. Such Addition polymer
molecules have a very high molecular • Condensation polymers: When
mass. Such molecules are called monomers contain active functional
macromolecules. group (generally two) which react
Note : All polymers are macromolecules together with the elimination of a simple
but all macromolecules are not polymers. molecule such as H2O, then the product
formed is known as condensation
E.g. chlorophyll is a macromolecule but it

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• Fibers: These are the polymers which (SSC CHSL 12.08.2021)

have quite strong intermolecular forces • Polydienes: These are the polymers of Viscose fiber, i.e. rayon, is a fiber made from
such as hydrogen bonding e.g. nylon, dienes e.g. synthetic rubber. In such regenerated cellulose. Because it is produced
Dacron, silk, etc. polymers there are two double bonds. from naturally occurring polymers, it is
Fibers are of two types that: • Polyolefins: These are the polymers infact neither a purely synthetic fiber nor a
(i) Natural Fiber (ii) Synthetic Fiber derived from unsaturated hydrocarbons natural fiber. It is semi-artificial fiber.In the
(i) Natural Fiber – the Fibers that are e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene, textile industry, rayon is known as viscose
obtained from plant and animals are polystyrene etc. rayon or artificial silk.
known a natural Fiber Ex- wool, linen, • Polyacrylates: Such polymers can be
cotton, jute, silk, etc. obtained from a variety of acrylic • Resilience: It is the property of
(SSC CHSL 05.03.2018 & monomers e.g. polymath methacrylate, returning to originally shape and size
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 03.12.2022 Shift-1)
polyethylacrylate etc. after the distortion forces are removed.
Cotton fiber catches fire least. • Silk: A thread like natural polymer which
• Polyhalo-olefins: These are the
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 24.10.1999)
polymers obtain by polymerization of is obtained from cocoons of silk worms.
(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) Exam. 25.09.2005) It is a natural polyamide fibre.
halogenated unsaturated hydrocarbons
(ii) Synthetic fiber- these Fiber are manmade Silk fibre chemically is protein
e.g. PVC, PTFE (or teflon).
Fiber produced from chemical
• Formaldehyde resin: It refers to such (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 24.02.2002)
substances and used for making clothes • Teflon: It is polytetraflouro ethylene. It
polymers which are made up of
and other useful things these are made is used in making oil seals and gaskets
formaldehyde with compounds such as
by process polymerization. and also used for non-stick surface
(RRB GROUP-D 12.12.2018) phenol, urea, melamine, etc.
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 10.12.2006) coated utensils.it involve carbon fluoride
Ex- polyester, polyamide rayon(made up
• Buna-S: this polymer is obtained by bonding.
of wood pulp), nylon etc.
polymerization of butadiene and styrene. (RRB NTPC 04.04.2016 & 30.04.2016,
(RRB NTPC 01.04.2021)
SSC CGL 10.09.2016)
• Synthetic fiber easily catches fire, It is a polydiene polymer.
• Terylene: It is a polyester. It is used for
however the uniform of firemen have a • Glyptal or alkyd resin: It is used in the
making textiles. It is also called Dacron.
coating of melamine plastic to make manufacture of paints and lacquers.
Glycol is used to manufacture the
them flame resistance, they are more • Glycogen: it is a polymer of glucose and
terylene.
durable, they are prepared by a number can be represented as (C6H10O5). It is also (SSC CGL 08.09.2016)
of processes using petrochemicals. known as animal starch. It is found in all It is a condensation polymer of ethylene
(RRB NTPC 01.04.2021) animal cells, mainly liver. On combustion glycol and terephthalic acid.
(SSC MTS 07.10.2021) it provides energy needed for life (SSC CGL 27.08.2016)
• Firefighting clothes are made from processes. • Thiokol: It is a synthetic rubber. It is
Asbestos. • Gutta-percha: It resembles natural obtained by polymerization of ethylene
(SSC CHSL 04.12.2011)
rubber and is a polymer of trans- dichloride (an organic gas) and sodium
NOTE:
isoprene. polysulphide by condensation
• Thermoplastics: In these polymers the
• Neoprene: It is a polymer of polymerization. It is used as a rocket fuel
intermolecular forces are intermediate to
chloroprene. (i.e. 2-chloro-1, 3- when mixed with oxidizing agent.
those of elastomers and Fibers e.g.
butadiene). It is a synthetic rubber. It is • Urea-formaldehyde resin: It is used for
polyethylene, polystyrene, PVC, Teflon,
fire resistance and is used in making china ware.
polystein etc.
(RRB GROUP-D 30.10.2018) manufacture of conveyor belts used in • Melamine-formaldehyde resin: It is
• Thermosetting polymers: Such coal mines. used for making non-breakable plastic
polymers are generally obtained from • Nylon: In early 1930’s’ Nylon was crockery.
semi-fluid polymers with low molecular prepared from coal, water and air. Nylon • Wool: It is a natural polymer obtained
masses by heating in a mould when a was the first fully synthetic fiber and it from hair of sheep, goat etc.
hard, infusible and insoluble mass if was strong elastic and light. • Polyurethanes: These are obtained by
(SSC CHSL 06.03.2018) the action of di-isocyanate with a
formed.
A nylon thread is actually stronger than a polyester having hydroxyl groups on
• Polyamides: The polymers containing
steel wire. ends. These are used as leather
an amide linkage in chains are known as
(SSC CGL 21.08.2017)
polyamides e.g. nylon. substitutes (corfoam).
Nylon threads are made up of Polyamide
(SSC MTS 16.02.2014) Uses of Some Polymers
polymer.
• Polyesters: The polymers which contain • Teflon or (polytetrafluoro ethylene,
(SSC CGL 04.09.2016)
an ester linkage are known as polyester • Rayon: It is an artificial silk; it is PTFE)
e.g. Dacron. obtained from cellulose and its
Polycot(it is a mixture of polyester and derivatives. It does not absorb water.
cotton), Polywool, Terrycot fabrics have (SSC Tax Assistant 12.11.2006)
polyester. (SSC SO 10.12.2006)
(SSC JE 22.01.2018 & (SSC MTS 12.07.2022)
SSC CHSL 08.03.2018) It is made from natural sources of
Fabrics made from polyester does not regenerated cellulose. It is a semi-
wrinkled easily. synthetic fiber such as wood and related
(SSC CGL 22.08.2017) agricultural products.
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(iv) As insulator and wrapping material if we (SSC Stenographer Grade 'C' & 'D'
Exam. 16.10.2011)
coating the conducting wire with PVC is
This phenol-formaldehyde resin is a
avoid short circuit.
thermosetting polymer. Bakelite is the
.
(RRB GROUP-D 18.09.2018)
commercial name for the polymer
obtained by the polymerization of phenol
and formaldehyde. These are one of the
oldest polymers that were synthesized
by man.
It is used as a lubricant, insulator and
making cooking wares.
(i) It is used as a material resistant to heat • Nylon-66:
and chemical attack. It is a polyamide fiber and obtained by
(ii) It is used for coating articles and the condensation of hemamethylene
cookwares to make them non-sticky as non- diamine and adipic acid.
stick utensils. (SSC MTS 04.09.2016, 10.03.2013, 16.02.2014)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) It is used The first man made plastic that is bad
Exam. 24.10.1999) (i) in making bristles for brushes conductor of heat is bakelite
(iii) It is used for making gaskets, pump (ii) in textiles and also for making sheets. It is (SSC STENOGRAPHER 11.09.2017)
packings, valves, seals, non-lubricated blended with wool for making socks and When the phenol is taken in excess and
bearings, etc. sweaters. the reaction medium is made acidic, the
• PVC (polyvinyl chloride)It is a high (iii) in the manufacture of cords and climbing product of the condensation reaction
strength thermoplastic material widely ropes. obtained is acidic. Whereas, when the
used in applications, such as pipes, (iv) The plastic material commonly used for quantity of formaldehyde taken is more
medical devises, wire and cable making gear wheels is Nylon than that of phenol in the reacting
insulation. (SSC SO. 09.09.2001) mixture, and the reaction occurs in a
(RRB GROUP-D 04.10.2018) • Nylon-6: basic medium, the condensation product
(SSC CHSL 11.08.2021) is known as Resol. These intermediate
It is a polymer of caprolactum. It is used
It is obtained by the polymerization of condensation products are used as resins
for the manufacture of type cords, fabrics
Vinyl chloride and ropes. in different industries. Bakelite is
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 05.06.2005) (i) It is used in the manufacture of tyre cords. obtained when Novolac is allowed to
(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam.
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of fabrics. undergo cross-linking in the presence
27.05.2012)
It is used in the manufacture of rain (iii) It is used in the manufacture of ropes, of a cross-linking agent. In general,
coats, hand bags, leather clothes, floor etc. phenol taken in excess acts as the cross-
tiles and vinyl flouring. linking agent. The preparation of bakelite
(RRB GROUP-D 06.10.2018) involves several steps, as illustrated
It is used as a good insulating material in below.
wires and other electrical goods. (SSC CPO 06.06.2016) &
(SSC DELHI POLICE 02.12.2020
It is also used for making gramophone
• Terylene: Bakelite is a type of thermosetting
records.
It is a synthetic polymer of ethylene plastics used as non conductive material.
It is used as a light weight, but strong
glycol and terephthalic acid. It is also It acts as a kind of dielectric material. The
plastic.
known as Dacron. cable act as an insulator for protection
(SSC CPO 06.06.2021)
• Polystyrene or Styron: It is used from electric shocks.
(RRB JE 14.12.2014)
(i) for making clothes by mixing with cotton.
(ii) for making magnetic recording tapes,
parachutes.

It is used
Note: A polymeric substance used to make
(i) For making hot drink cups, toys, combs,
household article etc. • Melamine parachute is Viscose
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) It is used to make plastic crockery
Exam. 05.05.2002) )(SSC CHSL 11.08.2021) (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 04.02.2007)
(ii) For making radio and television bodies,
• Bakelite
refrigerator linings.
Bakelite is a
polymer (SSC CPO
(iii) For making tiles to be used in covering
Exam.06.06.2016)made up of the
ceilings and floors
formaldehyde and phenol

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13. Solution
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two metals, hydrogen over (ii) The two components are almost
or more substances whose composition can palladium. immiscible e.g. water and benzene, oil
be varied within certain limits. Liquid Solid Mercury in copper, and water.
(SSC CHSL 16.11.2014 & mercury in gold Note: Any mixture of two liquids boils at
(SSC CGL 05.03.2020)
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I, 09.03.2023)
Solid Solid Homogeneous mixture of a temperature lower that the boiling
For Example- two or more metals point of either.
Sea water, (It can be categorized as a (alloys, e.g. copper in (iii)The two components are partially
solution) Sugar solution (sugar is dissolved gold, zinc in copper), miscible e.g. ether and water.
substance) coloured stones, gems, Salinity – it is the saltiness or amount of
(RRB NTPC 18.04.2016), etc. salt dissolved in a body of water, called
(SSC CAPFS 09.12.2019) saline water. This is usually measured in
Salts of sodium is most soluble Aqueous Solutions are those solutions in g salt sea water. However, the
(SSC CGL 17.08.2021)
which water acts as a solvent. commonest way to record salinity is to
Components of a solution: The substances
Non-aqueous Solutions are those solutions measure the amount of salt in 1000g of
making up a solution are called the
in which the solvent is some other substance water, so it is referred to as ‘parts per
components of solution.
and not water. The common non-aqueous thousand’ or ppt. most of the ocean has a
The component present in smaller amount is
solvents are ether, benzene, CCI4, etc. salinity of between 34 ppt and 36 ppt.
known as solute. The component present in (SSC MTS 13.08.2019)
Solubility: It is the maximum quantity of a
larger amounts is known as Solvent. Sea water is saltier than rain water
solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of
The particles of the solute do not scatter a because rivers wash away salts from
solvent at specified temperature.
beam of light . earth and pour them into sea.
(SSC CPO 24.11.20)
Note: The unit of ionic product of water
(Kw) is Mol2lit-2. Solid solutions are common in case of
The particle of the solute cannot be seen
Solubility of gases in liquids increases with mixture of solids e.g. gold and copper
with unaided eyes.
decrease in temperature. alloys. Even, some metals have a
(SSC CPO 24.11.20)
Homogenous mixture of a solute and a (SSC CPO 25.11.20) tendency to dissolve large quantities of
solvent is called solution. Saturated solution: A solution which is not gases to form solid solutions of gases in
(SSC CHSL 10+2 DEO & LDC Exam. 16.11.2014, capable of dissolving any more solute at metals e.g. Pd and Pt can take up
(RRB NTPC 17.01.2017) given temperature is known as saturated hydrogen at room temperature to form
(SSC CGL 05.03.20) (SSC CPO 24.11.20)
solution. solid solutions.
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I, 09.03.2023)
Unsaturated Solution: A solution which is (RRB ALP 10.08.2018)
The solute and Solvent concerned as Azeotropes or Azeotropic mixtures:
solution. capable of dissolving more solute at a
particular temperature is called an Liquid mixtures which distil over without
(SSC DELHI POLICE SI 24.11.2020)
unsaturated solution. a change in composition are called
Types of Solutions
Super-Saturated Solution: It is a solution constant boiling mixture or
Types of solutions on the basis of physical
which contains more of dissolved solute than azeotropes.
states of solute and solvent
could be present in a saturated solution at a Zeotropes: Those solutions which do not
Solute Solvent Example
given temperature. boil at the same temperature i.e. their
Gas Gas Mixture of gases, air.
Liquid Solution: These are formed by composition changes on distillation are
Liquid Gas Water vapour in air
mixing solids or gases in liquids or two called Zeotropes. The components of a
(humidity)
liquids. zoetrope can be separated by fractional
(FCI Assistant Grade-II Exam.
22.01.2012) Note: distillation.
(i) Some solid substance also form liquid Colligative Properties
Sublimation of a solid solutions on mixing e.g. An equimolar The properties of solutions which
Solid Gas
(e.g. camphor) into a gas, mixture of sodium and potassium metals depend only on the number of solute
dust or smoke particles at room temperature is liquid. particles but not on the nature of the
in air (ii) Oxygen gas is sufficiently soluble in solute are called colligative properties.
CO2 gas dissolved in water to allow survival of aquatic life in The four important colligative
Gas Liquid
water. lakes, rivers, ponds, etc. properties are:
Mixture of miscible Liquid in liquid solution can be further (i) Relative lowering in vapour pressure of a
Liquid Liquid
liquids i.e. alcohol in classified as follows solution
water (i) The two components are completely (ii) Elevation in boiling point of a solution
Salt in water, sugar in miscible, e.g. alcohol and water, benzene (iii) Depression in freezing point of a
Solid Liquid
water and hexane. solution
Phenomenon of (iv) Osmotic pressure of a solution
Gas Solid
adsorption of gases over Note:

68
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(i) Colligative properties of a solution are property to the calculated value of 1. In such case, the observed molecular mass
also called democrative properties. will be less than the theoretical value.
(ii) The mass, size and electrical charge do colligative property on the basis of Degree of dissociation ()
not change the values of colligative normal behaviour of solute. Number of molecules dissociated
properties as long as the number of =
Total number of molecules
particles of solute remains same. Some key terms: It is the ratio of molecules dissociated to the
The colligative properties depend on Isotonic solutions: Pair of solutions having total number of molecules.
following factors: same osmotic pressure which do not involve Reverse osmosis: If the pressure applied on
(i) The number of solute particles any flow of solvent molecules through the solution side exceeds the osmotic pressure
(ii) Nature of solvent semi-permeable membrane is called then the osmosis can be reversed (i.e., pure
(iii) Extent of association or dissociation of isotonic solutions. solvent can be forced out of the solution to
solute particles in solution. Hypertonic solution: Two solutions under pass through the pores of the membrane in
Osmosis: It was studied by Abbe Nollet. consideration one having higher value of opposite direction). This type of osmosis is
The passage of solvent from pure solvent osmotic pressure (i.e. higher molar called reverse osmosis.
or solution of a lower concentration to concentration) is called hypertonic solution Uses :-
the solution of a higher concentration with respect to the other. 1. Reverse osmosis is used in desalination
through a semi permeable membrane. It Hypotonic solution: Two solutions under of sea water so as to obtain salt free
differs from diffusion in the sense that consideration one having lower osmotic water.
the flow of particles is in one direction pressure (i.e., lower concentration) is known 2. Reverse osmosis used in water
only. as hypotonic solution with respect to the purification.
Semipermeable membrane is a other. (RRB NTPC 28.04.2016)
membrane that permits a selective Turgor: When a plant cell is placed in pure 4. Water make pure by reverse osmosis.
passage of chemical species i.e it allows water, osmosis occurs and water passes into (RRB NTPC 18.01.2017)
solvent molecules to pass through it but cells resulting in swelling of cells. The When dried raisins are placed in a
does not allow solute molecules to pass pressure developed inside the cell due to this concentrated salt solution they shrink.
through it. Eg. Parchment paper, inflow of water is called turgor. (SSC MTS 11.10.2021)
Cellophane, Copper ferrocyanide is Plasmolysis: When the cell is placed in a Adsorption: It is a surface phenomenon.
considered best semi permeable solution whose osmotic pressure is greater It arises because of unbalanced forces on
membrane. than that of the cell sap, water passes out of the surface of solids and liquids.
Biological Important of Osmosis the cell due to osmosis and so the cell The phenomenon of higher
(i) Movement of water from soil into plant material shrinks gradually. This gradual concentration of molecular species
roots and then in upper portions of shrinking of the cell material is called (gases or liquids) on the surface of a solid
plants. plasmolysis. than in the bulk is called adsorption.
(ii) The retention of water into tissue cells Immiscible: When two liquids do not
and intercellular spaces in people eating dissolve in each other and do not form a
a lot of salty food. solution, they are called immiscible
(iii) The preservation of meat by salting. substances.
(iv) The preservation of fruits by adding (RRB NTPC 18.04.2016)
sugar. Isoosmotic solution: When two isotonic
Osmotic pressure (): The hydrostatic solutions are separated by semi-permeable
pressure which is produced due to membrane and no osmosis occurs, then the It is the process of adhesion of molecules
osmosis is called osmotic pressure of the two isotonic solutions are called iso-osmotic of gas, liquid or dissolved substances or
solution. solutions. particles, to the surface of a solid
  = hdg Isopiestic solutions: Those solutions whose substance.
Where h = the height to which a liquid vapour pressures are equal at a particular Absorption: It is the assimilation of
rises, d = density of the solution, g = temperature are called isopiestic solution. molecules into a solid or a liquid
gravity Association: When two or more solute substance with the formation of a
Osmotic pressure can also be defined as particles associate (i.e. form bigger solution or a compound.
the mechanical pressure which must be molecules) then the number of solute Adsorbent: It is the substance upon
applied on a solution to prevent osmosis particles in a solution is less than the whose surface the adsorption occurs.
of the solvent into the solution through a expected number and consequently the Activated coconut charcoal acts as best
semi-permeable membrane. experimental value of colligative property is adsorbent.
  = cRT less than the expected value. In such a case Adsorbate: It is the substance that is
Where c = Molar concentration of solute i< 1. The molar masses in such cases will be being adsorbed.
in solution greater than the theoretical values. Desorption: It is the process of
Dissociation: The solute molecule ionise in removing an adsorbed substance from
 n
Or π V = nRT  c  solution and so the number of particles the surface on which it is adsorbed.
 V
increase in solution and as a consequence COLLOIDS
Van't Hoff Factor(i) = It is the ratio of the experimental value of colligative Substances such as sugar, urea, common
property is more than the calculated value. salt, etc. which readily pass through a
experimental value of colligative
This is called dissociation. In such a case i>

69
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semi-permeable membrane, while in the Note: coloured gemstone is the example of solution, stearate ions associate to form ionic
dissolved state are known as crystalloids. solid sol. micelles of colloidal size.
Substances such as starch, glue, gelatin Critical micellization concentration
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. Gel: When dispersed phase is a liquid and (CMC). It is the lowest concentration of the
12.05.2002)
the dispersion medium is a solid then the surfactant (surface active agent) at which
etc. which in dissolved state either do not
colloidal solution is called a gel e.g. cheese, miscelle formation takes place.
pass at all through the semi-permeable
butter, boot polish, face cream etc. Surface active agents: These are the
membrane or pass very slowly through a substances which tend to concentrate on the
Lyophobic sols: Those sols in which there is
semi-permeable membrane are known as surface of the solution. When such a
no apparent affinity between dispersed
colloids. phase and dispersion medium are called substance is added to a pure liquid the
Blood is a natural colloid. lyophobic sols. Such sols are comparatively surface tension decreases, e.g. soaps,
(SSC CGL 19.05.2013)
less stable e.g. silver sol, gold sol, etc. detergents.
The physical state of ordinary substances
Lyophilic sols: Those sols in which there is Peptisation: The process of converting a
does not include colloid substances.
(RRB NTPC 17.01.2017) great affinity between dispersed phase and precipitate into colloidal form by shaking it
Colloid(particles of solute) cannot scatter a dispersion medium are called lyophilic sols. with dispersion medium in the presence of
beam of light passing through it. These sols are comparatively more stable e.g. small amounts of electrolyte is called
(RRB NTPC 01.04.2021) starch, gelatin and glue sols in water. peptisation. The electrolyte is called the
Colloidal state: It is the state or a sub- Hydrosols or Hydrophilic colloid: peptising agent e.g. gelatine, gum-arabic,
division in which the diameter of the particle starch, soaps, etc. are easily peptised by
Colloidal solutions in which water is the
is between the range l nm and 100 nm i.e., water. Cellulose nitrate is peptized by
dispersion medium.
dispersed phase of a colloidal system. organic solvents such as ethyl alcohol. The
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 04.02.2007)
Colloidal solution: It is a heterogeneous product obtained is commercially known as
Alcohols: Colloidal solutions in which the
system consisting of (a) the dispersed phase collodion.
dispersion medium is alcohol.
and (b) the dispersion medium. Dialysis: It is the process of purification of
Benzosols: Colloidal solutions in which the
Milk is a colloidal system in which fat(second sol by allowing the soluble impurities to
dispersion medium is benzene.
largest component) is dispersed in water. diffuse out through a membrane where as
Intrinsic colloids: Some substances on
(SSC CGL 24.02.2002, colloidal particles cannot pass through the
SSC MTS 11.12.2011) warming with suitable liquid pass into
membrane. If the process of dialysis is
(SSC MTS Staff Exam. 17.03.2013,) colloidal solution readily. These are called
carried out under the influence of electric
Cheese is an example of colloidal solution of intrinsic colloids e.g. gum-arabic, glue,
field then it is known as electro dialysis.
liquid in solid. starch, gelatine, etc. The colloidal solution of
Properties of Colloids
(SSC JE 24.01.2018) such substances are lyophilic sols
(i) They are heterogeneous in nature.
Dispersed phase: The phase of colloidal Extrinsic colloids: Substances which do not
(ii) They can pass through normal filter
particles is called dispersed phase. It is also pass into colloidal solution even on heating
papers.
known as discontinuous or inner phase. It are called extrinsic colloids, e.g. silver, gold
(iii) Colloidal particles do not settle down
consists of discrete particles which are sol, etc.
under the effect of gravity. They are stable.
significantly larger than those in the true Multimolecular colloids: It refers to those
Brownian movement: The continuous and
solution. colloidal systems in which the dispersed
irregular (zig-zag) movement of colloidal
Dispersion medium: The medium in which phase is constituted by large aggregates of
particles as observed through an ultra-
the dispersed particles are dispersed is atoms or molecules with diameters less than
microscope is known as Brownian
known as dispersion medium. In case of 1 nm which are formed as a result of
movement. It is used to determine the
hydrosols the dispersion medium is water. aggregating properties of the dispersing
Avogadro’s number.
The dispersion medium constitutes the particles e.g. gold sol, hydrated ferric oxide
Tyndall effect: When a beam of light is
continuous phase or outer phase. It consists sol, etc.
allowed to pass through a colloidal solution,
of continuously interlinked particles. Macromolecular colloids: It refers to those
the path of the beam is illuminated by a
Aerosols: In such a colloidal solution, the colloidal systems in which the dispersed
bluish light and becomes visible when
dispersed phase is either a solid or a liquid phase is constituted by large molecules
observed from the sides. This effect is caused
and the dispersion medium is a gas or which are called macromolecules (usually
due to the scattering of light by colloidal
suspended solid particle in air. e.g., fog, polymers) e.g. starch, cellulose, rubber, etc.
particles. Scattering of light depends upon
clouds, smoke (solid dispersed in gas) Associated colloids: It refers to the
the difference between the refractive indices
(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) 30.09.2007) substances which behave as normal strong
(SSC CPO. 06.09.2009) (SSC 10+2 Level DEO &. of dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
electrolytes at lower concentration but
LDC Exam. 04.11.2012) (SSC Cabinet Secretariat RO Electrophoresis: It is the movement of
23.06.2013)
behave as colloidal particles at higher
colloidal particles under the influence of
Cloud is a colloidal dispersion of Water concentration e.g. soap, synthetic detergents,
applied electrical field. It occurs because of
etc.
drops in a dispersion medium of air the presence of a positive or negative charge
Micelles: These are the aggregates of ions or
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005) on colloids. It is also called cataphoresis.
molecules with lyophobic as well as lyophilic
Sol: If the dispersed phase is solid and the Removal of carbon particles from air
parts. Micelles are of colloidal dimensions
dispersion medium is either a solid or a involves the principle of Electrophoresis
though the individual ions or molecules may
liquid then such a colloidal system is called a (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.09.09.2016.
not be of colloidal dimensions. Sodium
sol e.g. paints, gold sol, muddy water, ruby Coagulation: It is the process of converting a
stearate is an example of micelles. In
glass, gem stones, etc. colloidal solution into a precipitate. It is

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usually done by adding an electrolyte. Muddy The colloid which is an example of foam- .
water is treated with alum in purification Sponge
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I, 09/03/2023)
process, it is an example of coagulation
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam, 16.08.2015 Note The fat of a common mussel-secretes
Gold number: It is the amount (in sticky glue that can be used to make heart
milligrams) of a protective colloid that must implants. The unique chemical compound
be added to 10 ml of gold sol to prevent present in the glue is - Dihydroxy phenyl
coagulation when l ml of 10% solution of alanine
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 21.04.2013)
NaCl is added to it. Higher the gold number,
lesser is the protective power. Gelatin is mostly used in making ice-creams
Emulsion in order to stabilize the colloid and prevent
(SSC CGL 21.04.2013) crystallization
Emulsion is a colloidal system involving one
liquid dispersed in another liquid provided
both are immiscible.
(SSC SO 06.01.2008)
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 21.04.2013, 06.09.2016) .
Examples : milk, butter, milk cream, cold
cream, vanishing cream, curd etc. there are
many drugs and medicines which are also in
the form of emulsions e.g. various ointments,
cod liver oil, etc.
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 16.12.2007)
(SSC MTS 13.07.2022)
Emulsifiers or emulsifying agents are
substances which help in making the
emulsions stable, e.g. soaps, agar, gum, etc.
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 29.03.2009)
Oil in water emulsions (O/W) is those in
which oil is the dispersed phase and water is
the dispersion medium e.g. milk (natural
Emulsion)
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005)

Water in oil emulsions (W/O) is those in

which water is the dispersed phase and oil is
the dispersion medium, e.g. butter, cream,
etc.
Emulsification: The process of making
emulsions (liquid-in-liquid colloids) is called
emulsification.
Demulsification: It is the process of
breaking down an emulsion into constituent
liquids by physical methods such as freezing.
Boiling, filtration, centrifuging, electrostatic
precipitation etc.
Syneresis: It refers to the shrinkage in
volume by gels when they are allowed to
stand.
Aqua-dag: It is colloidal solution of graphite
in water.
Saturation state: It is the state of the system
when extent of adsorption becomes constant
x 
 value does not change  and does not
m 
change with pressure.
Saturated pressure: It is the minimum
equilibrium pressure of the gas (adsorbate)
x
at which becomes constant.
m
NOTE:-

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14. Electro Chemistry

The branch of sciences which deals with the like KCl or KNO3 which does not react with (ii) Multiply the half-reaction to equate the
relationship between electrical energy and solutions. It prevents the accumulation of electrons taking part in them. E0 values
chemical energy and inters conversion of one charges in half-cells and completes internal are not multiplied as they have fixed
form to another is called electrochemistry. circuit. values for different electrodes.
Electrochemical Changes: The chemical (iii) Subtract the equation for the reaction
changes which involve the flow of electric having smaller E0 value from the
current are called electrochemical changes. equation with higher E0 value to get the
value of E0cell.
Electrolytic cells: These involve the The working of a dry cell is based on
electrochemical reactions in which electrical electrolysis.
energy is converted into chemical potential (SSC MTS 30.04.2017)

energy.
Electrolytic Conduction
In such cells electrical energy (electrical
The flow of electric current through an
current) is used to drive redox reactions Representation of Galvanic Cell electrolytic solution is called electrolytic
which have positive reaction free energy (i) The anodic half cell is usually conduction.
(G) and are non-spontaneous represented as M/Mn+ while the cathodic Electrolyte: Any substance that dissociated
Electrolysis: The phenomenon of chemical half-cell is represented as Mn+/M where in solution to furnish ions. These are the
changes taking place by the passage of M represents the symbol of element and substances which allow the passage of
electrical energy from an external source is Mn+ represents its cation in electrolyte. electricity in molten state or through their
called electrolysis. The concentration of electrolyte may be
(RRB je 11.01.2019)
aqueous solution.
mentioned in brackets. Electrolytic solution: Any solution that
Aluminum metal & highly rejactive metal
(ii) Anodic half-cell (oxidation half) is conducts an electric current. Most liquid that
from ore are only extracted by the
written on the left hand side (It has a conduct electricity are solutions of acids,
Electrolysis.
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 03.09.2006) negative potential with respect to the bases and salts.
(RRB GROUP-D 28.09.2018, solution) where as the cathodic half-cell Strong electrolytes are those substances
RRB GROUP-D 01.10.2018) (reduction half) is written on the right which dissociated completed into ions in
According to a law postulated by Michael hand side. solution e.g. HCl, NaOH, KOH, NaCl, KNO3, etc.
Faraday the amounts of different substances (SSC CPO 25.11.2020)
Strong electrolytes are mineral acids (like
liberated by the same quantity of electricity (iii) The two half cells are separated by two
HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 etc.), alkalies or salts of
passing through the electrolytic solution are vertical lines which indicate salt bridge.
mineral acids and alkalies.
proportional to their chemical equivalent. For example
Weak electrolytes are those substances
(SSC CPO 25.11.2020) Zn-CuSO4 cell may be represented as
The devices or cells used to carry out which do not ionize completely in solution
Zn/Zn2+ (1M || Cu2+(l M)/Cu
electrolysis are called electrolytic cells. e.g. organic acids and bases (like) CH3COOH,
Anode Cathode
Electrochemical Cell or Galvanic Cell pyridine, etc.), salts like HgCl2, etc.
(-) (+) (SSC CHSL 16.04.2021)
In these cells, spontaneous redox reaction is E.M.F of the Cell: It is equal to maximum Degree of ionisation (): The ratio between
used to generate an electric current. potential difference between when no the ionized molecules and the total number
The device in which chemical energy current is drawn from the cell. It is of molecules is known as degree of
released during a chemical reaction is measured by potentiometer. ionization.
converted into electrical energy is called an Active metals: Those metals which can The ratio between equivalent conductance at
electrochemical cell or galvanic cell. evolve hydrogen on reaction with acids a given concentration and equivalent
(SSC CHSL 06.12.2015)
are called active metals e.g. Ca, K, Na, Mg, conductance at infinite dilution is known as
Oxidation Electrode: The electrode at degree of ionization
Al, etc.
which oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs is c
Inactive metals: Those metals which are =
known as oxidation electrode. Oxidation
not in a position to evolve hydrogen on 
takes place at anode, so it is called oxidation
reaction with acids are known as inactive Non-electrolytes: The substances which do
electrode. e.g.
metals. e.g. Cu, Hg, Ag, etc. not conduct electricity either in molten state
Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– (anode)
E.M.F. of a cell for or through their aqueous solutions are
Reduction Electrode: The electrode at
E 0cell  E 0cathade  E 0anode called non-electrolytes e.g. alcohol, sugar,
which reduction (gain of electrons) occurs is
glucose, glycerin, etc.
known as reduction electrode. At cathode, If two half-cell reactions are given then
Factors that affect electrical conductivity
reduction takes place, so it is known as EMF can be calculated by following steps:
(i) The inter ionic interaction between
reduction electrode. e.g. (i) Write two half-cell reactions in terms of
solute-solute particles.
Cu2+ 2e– Cu(s) electron accepting tendencies of ions
(ii) The salvation of ions e.g., the interaction
Salt Bridge: It is a U-shaped tube filled with along with their E0 values.
between solvent-solvent molecules.
agar-agar paste containing inert electrolyte

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Ohm’s law: According to it, “The continuously as long as the oxidizing agent
strength of current (l) flowing through a and reducing agent are supplied to the
conductor is directly proportional to the electrodes.
potential difference (E) applied across
the conductor and inversely proportional
to the resistance (R) of the conductor.”
E
I=
R
The current is measured in amperes,
potential difference in volts and electrical
resistance in ohms. This law is obeyed by
metallic conductors as also by
electrolytic conductors. For hydrogen oxygen fuel cells the
l Secondary cells: In secondary cells the reactants and the reactions are:
Cell constant: The ratio (i.e., length electrode reaction can be reversed by an
a Anode: Porous carbon containing
external electrical energy source and the suitable catalyst.
and area of cross-section) is known as
reaction can be made to occur again and Cathode: Porous carbon containing
cell constant.
again. So these cells can be recharged and suitable catalyst.
Some Commercial Cells
used again. Examples of such cells are lead Electrolyte: Conc. aqueous KOH or NaOH
Primary cells: In this type of cells the
storage batteries, nickel-cadmium storage Reaction:
electrode reactions cannot be reversed
cells, etc. At anode: 2H2 + 4OH– → 4H2O + 4e-
by an external electric energy source and
Lead Storage Battery At Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-
the reaction occurs only once. Such a cell
Anode: Lead plates Overall reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H20.
becomes dead after certain period of
Cathode: Lead dioxide Anodizing
time and so it cannot be used again.
(SSC Tax Assistant 11.12.2005)
Example of such cells is dry cell, mercury It is an electrochemical process that
Electrolyte: 38% H2SO4
cell, etc. converts the metal surface into a
Reactions:
decorative, durable, corrosion- resistant,
Discharging
2
high quality surface finish. The most
At Anode: Pb + SO4 → PbSO4 + 2e– common acid is used in the anodizing
2
At Cathode: PbO2 + SO4 + 4H+ + 2e– → processes on Aluminum are dilllute acid,
sulpuhuric acid or oxalic acid.
PbSO4 + 2H2O Electroplating
Recharging
The process of depositing a layer of any
2
At Anode: PbSO4 + 2H2O → PbO2 + SO4 + desired metal on another material by
4H+ + 2e– means of electricity is called
2 electroplating. This is accomplished
At Cathode: PbSO4 + 2e– → Pb + SO4
using an electroplating apparatus that
include a brine solution, wires and
Nickel-cadmium battery (Nicad): Such a alligator clips that hold carbon rods
battery is used in calculators, rechargeable attached to the metal to be electroplated
flash batteries, cordless electric shavers and and the metal to be layered.
tooth brushes. (RRB NTPC 21.01.2021)
Dry Cell: it is based on electrolysis (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005) Metals used for electroplating :-
(SSC MTS Staff Exam. 30.04.2017
Since it consumes water as an electrolyte so • Zinc is used in electroplating on iron.
it has low voltage which remains fairly (RRB NTPC 04.03.2021)
Anode  Zinc container constant. - Zinc • Chromium, copper and nickel are
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam.
Note: commonly used for electroplating.
24.10.1999)
(FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012)
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 09.09.2001) Conversion of chemical energy into
• A spoon is to be electroplated with nickel
electrical energy occurs in a battery
Cathode  Graphite rod (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002) the spoon is made cathode and a pure
Electrode  Paste of KOH and ZnO (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005) nickel rod, the anode.
Cell reaction: A traditional ‘battery’ contains chemical of (SSC STENOGRAPHER 16.10.2011)

At Anode: Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e– Sulphuric acid. It is an aqueous solution of copper

(SSC CGL 10.06.2019) sulphate using copper electrodes gives
At Cathode: 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4+ (aq.) + 2e– 
Fuel cells: Those electrical cell which can copper at cathode and oxygen at anode.
Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3 (g) + H20
convert the energy of combustion of fuels (SSC STENOGRAPHER 09.01.2011)
Voltage: 1.25 V – 1.5 V Gold sulphate used is in the electroplating
(like hydrogen, carbon monoxide etc.)
Mercury cell: it consists of
directly in electrical energy are called fuel of gold.
zinc-mercury amalgam at anode and a paste
cells. Such cells are free from pollution. Their (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 16.06.2002
of HgO and carbon at the cathode. The
efficiency is high. A fuel cell runs
electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO.

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The degree of dissociation of an electrolyte molten metal., and the other layer (slag) refining, zone refining and Van-Arkel and
depends on dilution. is composed of molten silicate minerals de Boer’s method.
(SSC CHSL 10.11.2013) and other ionic materials such as Gangue: The undersized, rocky material
In electro – refining, the pure metal is phosphates. present along with the ores is called
deposited on cathode. The most important pyro metallurgical gangue. It is also called matrix.
(SSC CHSL 10.11.2013)
operation is to obtain iron from its oxide Magnetic separation: It is based on
ores by reduction in a blast furnace. magnetic and non-magnetic properties of
METALLURGY (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & two components of ore (pure and
It is the process of extraction of metal in LDC Exam. 28.10.2012
impure). This method is used when ore
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.06.09.2016 )
pure state starting from its ore. or gangue is magnetic in nature.
(RRB GROUP-D 24.09.2018) (ii)Hydrometallurgy: It involves the use of
chemical processes occurring in aqueous The powdered ore is dropped on the belt
The action of heating ores in the
solution to effect separation of a metal moving over two rollers, the magnetic
presence of oxygen is called breakage .
from its ore or one particular element component is attracted to the magnetic roller
(RRB GROUP-D 06.12.2018) from others. while the non-magnetic impurities fall
Types of Metallurgy Leaching: It is the process in which a farther off. An ore of tin (tin stone)
(i) Pyrometallurgy: In this process, heat is particular mineral in an ore can be containing wolframite (a magnetic impurity)
used to bring about the chemical dissolved selectively with the help of is concentrated by this method. It is also
reactions that convert an ore from one suitable reagent (acid or base) while the used to remove tungsten ore particles from
chemical form to another. impurities remain insoluble. In the cassiterite (SnO2). It is also used to
Calcination: It is one of the processes Bayer’s process, Aluminum is concentrate magnetite (Fe3O4),chromite
used in pyrometallurgy. Calcinations are selectively dissolved from bauxite by (Ironchromiumoxide)
the process in which ores are heated treatment with concentrated. NaOH (FeCr2O4and pyrolusite (MnO2) from
strongly in the absence of air so as to solution. unwanted gangue.
(SSC MTS11.10.2021)
remove volatile impurities. Heat 2NaAlO2
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO &
Al2O3.2H2O + 2NaOH  Electrostatic separation: It is based on
LDC Exam. 20.10.2013) + 3H2O the fact that an electrostatic field would
Carbonate and hydroxide ores are (Bauxite) Sodium-meta-aluminates charge the good conducting material
converted into corresponding oxides. (SSCMTS 08.07.2022) immediately and will be repelled and
Roasting: It is the process of heating an NaAlO2 + 2H2O → Al (OH)3↓ + NaOH thrown away by the electrode carrying a
ore in the presence of oxygen so as to The precipitate Al (OH)3 is filtered, like charge.
convert the given ore into oxide ore. washed and upon heating gives alumina This method is used for the separation of
Roasting is mainly employed for sulphide (Al2O3) is pure state. PbS and ZnS which are found together in
ores(Copper sulphide) and sulphur 2Al (OH)3 Heat Al2O3 + 3H2O a mineral. PbS being a good conductor is
dioxide (SO2) is an important byproduct Alumina charged at once and repelled and thrown
in this process. The process of leaching can also be used away while ZnS being poor conductor is
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 30.03.2008
in case of argentite, Ag2S (a silver ore) not charged and hence drops vertically
(RRB NTPC 18.01.2021)
and also for certain ores containing gold. from the roller.
Smelting: Smelting is a form of
Second step of decomposition is Leaching. Isolation or Extraction of Metal
extractive metallurgy and its main use is
(Constable GD Examination 2022, 01/02/2023) Isolation: The separation of element or
to produce a metal from its ore. Smelting
(iii) Electrometallurgy: Electrolytic compounds from mineral is called
uses heat and a chemical reducing agent
methods are used for obtaining isolation.
such as C, H2, Al, etc. As most ores are
purification of a highly electropositive The process of isolation is completed in
impure, it is often necessary to use flux,
element. Sodium is obtained by the following steps:
to remove accompanying gangue as slag,
electrolysis of molten sodium chloride in (a) Conversion of concentrated ore to its
a chemical compound added to the ore so
Down’s cell. Aluminum is obtained by the oxide form
as to remove impurities by chemical
Hall’s process by electrolysis of (b) Conversion of the oxide to the metallic
reaction in the form of slag.
Al2O3(alumina) in molten cryolite form
Slag: It is a fusible mass produced on the
(Na3AlF6). Copper is purified by the Conversion of Ore into Oxide
surface of a liquid metal in smelting and
electrolysis of copper sulphate solution It is completed in two steps called
refining of metals. It is formed by the
using anode made up of impure copper. calcinations and roasting.
combination of impurities like silica, iron
Important Steps Used in Metallurgical Calcinations is carried out by heating the
oxide, etc. with flux.
Process ore either in the absence of air or limited
Slag is a name given for- molten
(i) Ore dressing or Beneficiation or supply of air whereas roasting is done by
alumina
production of concentrated ore. heating the ore in excess of air.
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 24.10.1999)
(ii) Production of metal via roasting, In both these process place are as
Calcium silicate is obtained as slag in a
calcinations, smelting or electrochemical follows:
blast furnace.
reduction. During calcinations
(SSC CGL08.07.2012)
(iii) Refining of metal via liquation, (i) Moisture is driven out and ore becomes
In a smelting operation, two or more
distillation, oxidative refining, electro- dry.
layers of mutually insoluble material
form in the furnace. One layer consists of
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(ii) Some hydrated ores become anhydrous. (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.10.09.2016) (ii) Heavy rocks i.e. Basalt containing 40-
For Example Some Important Terms 50% SiO2 together with MgO. Mg is
Heat Al2O3 + 2H2O Alunite: A white or pink mineral second most abundant element in heavy
Al2O3.2H2O  consisting of basic sulphates of rocks.
(Bauxite) Aluminum and potassium More than 100 elements are known at
Heat Fe O + 3H O
Fe O .3H O  [KAl3(SO4)2(OH)2].
2 3 2 2 3 2 the present time. 88 are naturally
It is used as a source of potash alum. It is occurring, others are man-made. Oxygen
(iii) Some carbonate ores get converted to also called alum stone. is most abundant element in earth crust
oxides Calcite (Iceland spar): A colourless (49.5%).
Heat ZnO + CO ↑ crystalline natural form of calcium Si is second most abundant element
ZnCO 
3 2
carbonate (CaCO3). It crystals show (25.7%) in earth crust Al is most
Heat PbO + 2CO2↑
PbCO3  double refraction. abundant metal (7.5%) in earth crust. Fe
CaCO3. MgCO3 → CaO + MgO + 2CO2↑ Haematite (Blood Stone); (Fe2O3): An is second most abundant metal (4.7) % in
(Dolomite) ore of iron. It is used in paint pigments earth crust.
Dolomite is an ore of Calcium. It is and jeweler’s rogue. The maximum iron Poling process it is used for the
composed of calcium magnesium ore is found in this state. purification of impure metals such as
(SSC SECTION OFFICER 1997 & FCI 05.02.2012)
carbonate, ideally CaMg(CO3)2 oxide of metals.
(SSC SSC CHSL 03.07.2019)
Malachite [CuCo3.Cu(OH)2]: Naturally (RRB GROUP-D 26.10.2018)
It is not a coal variety. occurring green stone used in pigments. Ultra purification of a metal is done by
Dolomite is an ore of Magnesium. MgCO3. Siderophile: A zone of earth’s crust zone melting
(SSC MTS 20.10.2021) which is called metallic core. It contains (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam, 16.08.201)
During roasting elements Mn, Ru, Re, Fe, Rh, Os, Co, Pd, Ir,
(i) Any organic matter present in ore gets Ni, Cu, Ag, Pt and Au.
destroyed. Lithophile (Sillicate Crust): It is a zone
(ii) Impurities of non-metals such as S, As, P, of earth’s crust. It contains silicate crust
etc. get converted into their volatile along with chlorides, sulphates and c
oxides which get removed. carbonates of Na, K, Li, Rb, Cs (Alkali
E.g., metals), Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba (alkaline earth
Heat SO metals). Silicate crust consists of silicates
S + O 
2 2(g)
and oxides of Be, Al, Si, Y, La, Ac, Ti, Zr,
Heat P4O10(g)
4P + 5O2  Hg, Th, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, U.
Heat 2As2O3(g) Chalcophiles: Cu, Zn, As and Pb are
4As + 3O2 
commonly found as sulphides. These are
(iii) Sulphides of metals are converted into called chalcophiles (from Greek word
their oxides Khalkos stands for copper and brass).
E.g. Earth’s Crust: Light elements such as
Heat 2ZnO + 2SO2(g)
2ZnS + 3O2  oxygen, silicon and aluminum make up
Heat 2PbO + 2SO2(g) the earth’s crust. Oceanic crust is mostly
2PbS + 3O2 
basalt which also contains Mg and Fe.
(iv) In partial roasting, sulphides may also be Naturally occurring inorganic elements
converted into sulphates e.g. or compounds in the earth crust are
ZnS + 2O 
2
Heat ZnSO 4 called Mineral matter.
(RRB GROUP-D 16.11.2018)
PbS + 2O2 Heat PbSO4
(element) % in Earth’s crust
Electrolytic refining (Electrolysis) : (SSC STENO. 18.11.2022
This is used for refining of Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, SHIFT-2)

Zn, Al, etc. The impure metal is made i. Si 27.7%

anode whereas pure metal is made ii. O 46.6%
cathode. Suitable electrolyte is used e.g. iii. Al 8.13%
CuSO4 and dil. H2SO4 is used in refining of iv. Fe 5.0%
Cu.
At anode: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e- Continental crust is composed of two
Impure main types of rocks:
At cathode: cu2+ + 2e- → Cu Silica and alumina are the main mineral
(Pure) constituent of continental mass.
Impurities like Zn remain in solution (SSC MTS 16.08.2019, 07.10.21)
whereas Te, Ag, Au collect below the anode (i) Light rocks, i.e. granite and related types
as anodic mud or anode sludge. (containing 70% SiO2 together with
Sludge (solid waste/It is a by product of Al2O3). Al is second most abundant
sewage treatment and can be decomposed to element in these rocks.
produce bio-gas )

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15. General Processes Used in Chemistry

Purification of an Impure Substance (SSC CHSL 16.04.21)

(Separation of Constituents from Mixture) Procedure: The mixture of sand and water is
Various methods are used to separate the kept undisturbed in a glass beaker for some
constituents from a mixture (or to purify an time. The insoluble heavier sand particles
impure substance). Some of these methods (known as sediments) get settled at the
are: bottom of the beaker. Now water is slowly
(i) Magnetic separation removed (i.e., decanted off) and sand
(ii) Sedimentation or decantation particles are left behind.
(iii) Filtration The function of sedimentation tank in
Large number of substances (like Impure
(iv) Sublimation sewage treatment is to remove suspended
camphor
(v) Distillation solids. (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 03.09.2006),
c 21.10.2012)
(vi) Fractional distillation naphthalene, ammonium chloride, iodine,
(iii) Filtration
(vii) Extraction with a solvent (SSC Higher Secondary Level DEO &
LDC Exam. 28.11.2010),
(viii) Chromatography
benzoic acid, etc.) passes directly into vapour
The constituents can be separated only by
state when heated, without undergoing a
chemical or electrochemical reactions.
change into liquid state. Moreover, vapors of
(i) Magnetic Separation
these substances on cooling revert back to
solid state. The solid so obtained is called
sublimate and process is called sublimation.
This process is used for separation of volatile
substances from other non-volatile
This method can be used to remove the components, e.g., we can separate a mixture
suspended matter from a given solution or to of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride
separate a precipitate that is formed in a by using sublimation.
chemical reaction. Procedure: Since ammonium chloride
Procedure: Take a filter paper and convert sublimes on heating, whereas sodium
it into a cone. Now place the hollow cone in chloride does not, so the mixture is taken in a
The separation of mixtures by use of a the funnel in such a way that it remains porcelain basin covered with a small
magnet is called magnetic separation. This below the rim of the funnel. inverted funnel, the stem of the latter is
process can be used to separate constituents The liquid containing the suspended packed with cotton (or glass wool). The
from a mixture of two components if one of impurities or the precipitate is now allowed porcelain basin is carefully heated, pure solid
them is magnetic and the other is non- to fall on the funnel from one side over a ammonium chloride sublimates, gets
magnetic in nature glass rod. The liquid passes through the deposited on the inner walls of the funnel;
Procedure: A mixture of iron filings and small pores of the filter paper and gets while the non-volatile sodium chloride is left
sulphur is placed on a glass plate and a collected in the beaker placed below the behind as a residue in the porcelain basin.
horseshoe magnet is repeatedly moved over funnel as filtrate. The suspended particles
it, iron filings get stuck to the magnet in each are retained by filter paper as the solid (v) Distillation
operation and can be removed. After a few residue. This process can be used to separate a
operations entire iron filings will be This method can be used to separate: mixture of liquids which differ in their
removed leaving behind sulphur which is (i) Mixture of sand and water. boiling point appreciably e.g. a mixture of
non-magnetic in nature. (ii) A white ppt. of AgCl (formed when AgNO3 benzene and toluene.
(SSC CHSL 15.11.2015) solution is mixed with NaCl solution). It can also be used to separate solution of a
(ii) Sedimentation or Decantation (iii)A mixture of iron particles and sulphur. solid in a liquid. e.g. aqueous solution of
(Note: Sulphur is soluble in CS2). sodium chloride, copper sulphate, a mixture
(iv) Water separate from turbid water is of water and alcohol
(SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax & Central Excise Exam.
done by filtration.
12.11.2006),
(RRB ALP 31.08.2018)
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 28.10.2012)
Distillation is the joint process of
(iv) Sublimation vapourisation and condensation.
(SSC CHSL 02.08.2019)
This process is also called gravity separation. Desalination of water is also done by
It can be used to separate a mixture in which distillation.
one constituent is a liquid and the other is an (SSC CHSL 8.10.2012 RRB NTPC 19.04.2016)
insoluble solid heavier than the liquid e.g. and purification of seawater
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 09.11.2008)
sand dispersed in water (i.e., muddy water).
(SSC CISF ASI 29.08.2010)

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Procedure: The mixture to be separated is not dissolve. The solvent and water must be different adsorption affinity are adsorbed at
taken in a distillation flask fitted with a immiscible with each other. The tap of the different distances from the starting point.
thermometer, a condenser and a receiver. separating funnel is closed and contents in it Hence different bonds or chromatograms are
The distillation flask is heated and the are shaken thoroughly for some time and formed at different parts of the adsorbent.
volatile component of mixture begins to then funnel is kept undisturbed for some Different components can be recovered from
distil over. In case, mixture consists of two time. The organic substance from aqueous these bands by elution and analyzed.
volatile liquids, the lower boiling component layer migrates to the solvent layer. The two If a column of suitable adsorbent is used in
distils over first; while the higher boiling layers are carefully separated by opening the the process we call it column
component distils over after that. To avoid tap. chromatography. But if the process takes
bumping and superheating of the liquid The solvent layer is transferred to a beaker place on a thin layer of adsorbent coated on a
mixture, a few pieces of glass beads are and the aqueous layer is once again placed in glass plate, then it is known as thin layer
added to the distillation flask. the separating funnel, treated with the chromatography.
solvent and the above process is repeated
two or three times.
Separating funnel can also be used to
separate ether and water present in a
mixture.

(vi) Fractional Distillation

It is used to separate those liquids which
have less difference in their boiling points by (viii)Chromatography
making use of fractionating columns. The This method of purification was first
actual purpose of the fractionating column is discovered by a Russian botanist Tswett in (b) Partition chromatography
to increase the cooling surface area and to 1906. This method has a wide application for
provide hurdles or obstructions to the separation, purification, identification and
ascending vapours and descending liquid. characterization of the constituents of
Procedure: The process is similar to complex substances
distillation and the apparatus used is same (solids, liquids or gases) such as amino acids,
as in distillation except a fractionating sugars, vitamins, hormones and plant
column that is introduced as shown in figure. pigments, etc.
Various Types of fractionating columns are It is the, most important technique that is
used. used for the separation of a mixture by
passing it in solution or suspension through
a medium in which the components move at It is a liquid-liquid chromatography in which
different rates both the mobile phase and stationary phase
(SSC DELHI POLICE 13.03.2019) are liquids. Paper chromatography is an
The technique of chromatography depends important type of partition chromatography
on the selective distribution of components in which the stationary phase is water which
of the mixture between two phases, one is adsorbed or chemically bound to special
stationary phase or fixed phase and other type of paper called chromatographic paper
mobile phase. The stationary phase can be and mobile phase is another liquid which is a
solid or liquid. mixture of two or three solvents with water
The mobile phase (movable phase) may be as one of the components.
liquid or gas. The mixture to be separated is The three different parts of the earth are:
(vii) Extraction with a Solvent or dissolved in mobile phase and passed over
Differential Extraction stationary phase. Different components in
This process is generally used to purify an two phases can be separated either by
organic compound present in a solution. A adsorption or partition.
separating funnel (see figure) is used in this (a) Adsorption chromatography
process. This method is based on the different
Procedure: To extract an impure substance adsorption affinity of various components of
present in the aqueous layer the solution is a mixture for the suitable adsorbent such as
transferred to the separating funnel and is alumina, silica gel, magnesium oxide etc. The
treated with a certain volume of a suitable component which has maximum affinity for
organic solvent in which the organic the adsorbent is adsorbed first near to the
substance is soluble while the impurities do starting point and thus components with

77
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(i) Atmosphere: It is a gaseous mixture
that surrounds the earth. It extends up to
about 200 km from the surface of the earth.
Major elements present in atmosphere are
nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). Trace
amounts of some other gases such as CO2
and noble gases like He, Ne, Ar, Kr and Xe
are also present in atmosphere.
(SSC TAX ASSIATANT 25.11.2007)
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 28.10.2012
(SSC MTS Staff Exam. 17.03.2013, 16.02.2014)
Note: Air is said to be saturated when it
contains maximum content of water
vapour
(SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO & PA/SA Exam, 15.11.2015
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 S,
13.12.2022 Shift-4)
Chlorine does not form the part of
atmosphere.
(ii)Lithosphere: This is the solid phase of
the earth. It consists of different types of
rocks. Most of the elements, both metals and
non-metals, are present in the lithosphere.
Oxygen and silicon form major portion of
earth about 75% of our earth's crust.
(SSC CHSL 10+2 Tier-I (CBE) Exam. 15.01.2017)
(iii)Hydrosphere: It represents liquid phase
of earth in form of sea and lakes. water
covers about 80% of earth's crust.
Sea water is the source of large number of
elements where these are present in the
form of their salts.
The distribution of elements on earth
depends upon the volatility of the elements.
Note: Volatile substance: A substance that
easily changes into vapors or forms
compounds which are volatile (i.e., have low
boiling points. Ex-Alcohol is more volatile
than water because its boiling point is lower
than water) under the conditions prevailing
at the time of condensation of earth (e.g.
carbon, halogens, mercury, lead, zinc, etc.).
Such elements greatly depleted on earth due
to their loss during the high temperature
periods during earth's formation.
A highly depleted group of volatile elements
are Cd, Hg, Pb and the halogens other than F.
A relatively depleted group includes Ag, Zn,
Ge, Sn and F.
Non-volatile: It refers to those elements
which do not easily vaporize. e.g. iron, cobalt,
nickel, silicon, beryllium, calcium, etc.
Desalinatin is a process in which mineral
matter is seprated from saline water.
Generally, the process of removing salts and
minerals is also called desalination.
(RRB NTPC 18.04.2016)
Note:
Spirit in contact with body gives cool
sensation because it is highly volatile
(SSC Stenographer (Grade 'C' & 'D') Exam. 26.09.2010)

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16. Chemistry In Daily Life

Chemicals in Medicines (Drugs) hexachlorophene, amyl metacesol, chloramphenicol etc. The common
thymol, iodine, etc. antimicrobial drugs are sulphanilamides
• Antibiotics: Chemical substances which and its derivatives such as sulphadiazine,
are produced by microorganisms (such sulphadimidine, sulphadinamethoxine,
as moulds and bacteria) and are capable sulphadoxin, sulphasomidine, etc.
of destroying other microorganisms are • Antihistamines are the chemical
called antibiotics e.g. penicillin, substances which diminish or abolish the
• Drugs: These are the chemical
ampicillin, etc. main action of histamine released in the
substances used for the treatment of
• Anaesthetics: These are the drugs which body and hence prevent the allergic
diseases and for reducing pain. They are
produce loss of sensation e.g. reactions such as hay fever, mild asthma,
also known as medicines.
cyclopropane, nitrous oxide,chloroform nasal discharge, etc. e.g. diphenyl
• Chemotherapy: The treatment of
,xylocains, etc. hydramine (benadryl), pheniramine
disease by the means of chemicals that (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & maleate (avil), chlorpheniramine maleate
have a specific toxic effect upon the LDC Exam. 28.10.2012
(SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam–2013, 27.04.2014)
(zeet), triprolidine (actidil), antazoline
disease producing microorganisms or
(antistine), dimethindene (foristal).
that selectively destroy neo plastic
• Sulpha drugs: These drugs are the • Germicides: These are the chemical
tissues is called chemotherapy.
derivatives of p-amino benzene substances used to kill germs, fungi and
• Tranquillizers: Those chemical
sulphonamide and can be used in place of viruses. E.g. phenol, cresol,
substances which are used for the cure of
antibiotics, They inhibit the growth of formaldehyde, D.D.T, KMnO4(1%),
mental diseases are known as
microorganism. e.g. sulphanilamide, chlorine, bleaching powder, H2O2, etc.
tranquillizers. They reduce anxiety and
sulphadiazine, sulphaguanidine, etc. •Antacids: The basic chemical substances
tension and act on higher centers of
• Narcotics: They produce sleep and which neutralize excess of acid in the gastric
nervous system. They are the
unconsciousness. They are used as juices and gives relief from acid indigestion,
constituents of sleeping pills. They are acidity, heart burn and gastric ulcers are
called psychotherapeutic drugs e.g. analgesics. The two narcotics that are
called antacids
barbituric acid and its derivatives. E.g. used as analgesics are morphine and
(SSC MTS 16.02.2014, 20.07.2014)
equine, seconal, luminal, etc. codeine. These days they are not
Antacid tablets consist of Hydroxides of
• Analgesics: These are the chemical commonly used due to their habit
magnesium and aluminium
substances which are used for relieving forming effect. (SSC CGL08.07.2012)
pain e.g. aspirin, analgin etc.’ • Birth control pills: These are the drugs e.g. baking soda, Mg(OH)2, MgO cimetidine
Aspirin is acetyl Salicylic acid which are related to female sex and ranitidine used to heal peptic ulcer.
(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) Exam. 25.09.2005) hormones (estrogen and progesterone). The nature of antacid is basic.
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 14.12.2008) These pills control the cycle of ovulation (SSC CAPFS 07.07.2017)
(SSC CPO 06.09.2009)
and pregnancy in woman. • Anthelminthic: These are a group of
• Antiseptics: Those chemical substances (SSC SO 05.06.2005) antiparasitic drugs that expel parasitic
which prevent the growth of • Antimalarials: The chemical; substances worms and other internal parasites from
microorganism or kill them but are not used for the treatment of malaria are body without causing damage to host.
harmful to the living human tissues, e.g. called antimalarials e.g. chloroquine, They may be called as Vermifuges or
dettol, bithional, tincture of iodine, paraquine, promaquine, etc. Vermicides.
gentian violet, methylene blue, salicylic • Sedatives: These drugs acts as Chemicals in Food
acid, picric acid, resorcinol, phenol, etc. depressant and suppress the activities of • Antioxidants: These are chemicals
Note: central nervous system. The common which prevent oxidation of fats in food
• Antipyretics: Those chemical substances sedatives are valium, materials and prolonging their life.
that are used for bringing down the barbiturates,Marijuana. Antioxidants are more reactive towards
temperature of human body, in high (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 21.05.2000)
oxygen than the materials they are
fevers are known as antipyretics e.g. • Antidepressants: These drugs produce a protecting. They reduce the free radical
aspirin, paracetamol, analgina and feeling of wellbeing and confidence in reactions in aging process. The most
phenacetin, etc. person of depressed mood. These are common antioxidants are butylated
• Disinfectants: Those chemical also called mood booster drugs e.g. hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated
substances which are used for killing vitalin, cocain, methadrine, etc. hydroxyl anisole (BHA).
microorganisms or to stop their growth • Antimicrobials: These are the chemical Preservatives: Preservatives prevent
but are harmful to human tissues. They substances that are used to cure spoilage of food due to microbial growth.
are used to disinfect floors, toilets, etc. infectious diseases due to Example is sodium benzoate, glacial acetic
but cannot be used directly to clean microorganisms. e.g. sulphonamides, p- acid, Sulphur dioxide, concentrated salt
wounds e.g. phenol (1%), sulphur amino salicylic acid or some antibiotics sodium nitrite, spices ,vinegar and sugar
dioxide, C12, bithionol, dettol, such as tetracycline, penicillin, solutions.

79
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(SSC CGL 04.07.1999) Both soaps and detergents are known as potassium nitrate is used as a solid
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 30.03.2008)
(SSC Tax Assistant 12.11.2006)
surfactants. Chemically detergents are propellant in rockets.
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-3) sodium salts of alkyl sulphonic acids or • Liquid propellants
• Artificial sweeteners: Artificial sodium salts of alkyl benzyl sulphonic acids (monopropellants): Liquid hydrogen is
sweeteners acts as substitute for sugar, or sulphonates an important liquid propellant. It is used
some artificial sweeteners are saccharin, (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005) along with liquid oxygen.
(SSC SAS Exam. 26.06.2010)
sucralose, alitame and aspartame. • Double base propellant: It mainly
Synthetic detergents are made from consists of nitroglycerine and
Soap
- Sodium salt and sulphonic acid nitrocellulose. Nitrocellulose gets in
Soaps are cleaning agents that are
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & nitroglycerine sets in as a solid mass.
usually made by reacting alkali (e.g.,
LDC Exam. 04.11.2012
sodium hydroxide-NaOH and KOH) with (RRB JE 25.05.2019) •Biliquid propellant: Bi-liquid propellant
naturally occurring fat or fatty acids. The consists of a combination of an oxidizer such
reaction produces soaps so, it is called as liquid oxygen, liquid di nitrogen tetra
saponification process. oxide (N2O4) or nitric acid and a fuel such as
NOTE: kerosene, alcohol, hydrazine or liquid
• Soap is produced Alkali action with hydrogen
glycerol. (SSC CGL 26.06.2011)
(RRB SSE 21.12.2014) They give higher thrust than solid.
• To sodium or potassium salts of fatty
acids also called soap.
(RRB GROUP-D 05.12.2018)
Detergents can be cationic, anionic or
• When fats are heated with sodium
neutral. Cleansing action of soaps and
hydroxide(caustic soda) or potassium
detergent soaps and detergents are made
hydroxide, sodium or potassium salts of
up of two parts, hydrophilic (water
fatty acids are obtained, along with
loving) carboxyl group which interacts
glycerin. These salts are called soap and
with water and hydrophobic (water
this reaction of soap making is called
hating) part made up of non-polar
soapnification. - Fats
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 12.01.2003)
hydrocarbon part which does not • Composite propellant: It is blend of
• The genral formula of soap is RCOONa. interact with water. Micelles are formed polymeric binder such as polyurethane
(RRB GROUP-D 12.12.2018) by collection of hydrocarbon chains. or polybutadiene as a fuel and
• Glycerin is a By-product of soap Grease and oil are non-polar molecules ammonium per chlorate as an oxidizer
produced under the process of which are at the centre of the micelle and along with certain metals magnesium or
saponification. are removed from the surface during aluminum in finely divided form to
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 10.12.2006) agitation.The advantage using detergent modify the performance of the
(RRB JE 23.05.2019)
over soaps is detergent give lather even propellant.
Glycerol
The antiseptic properties in a soap are with hard water. • Hybrid propellants: These consist of a
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
found due to the mixture of SSC CGL 13.11.2005 SSC SAS 26.06.2010,
solid fuel and a liquid oxidizer e.g. liquid
bitjionol.Soaps improve the cleaning SSC (10+2) 04.11.2012, N2O4 (liquid oxidizer) and acrylic rubber
process by making water batter able to SSC CHSL 22.03.2018) (solid fuel).
lift away greasy stains from skin, hair, Synthetic detergent is prepared from Example of propellants used in
clothes. Soaps helps in better cleaning of hydrocarbon of petroleum. different rockets
(SSC CGL 07.09.2016)
clothes because it reduce the surface (i) Saturn booster rocket of American space
Sodium carbonate is dominant chemical
tension of solution. programme used mixture of kerosene
present in detergent powder.
(SSC CHSL 15.11.2015) and liquid oxygen as a propellant in the
(SSC CGL 12.06.2019)
The soap molecule form structures called initial stages whereas liquid oxygen and
Note: Oxalic acid solution is used to
micelles. liquid hydrogen were used for the upper
remove ink and rust stains on cloth
Soaps helps in better cleaning of clothes stages.
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 24.10.1999,
because it reduces the surface tension of 12.05.2002) (ii) Russian rockets such as proton used
solution. liquid propellant consisting of kerosene
Detergents (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005)
(SSC CGL 21.04.2013)
and liquid oxygen.
Synthetic detergents are also called soap less (iii) The Indian satellites SLV-3 and ASLV
Propellants
soaps because they have cleansing roperties used composite solid propellants.
• Propellant: It is a combination of
but they do not contain sodium salts of fatty (iv) The rocket PSLV used solid propellants
oxidizer and a fuel. A propellant on
acids. Detergents clean the surface on the in the first and third stages and bi-liquid
ignition undergoes combustion to release
principle of surface tension propellants in second and fourth stages.
large quantities of hot gases.
(SSC CPO S.I.Exam. 09.11.2008) The liquid propellant consists of N2O4
• Solid propellants: Such propellants are
They can also be used with hard water. Hard and unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine
a mixture of solid hydrocarbons and an
water and soft water can be distinguished by (UDMH) and N2O4 and mono methyl
oxidizing agent which is stable at room
using detergent hydrazine (MMH) respectively.
(SSC Delhi Police S.I. Exam. 19.08.2012) temperature. e.g. mixture of paraffin and

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Dyes • Disperse dyes: These are those dyes
where in minute particles of the dye are
dispersed or spread from a suspension
into the fabric, where they diffuse. This
class of dye is used for dyeing polyesters,
nylon, polycarylonitrile.
• Fiber reactive dyes: These are the dyes
which attach themselves to the Fiber by
an irreversible chemical reaction. The
dyeing is ‘fast’ and the colour is retained
These are coloured compounds which
for a long time.
are used for imparting color to textiles,
• Mordant dyes: These are used mainly
food-stuffs, silk, wood etc. Important
for food. These are applied to the fabric
characteristics of a substance to be called
after treating it with a metal ion.
as dye are
Depending on the mordant used the dyes
(i) It must have a suitable color.
give different colours e.g. alizarin gives a
(ii) It must be able to fit itself permanently to
rose red colour with Aluminum and blue
the material being dyed.
colour with barium.
(iii) It must be resistant to the action of
water, soaps, acids and alkalis and other
Chromium salt is used as a mordant in
solvents used in dry cleaning etc.
dyeing
Cyan colour is mixture of blue and green. (SSC CGL08.07.2012)
Color of the dye Note: Alizarin is a natural dye.
Dyes generally absorb light in visible (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
region of electromagnetic spectrum Aniline blue is a synthetic dye.
(400-750 nm). The color of the dye is due (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
to the part of light that is reflected back • Synthetic dyes: Those dyes which are
and this color is complementary to the prepared in the laboratory are called
color of the light absorbed. synthetic dyes. Such dyes can produce
Classification of Dyes on the Basis of any desired shade which may not be
their Application available in natural dyes
• Acid dyes: These are normally salts of
sulphonic acids. They can be applied to Surfactants
wool, silk, nylon. E.g. orange-I and Surfactants are substances which
orange-II, methyl orange, methyl red, etc. possess surface activity, i.e. lower the
• Basic dyes: They contain – NH2 or – NR2 surface tension or increase surface area.
group as chromophore or auxochrome. Surfactants get preferentially adsorbed
These are used to dye nylon, polyester, at the air-water, oil-water and solid-
wool, cotton, leather, paper etc. e.g. water interfaces, forming an oriented
aniline yellow, butter yellow, crysodine, mono layer.
etc. The hydrophilic groups point towards
• Direct dyes: They are applied directly to aqueous phase and the hydrocarbon
the fabrics from an aqueous solution and chains (hydrophobic) point towards air
are useful for those fabrics which can or the oil phase.
form hydrogen bonds. e.g. martins Kraft temperature: It is the minimum
yellow, Congo red etc. temperature above which the micelles
• Azo dyes: These are dyes which are form ionic surfactants.
produced by the chemical reaction on the Type of surfactants
fabric itself. These are also called ingrain (i) Anionic surfactants: Soaps and
dyes. These are used for cotton, silk, detergents
polyester and nylon. The colour is not (ii) Cationic surfactants: Quaternary
very fast because the interaction is only ammonium salts of long chain tertiary
on the surface. amines form detergents which are
• Insoluble azo dyes: these are the dyes cationic surfactants.
obtained by the coupling reaction of an
aromatic phenol adsorbed on the surface
of a fabric with a diazonium salt. Cotton,
silk, polyester and nylon are dyed by
these dyes.

81
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17. Biomolecules
These are complex, lifeless organic and fructose (C6H12O6). Ribose is Honey is a rich natural source of invert
molecules (compounds) which combine aldopentoses, glucose is aldohexoses sugar.
in a specific manner to produce life e.g., while fructose is ketohexosess. The syrup that bathes chocolates is also
carbohydrates, proteins, amino acid, fats, Starches found in breads, cereals and invert sugar.
etc. pasta are made up of long chains of Lactose (or milk sugar) occurs to about 5%
Carbohydrates: are compounds of Glucose. in cow’s milk and 7% in human milk.
carbon , oxygen and hydrogen.These are (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-2) (SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax & Central Excise Exam.

polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or Disaccharides 12.11.2006)

(SSC Delhi police 19.08.2012)
those compounds which on hydrolysis Sugars like cane sugar, maltose, lactose, (SSC CHSL 12.04.21)
yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones which on hydrolysis produces two units Oligosaccharides: These are the
and contain at least one chiral carbon of monosaccharide’s are known as carbohydrates which on hydrolysis gives
atom in their molecule i.e., sugars, starch, disaccharides. two to nine units of monosaccharides.
cellulose, glycogen, dextrins, gums, etc. The most important disaccharides are They are further classified as di-, tri-,
(SSC CGL01.07.2012) maltose, lactose and sucrose. tetra-saccharides depending on the
They are generally derived from plants. Maltose: Also known as malt sugar is actual number of monosaccharide units
Monosaccharides obtained by partial hydrolysis of starch. formed by the hydrolysis of a particular
These are simple carbohydrates which It has two glucose unit, joined together. oligosaccharide e.g.,
cannot be hydrolysed into smaller units Sucrose: Or table sugar (cane-sugar) is Disaccharides : sucrose, maltose
e.g., glucose, fructose, etc. isolated from the juice or sap of plant (C12H22O11).
(SSC CHSL 12.08.2021) such as sugar cane. Sugar beets, pine Trisaccharides: raffinose (C18H32O16).
Aldoses: Monosaccharides with apple and carrot roots. Tetra-saccharides : stachyose (C24H24O21)
aldehyde (-CHO) group are called Dissacharite Polysaccharides
aldoses. Monosaccharide components Polysaccharides: These are the
Ketoses: Monosaccharides with ketonic Maltose Glucose + Glucose carbohydrates which are polymeric
|  Sucrose Glucose + Fructose molecules and can be hydrolyzed to give
 C|  0  Group are called ketoses. Lactose Glucose + Galactose
  large number of monosaccharide units.
The hydrolysis of sucrose by acid or The commonly occurring
Aldoses and ketoses are further classified
enzyme gives its monosaccharide polysaccharides have the general
as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses etc.
components that is a equimolar mixture formula (C6H10O5)n. e.g., starch, cellulose,
depending upon the number of carbon
of glucose and fructose. The mixture is etc.
atoms they contains. Pentoses is a five
called “Invert sugar” The important polysaccharides are
carbon monosaccharide and Hexoses is a
C12H22O11 + H2O HCI C6H12O6 + starch and cellulose. Starch is a branched
six carbon monosaccharides.
The most well known monosaccharides C6H12O6 polymer while cellulose is a linear
are ribose (C5H10O5), glucose (C6H12O6) Sucrose D(+) Glucose D(-) Fructose. polymer.

(— Glucose – Glucose —)n

(— Glucose-Glucose-Glucose —)n
Glucose (Cellulose)

(— Glucose-Glucose-Glucose —)n (Monomeric unit in starch is -glucose)

(— Glucose-Glucose —)n
(Starch)
Cellulose: It is the chief structural (iii) They form structural material for cells.
• Starch: It is a major storage form of component of wood and other plants. It (iv) Some carbohydrates (e.g. sugar, starch)
glucose in plants. It is the most important is used in textiles, paper and plastic serve as food.
food source of carbohydrates. It is found industries. Cellulose is mechanically much stronger
is cereals, potatoes, legumes and other Cotton contains 90% cellulose. than starch.
vegetables. (After going through the processes of Humans are unable to digest cellulose
scouring and bleaching, 99% of cotton is because humans do not possess enzymes
made up of cellulose.) necessary to break down cellulose into
(SSC CHSL 08.07.19) glucose.
(i) They work as a body fuels and acts as Animals such as cow and deer have
main source of energy. intestinal bacteria that produce
(ii) They act as a storage of energy for the
functioning of living organisms.
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necessary enzymes for breaking down These are macromolecules made up of one molecule to other e.g. transaminases
cellulose into glucose. large number of amino acids molecules catalyse transfer of amino groups;
Cellulose fibers are organic pollutant joined together by peptide links. For a transmethylases catalyse the transfer of
mainly produced by paper and pulp given protein the number of amino acids methyl group and transphosphorylases
industry. and their sequence in the macromolecule catalyse the transfer of phosphate group.
Glycogen: It is found in animal cells is specific. Peptides and Proteins
occurring mainly in muscles and liver. It Peptide linkage: It is – NH – CO – links (i) Lipoproteins: They contain lipids along
is known as animal starch because it which is present in peptide. It is also with amino acids e.g. lipoiretellin (of egg
serves as a reserve carbohydrate of called peptide bond (-NH – CO -). yolk). Serum protein of brain, etc.
animals. It contains about a thousand (ii) Nucleoproteins: They contain nucleic
glucose units arranged in the form of a acid in addition to amino acids.
highly branched chain. (iii) Mucoproteins: They contain
Sugars: Among the natural sugars, carbohydrate group in addition to amino
fructose is sweetest, some other chemical acids e.g. mucin (or salva).
compounds (other than carbohydrates) (iv) Chromo proteins: They contain some
are also found to be sweet. e.g. Peptide: A molecule made up of coloured pigments in addition to amino
(i)Saccharin-500 times as sweet as sucrose relatively small number of amino acids acids e.g. hemoglobin, riboflavin,
used as an artificial linked together by peptide links (- NH – haemocyanin, etc.
sweetener. CO -) is called a peptide. (v) Phosphoproteins: The contain
saccharin is made up of Toluene Insulin: It is a protein in which 51 amino phosphoric acid along with amino acids
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 05.06.2005) acids are arranged in two polypeptide in their molecule e.g. casein (of milk),
chains which are cross-linked at two ovovitellin (of egg), etc.
(ii) Monallelin (a protein) is about 2000 places by disulphide bonds. Some common examples of enzymes
times sweeter than sucrose. Classification of Proteins and their function
(iii) Aspartame (a peptide) is about 160 Fibrous proteins: They have molecules Enzyme Reaction catalysed
times sweeter than sucrose. which tend to lie side by side to form Maltase Maltose → glucose + glucose
Reducing sugars: The saccharides which thread like fibers e.g. -keratin, collagen, Lactase Lactose → glucose +
reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s myosin, fibroin etc. In some of such galactose
reagent are called reducing sugars. e.g. proteins the molecules are held together Amylase Starch → n glucose
maltose, lactose etc. by hydrogen bonds. They are insoluble in Invertase Sucrose → glucose +
Non-reducing sugars: water. They are the chief structural fructose
The monosaccharides which do not material of animal tissues.
Urease Urea → CO2 +NH3
reduce Fehling’s solution or Tollen’s Globular proteins: They have molecules
Carbonic H2CO3 → CO2 + H2O
reagent are called non-reducing sugars which are folded into compact units that
anhydrase
e.g. sucrose. often approach spherical shapes. The
Pepsin Proteins → peptides amino
Amino Acids area of contact between molecules is
acids
Amino acids: Those compounds whose small and intermolecular forces are
Trypsin Proteins → amino acids
molecules contain both the carboxylic fibrinogen. In clotting of blood fibrinogen
acid group and the amino group are Nuclease DNA, RNA → nucleotides
gets converted into fibrous protein
called amino acids. Such acids form RNA Ribonucleotide triphosphate
fibroin.
proteins. There are twenty amino acids polymerase → RNA
Enzymes
which form proteins. Most of the reactions occurring in living DNA Deoxynucleotide
(SSC CHSL 10.08.2021)
beings are too slow, to be effective, polymerase triphosphate → DNA
Essential and Non-Essential Amino unless a catalyst is present. A catalyst
Acids which permits such a reaction to occur at Starches found in breads, cereals and
Certain amino acids can be made by our useful rate is called an enzyme. Thus pasta are made up of long chains of
bodies and we do not require them in enzymes are essential biological catalysts glucose
diet. Such amino acids are called non- which are required to catalyze biological Enzyme catalysis
essential amino acids. reactions. Enzymes are biological Catalyst and are
(Note: Human body can synthesize 10 E.g. maltase, amylase lactase, invertase produced by the living cells in our bodies.
out of 20 amino acids found in proteins) etc. Chemically all enzymes are proteins.
Those amino acids which cannot be (SSC Tax Assistant 05.12.2004) Enzymes are highly selective and
synthesized by our body and therefore • Rennin: It is an enzyme. It is used in specific.
must be supplied by our diet are called cheese making. It coagulates milk protein (i)Conversion of glucose into ethanol by
essential amino acids. These essential over a million times of its own weight. zymase (enzyme) present in yeast.
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam.
amino acids are required for the growth • Hydrolases: These are the enzymes that 24.02.2002, 04.02.2007)
of our body and lack of these in our diet catalyse the hydrolysis reactions e.g.
can cause diseases such as Kwashiorkor. invertase, amylase, lactase, maltase etc. Zymase
C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Proteins Transferases: These are the enzymes
Glucose
that catalyse the transfer of a group from

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(ii) Hydrolysis of urea (NH2CONH2) by (iii) Transfer of genetic information i.e. the Note: Sunflower oil do not contain
urease (enzyme) present in soyabean. hereditary characteristics. essential fatty acids
O (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 05.06.2005)
|| Nucleotides and Nucleosides Saponification: Fats when hydrolysed with
Urease 2NH + CO The molecule in which one of the an alkali, forms glycerol and salt of fatty acid.
H N – C – NH + H O 
2 2 2 3 2
This process is called saponification.
Urea nitrogen bases (purine or pyrmidine) is (SSC CPO. 09.11.2008)
bonded with sugar molecule is called
(iii) Hydrolysis of starch into maltose by nucleoside. Rancidity: It is a chemical change which
diastase (enzyme). The repeating units of nucleic acids are results in unpleasant odours and taste in
Diastase called nucleotides. fats. The oxygen of the air is believed to
2(C6H10O5)n   nC12H22O11 + Types of Nucleic Acids attack the double bond to form peroxide
nH2O (i) DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) linkage.
Starch Maltose (ii) RNA (Ribonucleic acid) Derived lipids: Steroids like cholesterol,
(iv) Conversion of maltose into glucose by Composition of nucleotide: It consists fat soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E and
maltase (enzyme). of three chemical component i.e. K) are examples of derived lipids.
Maltase 2C6H12O6
C12H22O11 + H2O  (a) A nitrogen containing heterocyclic base Functions of lipids in Biosystems
Maltose glucose (b) A five carbon sugar (i) Lipids are essential for absorption of fat
(v) Hydrolysis of sugar into glucose and (c) A phosphate group. soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K).
fructose by invertase (enzyme) present Sugars: In RNA the sugar present is -D- (ii) Some fats supply essential fatty acids.
in yeast. ribose, Use of waxes
invertage Gene: The DNA sequence that acts as a (i) In cosmetics, ointments and as polishes
C12H22O11 + H2O   C6H12O6 code for specific protein is called gene. for floor furniture etc.
+C6H12O6 Every protein in the cell has a (ii) As its coatings on fruits, leaves and skin
sucrose(sugar) Glucose Fructose corresponding gene. protects the surface from loss of water
Applications of Enzymes Genetic code: The relationship between and attack of microorganisms.
(i) Deficiency of Tyrosinase causes albinism the nucleotide triplets and amino acids is (iii) In making candles.
(disease). called genetic code. (iv) Water flows off the wings of birds and
(ii) Curing disease: Streptokinase is used to Mutation: It is a chemical change in DNA insects due to the presence of waxes.
dissolve blood clots for treating heart molecule that could lead to the synthesis Vitamins and Hormones
diseases. of protein with an altered amino acid Vitamins: These are organic compounds
(iii) Some other uses: sequence. which cannot be produced by the body
(a) In breweries for manufacture of beer, Lipids: These are a group of relatively and must be supplied in small amount in
wine(Gelatin is the refining agent in it) non-polar compounds which are diet for normal health, growth and
etc. by the fermentation of associated with living matter. They are maintenance of the body.
carbohydrates. soluble in non-polar solvents (e.g. oils)
(SSC CHSL 06.08.21)
The absence or deficiency or vitamins
and include fats and waxes. They form can cause specific disease.
(b) In food processing industries for
part of the structure of biological Classification of Vitamins
preparing sweet syrup etc.
membrane and store energy for the cell. (i) Water soluble vitamins: The vitamins
(c) In production of cheese by coagulation of
Fats: These are lipids which are which are soluble in water are called
milk.
trimesters of glycerol. The glycerides in water soluble vitamins. For example,
Coenzymes: The non-protein
which saturated fatty acid component vitamins B and C.
components (required for their activity)
predominates and are solid at room (ii) Fat soluble, vitamins: The vitamins
associated with enzymes are called
temperature are called fats while the which are soluble in fats are called fat
coenzymes.
glycerides in which unsaturated fatty soluble vitamins. For example, vitamins,
They are generally metal ions. e.g. Zn, Mg,
acid components predominate and the A, D, E and K.
Mn, Fe, Cu, Co, Mo, K and Na.
liquid at room temperature are called Sources of Vitamins
Several coenzymes are derived from
oils. Vitamins A: Its chemical name is retinol.
vitamins e.g. thiamine, niacin, riboflavin
Fat is the second largest milk component It is fat soluble.
etc.
in milk. Sources: Butter, liver, carrots, spinach,
Enzyme inhibitor: These are the (SSC MTS 17.03.2013)
substances which if present reduce or ghee, yellow pumpkin, mustard leaves,
Iodine value is used to estimate
inhibit the enzyme activity. whole milk, fish liver oil, tomatoes,
unsaturation in oil.
Nucleic Acids coriander leaves, curd, mangoes, egg
Waxes: These are lipids which are esters
Nucleic acids are biologically important yolk, cheese, papaya etc.
of alcohol other than glycerol.
polymers which are present in all living Vitamin A is present in the form of
Fatty acids: These are carboxylic acids
cells. carotene in vegetables and fruits which
derived from natural fats. In natural fats
Role of nucleic acids are converted into vitamin A in the body.
the carbon chain generally is long,
(i) Development and reproduction of all In general, the darker the colour of the
straight and composed of even number of
forms of life green vegetables, greater is the carotene
carbon atoms.
(ii) Directs the synthesis of proteins. content.

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Vitamins B: It is a water soluble vitamin. (iii) It is also essential for healthy teeth Diseases Caused due to Deficiency of
It consists of eleven substances out of structure. Vitamins
these B1, B2, B4 and B12 are important. (iv) It helps in the maintenance of healthy, Vitamin
Disease caused
(i) Vitamin B1: Its chemical name is glowing soft skin. deficiency
thiamine. Vitamin B1 1. Vitamin A Night blindness and
Sources: its important sources are milk, (i) Vitamin B1 helps in carbohydrate Xerosis
wheat bran, sea food, yeast, whole grain, metabolism. 2. Vitamin B
cereals, green vegetables, soyabean, (ii) It helps in functioning of heart, nerves Vitamin B1 Beriberi
dairy products (except butter). and muscles. Vitamin B2 Cracking of skin, lips,
(ii) Vitamin B2: Its chemical name is (iii) It sharpens our appetite and is referred corners of the mouth,
riboflavin. to a “appetite vitamin”. photophobia (rough
Sources: Meat, whole grains and pulses, Vitamin B2 eyelids)
milk, yeast, liver, peas, egg white, green (i) It helps in oxidation and utilization of Vitamin B3 Pellagra.
vegetable. oxygen. Vitamin B12 Pernicious anaemia,
(iii) Vitamin B3: It is also called niacin. It (ii) It helps in carbohydrate and protein inflammation of tongue
belongs to B-complex group. It is one of metabolism. and mouth.
the most stable vitamins. (iii) It is essential to keep the skin healthy. 3. Vitamin C Scurvy
Sources: Milk, fish, legumes, potatoes, (iv) It helps in the normal functioning of the 4. Vitamin D Rickets
green leafy vegetable, meat, eggs, fowl eye. 5. Vitamin E Loss of sexual power of
(chicken), whole grains, etc. Vitamin B4 reproduction
(iv) Vitamin B12: Its chemical name is (i) It is needed for the metabolism of Hemorrhage,
cyanocobalamin. carbohydrates, fats and proteins. 6. Vitamin K lengthens the time of ng
The presence of Cobalt in in it was (ii) It keeps the skin healthy. A hormone is a secretion of ductless
established for the first time by- Hydrolysis (iii) It gives sound mental health. glands called endocrine glands.
test. (iv) It has most important positive Pituitary gland: The secrection of
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.05.2013) contribution to good nutrition. hormone is under the control of the
Sources: cheese, milk, eggs, fish, meat, Vitamin B12 gland which is located at the base of the
poultry etc. (i) It is essential for nervous tissues. brain and is known as pituitary gland.
Vitamin C: Its chemical name is ascorbic (ii) It is necessary for the formation of Steroids: The organic compounds having
acid. It is highly soluble in water. healthy blood and proper growth of
(SSC CGL 10.06.19) a structure that is based on four ring net-
body. work. Out of these four rings, three are
Source: Citrus fruits amla, tomatoes,
(iii) It is essential to prevent disease called cyclohexane rings and one is pentane
mangoes, oranges, pears, pine apple,
pernicious anemia. ring e.g. steroids of sex hormones, bile
apples, lemon, lime, green chilies, guava,
Vitamin C acids, etc. e.g. testosterone, dihydro -
etc.
(i) It is necessary for keeping earth, gums testosteron, androrgens etc.
Vitamin D: It is also called calciferol. It
and joints healthy.
is a fat soluble vitamin.
(ii) It plays an important role in normal
Sources: Cod liver oil. Butter, milk, egg
metabolism of amino acids.
yolk, fish oil, ghee, cheese, Exposure to
(iii) It helps in healing of cuts and wounds.
sunlight provides a oil method of
(iv) It gives resistance to our body against
production of vitamin D in the body
diseases and infections.
itself.
Vitamin D
Vitamin E: Its chemical name is
(i) It keeps the bone and teeth healthy.
tocopherol. It is a fat soluble Vitamin.
(ii) It helps in the utilization of calcium and Sterols: Steroid alcohols are called
Sources: Vegetable oils, milk tomatoes,
phosphorus. sterols e.g. cholesterol.
dark green leafy vegetable, eggs, kidney,
Vitamin E Digitoxigenin: It is a steroid and is
whole grain, cereals, nuts, liver.
(i) It plays an important role in the extracted from a plant digitalis. It is used
Vitamin K: It is also known as
protection of vitamin A, carotene and as a dug for regulating the fuctions of
phylloquinone. It is fat soluble vitamin.
ascorbic acid. heart. It is also the raw material for the
It is also called coagulation vitamin.
(ii) It is necessary for the normal manufacture of a number of steroidal
Sources: Green leafy vegetables,
reproduction and protection of liver. drugs.
soyabean, cabbage, vegetable oils,
Vitamin K Peptide hormones: These are the
spinach, tomatoes.
It helps in clotting of blood and prevents hormones formed from peptides from
Functions of Vitamins
hemorrhage. amino acid residues e.g. oxytocin,
Vitamin A
Provitamin vasopressin, etc.
(i) It helps in proper growth and normal
These are biologically inactive Oxytocin: it is a peptide hormone. It
skeletal development of the body.
compounds that can be converted into causes the contraction of uterus during
(ii) It plays an important role in
active vitamins easily e.g. -carotenes (a child birth.
maintaining proper vision.
provitamin of vitamin A).

85
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Vasopressin: It is a peptide hormone. It (epinephrine) different system in several breakdown of liver glycogen into blood
controls the re-absorption of water in the ways. It increases the heartbeat, the glucose and is used as a fuel for
kidneys. heart output and the blood pressure. It anaerobic muscular work.
Amine hormone: They are water soluble prepares the cardiovascular system for
amine compounds e.g. adrenaline emergency action. It stimulates the

Some typical hormones

Hormone Organ of secretion Functions
(a) Sex hormones
1. Testosterone Testes Regulates the development and normal functioning of male sex
organs.
2. Estrogens Ovary Controls the development and normal functioning of female sex
(Estrone or Estradiol) organs.
3. Progesterone Corpus luteum Controls the development and maintenance of pregnancy.
(b) Adrenal cortex hormones
4. Cortisone Adrenal cortex Regulate the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates; controls
the balance of water and minerals in the body.
(c)Peptide Hormones
5. Oxytocin Posterior pituitary gland Controls the contraction of the uterus after child birth and releases
milk from the mammary glands.
6. Vasopressin Pituitary glands Controls the reabsorption of water in the kidney.
7. Insulin Pancreas Controls the metabolism of glucose, maintains glucose level in the
blood.
(d)Amine Hormones
8. Adrenaline or epinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases pulse rate and controls blood pressure. It release glucose
from liver glycogen and fatty acids form fats in emergency.
9. Thyroxine Thyroid gland Controls the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.

Genetic Engineering (ii) to produce useful proteins and enzyme in Urease is the first enzyme isolated in
The method of genetic engineering is sufficient amounts from cells for pure crystalline form.
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam.
used for changing the prototype commercial applications. 05.12.2004)
according to will. This can be achieved by Biotechnology has extended the scope
removal, repair of addition of artificially of genetic engineering to large scale
synthesized gene. production of proteins using
This technique has enabled us microorganism.
(i) to change the amino acid sequence in Genetic engineering is also used in fields
proteins to produce newer proteins with of chemicals, food, petrochemical,
required properties, and industries and in agriculture.
Note:-

Biotechnology product and their uses

Biotechnology product Uses
1. Human insulin hormone Treatment of diabetes
2. Interferon As an antiviral agent
3. Growth hormone Treatment of abnormal growth related diseases.
4. Tissue plasminogen factor Dissolving unwanted clots.
5. Blood clotting factor VIII Treatment of hemophilia.
6. Vaccines Against various in factious diseases.

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18. Coal & Petroleum

Natural Resource: Resources that we get by
nature and we use them in a modified way.
Natural Resources

Inexhaustible Exhaustible
• Present in unlimited quantity. • Limited quantity
• Not exhausted by human activity. • Exhausted by human activity.
• Ex. Sunlight, air etc. • Ex. Coal, petroleum etc.
SSC CHSL 08.03.2018

Coal: The major electricity generation power The process of converting solid coal into
Coal is formed from compressed source in India is coal. liquid hydrocarbons is called Liquefaction.
and hardened biomass (SSC CHSL 23.03.2016)
The natural resource, known as black gold is (RRB GROUP-D 26.1.2018)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)
Exam. 21.05.2000) Petroleum Types of coal:
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 30.07.2006)
It is a fuel that had many uses in our Coal is popularly known as buried sunshine.
surrounding that is used to cook food, (SSC CPO Exam. 09.12.2019)
produce steam to run engine, etc.
(RRB NTPC 05.04.2021)

A > B > L > P

Anthracite Bituminous Lignite Peat

India 50-60% C 40% carbon

Available in very less
(new coal)
amount in India,
maximum in Australia has 80%
Brown coal
carbon
Present form of
carbon Called as
soft coal
Hard Coal [maximum hardness and it can
easily burn] smoke less coal.

Higher is the concentration of carbon, • Lignite is a low grade brown coal that is • It is black, thick liquid with unpleasant
more black is the colour of coal. soft with high moisture content. Lignite smell. The product obtained from coal tar
• Anthracite:Depending upon carbon is lowest quality of fuel. is used in industry, photographic
and moisture content (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 11.12.2011 materials, etc.
(SSC MTS 11.10.2021)
(RRB NTPC 11.03.2021) • The main source of naphthalene is Coal-
• Peat coal has Low carbon and High
Anthracite is highest quality coal tar .
moisture content. (SSC MTS 16.06.2002,
Anthracite has the highest percentage
It contains recognizable traces of the SSC CHSL 11.12.2011)
of carbon. (contain alost 90% carbon)
original plant material Coal Gas: - Peat
(SECTION OFFICER 14.12.2003, 05.06.2005)
(SSC CGL 03.09.2016) (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005) • It is obtained when coke is formed to get
(SSC CHSL 08.09.2016) (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 13.12.2022 Shift-1) coke.
(RRB NTPC 09.01.2021) Coal combustion power plant causes fly • It is used in industries of coal processing
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 01.12.2022 Shift-2) ash. plane.
And has the lowest proportion of By coal processing following products are Petroleum: Petroleum is an oily liquid
volatile matter obtained, i.e. coke, coal tar, and coal gas. which has an unpleasant smell. It is basically
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 05.06.2005) Coke: the mixture of various constituents such as
Anthracite produces most heat per • It is a tough, porous and black substance. petrol, diesel, wax, etc.
unit (SSC SO. year 1997) • It an almost pure form of carbon. Petroleum consists a mixture of
• Bituminous is the most popular coal in • It is used in manufacture of steel and the hydrocarbons.
commercial use. extraction of many metals. (SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit Exam. 26.11.2006)
(SSC MTS 11.07.2022) (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 16.12.2007)
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-1)
Coal tar:

87
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Petroleum Water is not suitable for putting out a petrol • Composition of Coal and Petroleum:
fire because Water, being heavy, slips below Coal mainly consists of carbon. Coal is
petrol which thus remains in contact with air also a source of aromatic hydrocarbons
and water and petrol are immiscible with like benzene, toluene, xylene,
each other and petrol forms upper layer and naphthalene and naphthalene besides
Petra (Rock) Oleum (Oil)
continue to burn. some organic compounds containing N
Petroleum mined from between the rocks (SSC CGL 27.07.2008) and S. Crude oil is a natural source of
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 11.12.2011)
under earth. aliphatic hydrocarbons with much lesser
Combustion of coal and petroleum results in Petrochemicals: Union Carbide India Ltd.
content of aromatic hydrocarbons and
oxide of nitrogen and phosphorus. Manufactured essentially Petrochemicals.
(SSC CGL01.07.2012)
organic compounds containing N and S.
(RRBGROUP-D 16.11.2018) (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 12.01.2003)
All the oils are known as organic compound The process by which we separate the
• Products of coal tar distillation: These
or Hydrocarbon various constituent from mixture is known
are shown in table
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 24.02.2002) as petroleum refinery.

S. No. Name of Fraction Temperature Range Components Uses

1. Light oil of crude naphtha Upto 443 K Benzene, Toluene, Xylene They are used as solvent, insecticides,
explosives.
2. Middle oil or carbolic oil 443-503 K Phenols, Cresols Used for resin, antiseptic, disinfectant.
3. Heavy oil or creosote oil 503-543 K Naphthols, Cresols Used for dyes.
4. Green oil or Anthracene oil 543-673 K Naphthalene, Anthracene and Used as fumigants,
Phenanthrene
5. Pitch Left in the still Carbon Used in making surface of roads, black paints
varnish for wood and for water proofin.

Petroleum Refining than saturated and open chain • Reforming: It is the process of obtaining
• The first step in the refining process is hydrocarbons. aromatic hydrocarbons from cyclic and
neutralization of the crude oil by washing — Aromatic hydrocarbons have higher open chain (acyclic) alkanes containing 6
it with acidic and basic solution. The oil is octane number than cycloalkanes. to 8 carbon atoms by heating them at
then fractionated by fractional Aromatic hydrocarbons > cycloalkanes > 670 K in presence of Pd, Pt or Ni as
distillation into several fractions with alkenes > branched chain alkanes > catalyst e.g.
different ranges. Gasoline obtained by straight chain alkanes. CH3CH2 alkanes containing 6 to 8 carbon
this procedure is called straight run Note: n-heptane has the least value for atoms by heating them at 670 K in
gasoline. octane number presence of Pd, Pt or Ni as catalyst e.g.
670 K, Pt
(SSC CGL Tier-IRe-Exam–2013, 27.04.2014) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3   C6H6
• Octane number: It is used to determine High octane fuel contains high content of n-hexane
the knocking quality of a fuel in an internal lead.
combustion engine.
(SSC MTS Staff (Patna) Exam. 16.02.2014)
(SSC CPO 28.08.2011) 670 K, Pt
• Cetane number: The quality of diesel
The octane number is defined as percentage
fuel is expressed in terms of a unit called
of iso-octane present in the mixture of iso-
cetane number. cyclohexane
octane and n-heptane which has the same Benzene
Hexadecane (C16H34) ignites rapidly and
knocking performance in the experimental The process is known as aromatization.
has been assigned cetane number 100
engine as the gasoline under examination. The organic compound obtained when
while 1-methyl naphthalene, which
n-Heptane, a straight chain hydrocarbon two hydrogen atom is displaced by one
ignites slowly is given cetane number
having very high knocking property has been Natural Gas:
zero. the cetane number is defined as
arbitrarily assigned as octane number zero. The main constituent of natural gas is
percentage of cetane by volume in a
Iso-octane (2, 2, 4-trimethylpentane) has CH4
mixture of cetane and 1-methyl
been assigned octane number 100. (SSC Combined Matric Level Exam. 05.05.2002)
naphthalene which has same ignition
Higher the octane number, better is quality SSC CHSL 28.11.2010,
properties as the sample fuel under SSC MTS 20.02.2011, 22.10.2021 &
of petrol (gasoline)
examination. (SSC CAPFS 05.06.2016)
Ethylene Glycol is added to aviation gasoline (SSC MTS 18.10.2021,22.10.21)
CH3
because it prevents freezing of petrol • It is very useful fuel and we store then
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.06.2011)
under high pressure as CNG.
—H2SO4 is used as catalyst in the Natural gas is an example of fossil fuel.
production of high octane fuel. CH3(CH2)14CH3 (SSC MTS 21.1.2017)
(SSC CGL 19.05.2013) Cetane
— Smaller the hydrocarbon, higher the (n-hexadecane) 1-methyl neghthalene The source of energy that causes the
octane number e.g., octane number of least global warming is Geo thermal
• Anti-knocking agents: The compounds Energy.
methane is 122 while that of ethane is
which increases the octane number when
101, of propane 96 and of butane 89. (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.03.09.2016
added up to 0.01% in the gasoline e.g.
— Greater the branching more will be the
tetraethyl lead, Pb(C2H5)4 (TEL).
octane number e.g., triptane (2, 2, 3-
• Cracking: It is the process of breaking S. Constituents
trimethyl butane) has octane number Uses
higher hydrocarbons into lower No. of petroleum
125. Longer the straight chain, smaller
hydrocarbons by heating in absence of 1 Petroleum gas Fuel for home and
the octane number. e.g., nonane has
air. It is used to increase octane rating of in liquid form industry
octane number – 45.
petrol. (LPG)
— Unsaturated hydrocarbons and
C8H18  770 K C4H10 + C4H8 2 Petrol Motor fuel, aviation
cycloalkanes have higher octane number,

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fuel, solvent, for dry to save petrol/diesel while driving that Note
cleaning is. Oxygen is necessary for combustion.
3 Kerosene Fuel for stoves, 1. Switch off the engine at traffic lights or (SSC MTS Staff Exam. 17.03.2013)
(DELHI POLICE CONSTABLE 03.12.2020)
lamps and jet place where your vehicle is stop.
Sometimes combustion gives off light
aircrafts 2. Check correct pressure in tyre.
either in form of flame/glow.The lowest
4 Diesel Fuel for heavy 3. Maintain your vehicle at regular
temperature at which a substance
motor vehicles, intervals.
catches fire is called ignition
electrical 4. Drive your vehicle at constant and
temperature.
generators, medium speed. (SSC CGL 20.08.2021 , 23.08.21)
submarines Properties of a clean fuel are The substances that have very low
5 Lubricating Lubrication (i) They are pollution free. ignition temperature and easily catch fire
(RRBJE 2014)
oil are called inflammable substances.
(ii) Clean fuel is universal
6 Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, Ex. LPG etc.
(iii) They are economical
or petroleum Vaseline, etc. Capsaicin is the inflammatory compound
(iv) Clean fuels i.e. petrol have high calorific
wax (SSCMTS(PRE)Exam. in pepper spray.
(SSC CGL Prelim 21.05.2000) value. (SSC CHSL 26.10.2020)
Exam. Combustion The open "Sigrees" or coal stoves often
13.11.2005 ) • When a substance reacts with oxygen require fanning to sustain burning
7 Bitumen Paints, road and gives us heat is called combustion.
surfacing because of tendency of carbon
Requirements for producing fire are
dioxide
Fuel, air, heat (all).
• PCRA (Public conservation research (SSC MTS (Non-Tech.) Staff Exam. 23.02.2014,)
• The substance that is used to ignite
Association) advise the people that how combustion is called fuel.
Fuel may be solid, liquid or gas.
Combustion

Rapid Spontaneous
The substance that easily burn and The substance suddenly bursts into
produces heat and light is known to flames, w/o the application of any
be Rapid combustion. apparent cause is called spontaneous
combustion.
• When a large amount of gas formed in zone is yellow and known to be middle While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is
the reaction is liberated such a reaction zone. getting blackened on the outside, it means
is called explosion. • The inner zone is dark and mostly consist that the fuel is not burning completely.
Candle of unburnt carbon particles(beause of NOTE:-
It is a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons complete combustion of fuel) that’s why (i) Thermal electricity is generated by using
Paraffin wax and stearic acid (aliphatic this zone is luminous part of zone and it coal, natural gas and petroleum.
and aromatic hydrocarbon) is in black color. (SSC CGL 07.09.2016)
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 30.11.2008) (RRB NTPC 22.02.2021) (ii) Cryogenic engine makes use of liquid,
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 14.12.2008
oxygen and liquid hydrogen as its fuel.
Flame Fuel
• The sources of heat energy are called (RRB NTPC 03.03.2021)
fuel. (iii) The temperature of oxy- acetylene flame
Ex. Wood, Charcoal, petrol, etc. is around 3200°C
It produces large amount of heat. (SSC CGL 26.06.2011)
• The amount of heat energy produced on (iv) Water is not effective in extinguishing
complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is a fire caused by petrol because
called calorific value. water and petrol are immiscible
(RRB JE 27.06.2019) with each other and petrol which
The substance which vaporize during It is expressed in kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg). forms the upper layer continues
burning, gives flames. For example, The heat value of combustion of gasoline
to burn
kerosene oil and molten wax rise is 47000kJ/kg.
(SSC CHSL 16.11.2014) (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.07.2008
through the wick and vaporized during (v) Tar roads get damaged if there is
 Carbon dioxide is produced when alcohol
burning and form flames. stagnation of water on road
is added with petrol and used as a fuel.
• Types of zone we see in the and (SSC CHSL 16.03.2018) (SSC Combined Matric Level
discussed here are: Nuclear fuel is use in modern PRE Exam. 21.05.2000
1. Innermost zone (luminous zone) submarines (vi) Trans esterification is used for the
2. Middle zone production of Biodiesel
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)
3. Outer zone (non-luminous zone) Exam. 05.05.2002) (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 04.12.2011)
• Due to complete combustion, the outer Hydrogen is the best fuel in terms of energy (Vii) Firewood and water are not a
zone is blue. This zone is the hottest released per gram of fuel. commercial source of energy.
when compared to the other zones.
This zone is Non-luminous part of zone. Kerosene fuel has calorific value equal to During 1820’s soldiers used a type of gun in
(SSC MTS 17.03.2013) petrol which the powder was ignited by a match,
(SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I 10/03/2023) (SSC CHSL 10.07.2019) the name of this gun is Matchlock.
• This zone is moderately hot and partial Natural gas has highest calorific value.
combustion of fuel that’s why the color

89
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19. Applied Chemistry

Cement CaO(Calcium Oxide) – Quick lime (can't eat It is also called milk of calcium
It is silicates and aluminates of calcium. this) (Bhujhachuna) which is used in tobacco
Invented in 1824, by Joseph Aspdin. (SSC CAPFS 07.07.2017,
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010) SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 01.12.2022 Shift-1 &
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 02.12.2022 Shift-4)
It is also called Portland cement. Because
Ca(OH)2(Calcium Hydroxide) – slaked
first time it was made in Portland, England.
lime (pH – 12.4) – we eat this.

CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 + MgO + Gypsum

Quick lime Silicates Aluminates
60-65% 25-30% 5-10% 1-2% 2-3%
By total weight of cement
Basic cement commercial cement
(i)Raw Materials: Limestone (CaCO3), clay • The reaction between cement and water (i) Natural fertilizers: Decayed plants,
(Alumino Silicates – Al2O3.(SiO2).2H2O) and is called hydration. tobacco stem ashes, cottonseed meal,
gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). (RRB SSE 21.12.2014) wood, etc. These are of plant origin.
(SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax & Central Excise • A thick paste of cement, Slaked lime Bones, fish scraps, horns, guano, animal
Exam. 14.12.2008) sand and water is called Mortar. excreta, sewage, sludge, leather waste,
(FCI Assistant Grade-III Exam. 05.02.2012) (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 29.03.2009)
etc. These are of animal origin.
(SSC MTS 16.02.2014)
(ii) Production: Limestone and clay are Vermi composer are organic fertilizer
• Cement containing excess amount of
(SSC CAPFS 04.07.2017)
heated strongly in a furnace at 1770 K to lime becomes more strong
1870 K to form cement clinker. This (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) (ii) Artificial or Synthetic fertilizers: These
clinker is mixed with 2-3% by weight of Exam. 30.07.2006)
are further classified as follows:
gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) so as to regulate • Concrete: a mixture of cement, gravel,
Nitrogenous fertilizers: They supply
setting time and then ground to fine coarse sand and water. nitrogen to plant e.g. urea(Extensively
powder. Portland cement contains Occupational lungs diseases: used)
dicalcium silicate (26%) and tricalcium These are the diseases that occur due to (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam.
silicate (51%), tricalcium aluminate 27.02.2000, 05.05.2002)
the occupations of people. (SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam.
(11%). Worker Diseases 27.05.2012)
(iii) Composition of cement: CaO(70%), 1. Cement Silicosis  It affects lungs CAN (calcium ammonium nitrate), nitrolim
MgO(2-3%), SiO2(20%), Fe2O3(1-2%), (silica) (CaCN2 + C) ammonium sulphate, etc.
Al2O3(5%), SO3(1-2%). For good quality The percentage of nitrogen present in
2. Glass Silicosis  It affects lungs
cement, the ratio of SiO2 to Al2O3 should
(silica) ammonium sulphate is 27%
be between 2.5 to 4.00 and the ratio of
3. Stone Cutter Silicosis  It affects lungs (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 21.04.2013)
lime to the total mixture of SiO2, Al2O3
(silica) The chief source for the production of
and Fe2O3 should be 2: 2.
4. Asbestos Asbestosis (Silica) nitrogenous fertilizer is ammonia.
Points Must be remembered:-
5. Coal mine or cigarette, smoke Black (SSC MTS 27.02.2011)
• Cement is formed by strongly heating a
lungs disease or Anthracosis Bio fertilizers convert nitrogen to ammonia.
mixture of limestone and clay. (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 04.12.2011)
(SSC CGL26.06.2011)
Fertiliser having high nitrogen content is
6. Cotton mill White lungs disease or
• Limestone (found in association with Urea.
Fibrinosis So, we wear masks to save
rocks of Calcium carbonate)is a raw (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.02.2000)
ourselves Workers in glass/cement
material used in cement industry. (b) Phosphatic fertilizers: They supply
industry are advised to eat jaggery in
(SSC CHSL 08.09.2016 & SSC CGL Pre. 2022, Phosphorus to plants e.g. super
03.12.2022 Shift-2) order to remove any toxic material if
phosphate of lime, phosphatic slag, from
• Chemical composition of cement is entered in their body.
steel furnaces, etc.
limestone, clay and gypsum. Fertilizers
(c) Potash fertilizers: They supply
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 26.06.2011, 04.09.2016) Fertilizers are the substances which are
Potassium to plants. E.g. potassium
• The addition of gypsum to Portland added to the soil from time to time in
nitrate (nitre), potassium sulphate,
cement helps in preventing rapid order to avoid plant starvation and to
potassium chloride, etc.
setting of cement promote their proper and healthy
(d) Mixed fertilizers: They can supply all
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 26.06.2011 growth.
the three main nutrients i.e. N, P and K.
• Cement is made hard with hydration and Plants need a number of elements like N,
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.02.2000)
dissociation of water. P, Mg, S, K, Ca, etc. for their proper They are thus also known as NPK fertilizers.
(SSC SECTION OFFICER 1997, healthy growth, in addition to water and The fertilizer used for increasing fertility
SSC CGL 26.06.2011
sunlight. of soil.They are obtained by mixing
FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012)
Type of fertilizers

90
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nitrogenous, phosphoric and potash • The abundant greenhouse gas in * Propane + Butane
fertilizers in suitable proportions. atmosphere due to human activities is CO2 (SSCHSL 20.01.2017 &
(SSC CHSL 26.10.2020) SSC CGL 18.10.2021)
(by burning of fire)
Functions of Essential Nutrients (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 03.09.2006)
(40 -50)% (50 – 60)%
Nitrogen: It helps rapid growth, (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 06.01.2008) Or
increases yield and protein contents, (FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012) * Isopropane + Butane
(SSC CGL08.07.2012)
renders green color of the leaves, etc. C3H8 C4H10
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 21.04.2013) Or
Phosphorus: It gives formation, hastens • Carbon Credit: 1 CC  1000 kg of CO2 * Isopropyl Butane (C4H10)
maturity, helps in production of healthy emission (1 tonne) Modern LPG
plants tissues and increases resistance to If 1000 kg of CO2 emission is done by a Isobutane + Butane
frost and insect. company means 1cc is done. C4H10 + C4H10
It is insoluble in water but when kept for 3. CH4  methane Isobutane is an isomer of Butane.
(SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.04.09.2016)
long time in water, it turns to yellow in The maximum pressure an LPG cylinder
Most abundant gas in Paddy fields.
colour. can hold is 100 – 120 bar.
Most gas
For smell in LPG, Ethyl mercaptan or
4. N2O  Nitrous Oxide(From the
Ethanethiol is added to detect its leakage.
agricultural fields) (RRB NTPC 07.04.2016)
5. CFC – Chlorofluorocarbon {earlier used in CH2 CH3 SH (S → sulphur → has smell)
Refrigerator} LPG is stored in liquid state in a
Brand Name: Freon Gas domestic gas cylinder.
CFC has been replaced by Ammonia (RRB NTPC 09.03.2021)
N P K complete (NH3) and HFC (Hydro Floro Carbon) Note:
fertilizer 6. R – 22  Brand name of HFC or AC Gas • Cigarette lighter fuel → butane (gas)
Nitrogen • Olympic torch fuel Isopropylene butane
Potassium
• Waste Dump areas have covers
7. SF6 Sulphur Hexa Fluoride
embedded with holes in order to provide
Phosphorus 8. ozone (O3 )
leakage to methane gas so that methane
(Black Phosphorus) It is used as an Insulator (to absorb heat)
may not compile at such places because
Nurseries create a poly house around
Potassium: It counteracts the effects of due to accumulation of methane, blasts
to save plants.
excess doses of nitrogenous and may occur.
 To maintain required temperature during
phosphoric fertilizers. It helps in the • Methane is also known as ‘ bed gas’
winter, necessary for growth of plants
formation of healthy stalks and increases • It is the first member of the alkenes
and this poly house is also known as
their resistance to disease. series and is the most common
(SSC MTS (Non-Technical) Staff Exam.20.02.2011)
green house.
hydrocarbon.
Essentials of a Good Fertilizer Greenhouse effect: It increases the
• Ethane is a petroleum gas
(i) It should be soluble in water. Earth's Temperature as these gases
CNG (Compressed natural gas)
(ii) The nutrient elements are readily absorb the reflected sun rays from earth (RRB NTPC 04.04.2016 7
available to the plants. surface and trap these heat radiations (SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-1)
(iii) The nutrient elements are available to inside the earth atmosphere. This Ethane + Methane → Bio gas
the plants for a longer period. increases the overall temperature of (15%) (85%) (CH4 → 90%)
(iv) The fertilizer should be cheap and there earth. This effect is known as greenhouse C2H6 CH4
should be no problem in its storage effect. the main component of CNG is Methane.
SOME IMPORTANT GASES This leads to global Warming. (RRB GROUP-D 24.10.2018)
Note: Butane is not present here
Green House Gases: These are non-
The gas which has maximum potential to Pressure → 200 – 250 bar
pollutants rather they increase temperature
absorb heat radiations. It is a cleaner fuel it produces oxides of
of earth (i.e. enhances Global Warming)
(SSC CGL01.07.2012)  SF6 (SulpurHexa Fluoride) sulphur and nitrogen in very small
1. Water Vapor  Maximum in atmosphere Greenhouse gas emitted in maximum amounts.
(SSC CHSL 04.03.2018)
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)(GHE is mainly quantity from plants.
It makes environment less polluted.
because of it)  Water Vapor(largely contribute)
It emits less greenhouse gases.
(SSC CGL Tier-I , 08.07.2012, 20.07.2014,) LPG (Liquefied petroleum gas)
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004) (RRB NTPC 01.02.2021)
Indian Railways launched the first train
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam.
Main composition run by CNG in 2015.
30.07.2006)
* Ethane + Propane + Butane(SSC Tax CNG uses in motor fuel are increases day
(SSC CHSL 27.10.2013, 01.11.2015 & SSC CGL
05.08.2017, 03.03.2020) Assistant Exam. 25.11.2007) (SSC MTS 18.10.2021) by day.
C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 (RRB GROUP-D 03.12.2018)
Some facts
(10%) (20 – 30)% (60 -70)% Methane gas
• The Industry which produces CO2 in
The main component of LPG is(liquefied) Methane gas is also known as Bio gas
maximum amount is Cement Industry
• The country which produces maximum Butane. (gobar gas)/ Marsh gas.
(SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 12.01.2003) (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 05.12.2004)
CO2 is CHINA > USA > INDIA (SSC CPO Exam. 26.05.2005)
(RRB GROUP-D 30.10.2018,
• India ranks 3rd among highest CO2 RRB JE 01.06.2019) (SSC Cabinet Secretariat RO 23.06.2013)
producing countries. (SSC CGL 04.03.20 , CGL 24.08.21)

91
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(RRB NTPC 28.03.2016, 03.04.2016 & 06.04.2016, Helium, an inert gas is added to dilute the It is primarily is a mixture of Carbon
19.04.2016, 13.01.2021)
oxygen. monoxide and Hydrogen.
(SSC CAPFS 03.07.2017)
(90 – 95% - CH4 – Methane) Sea divers in deep sea water use (RRB NTPC 09.03.2021)

trimix cylinder Tear Gas (Chloropicrin (CCl3 NO2)

• The gas, which is emitted from marshes (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 13.05.2001)
and paddy fields is methane. Nitrogen (70%) + Oxygen (20%) +
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005)
(RRB NTPC 25.01.2021) Helium (10%) (SSC DEO Exam. 31.08.2008)
• Methanogens bacteria is responsible for Since our body rejects pure oxygen at (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010)

the formation (production) of methane. It high pressure deep under sea so we mix This gas is used to disperse the crowd.
is the most primitive bacteria on earth. nitrogen with it to create natural This gas is present inside small rubber
Even when there was no oxygen on earth atmosphere. Nitrogen is mixed with balls. When the rubber ball strikes a
this creature was present. oxygen only where there is no normal surface it collapse and the gas is released
• Methane + air → Explosive atmosphere so we don’t mix N2 for using out. The gas creates a burning sensation
O2 cylinders in Hospitals. in our eyes. Hence lachrymal glands of
E.g. Coal mine blast, waste dump areas Helium increases the solubility of oxygen our eyes produce tears.
blast is due to methane explosion Welding gas Ammonia gas (NH3) is also used to
(SSC MTS 02.08.2019) Oxygen + acetylene → oxy disperse the crowd
• People die in waste dumped areas due to Acetylene gas Tear gas is the common name for the
excessive methane. (cylinder) (cylinder) (pipes of both substances which irritates lachrymal
• Since methane is obtained from marshy cylinder joined together) glands.
areas it is also known as marsh gas. (SSC CPO 06.06.2016)
Oxyacetylene can create a temperature of
(SSC CGL 04.03.2020)
3200° - 3400°C Bhopal gas Tragedy: -
• Methane is a colorless, odorless, non- Reason - Leakage of gas - Methyl Isocyanides
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 26.06.2011)
toxic but flammable gas.. (H3CNCO)
Common Gas cutter
For generation of biogas, the materials (SSC MTS 05.05.2002,
→ Oxygen + Hydrogen → Oxy hydrogen SSC TAX ASSISTANT 12.11.2006,
commonly used are animal waste.
gas SSC STENOGRAPHER 16.10.2011,
(FCI ASSISTANT 22.01.2012)
Temperature → 3700° C SSC CHSL 04.12.2011 & 21.10.2012
The gas produces in marshy places due & 06.12.2015,
to decomposition of vegetation is During welding UV rays are produced so, SSC CGL 24.04.2013, 10.08.2017)
methane. we use goggles to protect our eyes Company - Union Carbide (USA)
(SSC CHSL 09.11.2014) Note: The highest melting point is of Product - Pesticide
Tungsten metal (W) (3380°C) Date - 3rd Dec. 1984
Biogas is formed through Anaerobic Aluminum powder is used on welding Accused - Warren Anderson
respiration. broken pieces of iron rails and machine The cylinder containing the gas had blast
(SSC MTS 14.05.2017) parts. resulting in the release of the gases
Methane burns then carbon dioixide and (FCI ASSISTANT 22.01.2012)
carbon monoxide and cyanide. These
water emit. For welding mixture Ethine and oxygen
(RRB NTPC 28.04.2016) poisonous gases killed many people.
is used.
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 28.10.2012
(RRB GROUP-D 12.12.2018)
CO (carbon monoxide)
Biogas used for cooking is a mixture of Smoke bomb: Smoke Bomb is made up of It is the most harmful gas, most toxic gas
methane and carbon dioxide. phosphorous for human.
Sources of methane: (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005), (SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax &
(a) Paddy fields KClO3, Sugar, Sodium Bicarbonate, Powered Central Excise Exam. 12.11.2006)
(b) Ruminants / cow dung (SSC CGL01.07.2012)
organic Dye etc.
(c) Land fills It combines with hemoglobin of blood
(d) Marshy areas and forms a stable compound carboxy
1. Potassium Chlorate (KClO3) It is used as
Alessandro Volta was the first person to hemoglobin due to which the oxygen
an oxidizer.
isolate methane gas. He discovered that carrying capacity of hemoglobin is
2. Sugar (sucrose or dextrin fuel)
methane mixed with air could be reduced and person dies due to
3. Sodium Bicarbonate – To moderate the
exploded using an electric spark. unavailability of oxygen. The affinity of
rate of reaction & keep it from getting too
(SSC CGL 07.06.2019) hemoglobin for carbon monoxide is 300
hot.
Ethanol is used as fuel in as well as in times the affinity of hemoglobin for
4. Powered organic Dye - To Impart Color
petrol cars. oxygen.
Nitrous oxide (N2O): It is also known as
(RRB JE 27.05.2019) 300-350 times 1time
Laughing gas
Gases used for artificial respiration
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 13.05.2001)
Atmospheric pressure decreases as we (FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012, 11.11.2012)
go up in the air and increases as we go (SSC CGL01.07.2012)
CO Hemoglobin O2
down the surface of earth (SSC Constable (GD) Exam. 12.05.2013)
it causes suffocation and death when coal
(SSC CGL 10.09.2016, 12.06.2019)
Oxygen Cylinder: To save life of a (SSC CPO 12.12.19) or coke is burnt in a closed room
person who cannot inhale atmospheric (SSC CHSL 14.10.20) (SSC CHSL 01.11.2015)
oxygen. Used for anesthesia Propane gas
It contains Helium (15%) + oxygen Advance anesthesia → Halothane + N2O Chemical formula C3H8
(85%). This mixture is known as Heliox. Syngas It is a form of LPG.
Artificial Ripening of Food

92
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In this the fruits are ripened artificially Methods of Ripening of fruits
by using certain chemical compounds so
that they may be sold in the market.

Natural Artificial
(naturally by trees using Ethylene
or ethene (C2H4))
Artificial Ripening of fruits

Recommended Ethylene Prohibited Acetylene

(Gas Hormone) C2H2 (RRB CBT 31.08.2019)
Ethane carcinogenic due to carbide (C2)

Ethylene and acetylene is used for Domestic cooking gas consists mostly of Use of some elements in diagnosing/
artificial ripening the of fruits. butane (liquefied) and isobutene. treating diseases
(SSC CPO Exam. 26.05.2005) Rocket fuel • Cobalt - 60 → cancer treatment
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 27.02.2000, 27.07.2008) In this, liquid Hydrogen is used because • Arsenic – 74 → Brain tumor detection
(SSC CAPFS 03.07.2017)
of its highest calorific value • Iodine – 131 → Thyroid cancer treatment
Now Government allowed the artificial
Rocket engine is a cryogenic engine (cold • Radium – 223 → bone cancer treatment
ripening of fruits by ethylene and banned engine) • Sodium 24 → to detect blood clots inside
acetylene (C2H2) because it contains (SSC CPO S.I. Exam. 05.06.2005)
body. Its half-life is very small (few
carbide (C2) and this is carcinogenic 1 gm. Petrol releases 50 kilo Joule of
hours) so mostly destroyed in our body
(cancer causing). Acetylene on cooling energy
1 gm. Diesel releases 45 kilo Joule of only
sticks on fruits. Small vendors use
energy • Phosphorus -32 → Blood cancer
calcium carbide (CaC2) for artificial
1 gm. Hydrogen releases 145 kilo joule of treatment
ripening and when they sprinkle water,
energy Cobalt - 60, Sodium 24 and Phosphorus -
acetylene gas is produced.
Note: N2 →Third largest in universe 32 are used in radiotherapy.
CaC2 + 2H2O → C2H2 + CaO + Heat
Catalytic Convertors: - It converts
CaC2
Study of fossils (Paleontology) poisonous gases to non- poisonous gases.
The isotope of Carbon 14C6 is a radioactive So, it is used in Engines of automobiles so
isotope and used for carbon dating i.e. to that harmful gases may not emit out
Fruits H2O estimate the age of fossils. directly in Environment.
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)
Catalytic convertors are made up of
Exam. 05.05.2002)
Transition Metals.
Carbon dating is a method of calculating the
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam, 16.08.2015
CaC2 + H2O → C2H2 + Ca(OH)2 age of very old objects by measuring the
Note: amounts of different forms of carbon in BS III, BS IV, BS VI
The chemical that is use to ripe mangoes them. BS Stands for Bharat Stage
(SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. year 1997, 10.12.2006)
is calcium carbide. These are types of Engines named as per
(SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 04.02.2007)
(SSC CGL 04.09.2016) amount of Pollutants emitted by these
(SSC Constable (GD) & Rifleman (GD) Exam. 22.04.2012)
Water gas / Synthesis gas (CO + H2) (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-1) engines.
(SSC CHSL 04.12.2011 & In carbon dating, a weak C-14 molecule
SSC CAPFS 21.06.2015)
BS III emits more pollutants
deteriorates and transforms into N-14 U-234 Where as
It is used to keep the blast furnace warm
is used for Uranium lead dating i.e to BS VI emits fewer pollutants so, less
Producer gas (Co + N2)
estimate the age of earth. Harmful for environment.
It is used as a fuel to run Automobiles in
foreign Half-life of carbon is 5400-5700 years and Euro III or Euro V means which follow
The gas used for filling weather balloon half-life of uranium about 4.5 billion years European standardizations.
is helium. CE → means European certification and
(SSC MATRIC LEVEL 24.10.1999, this is not Harmful.
Trie concept of ‘’Greenhouse gases’ was
SSC SECTION OFFICER 26.11.2006, FSSAI → Food Security and standard
SSC CGL 27.07.2008, SSC CPO 28.08.2011) postulated by Joseph Fourier.
authoring of India.
In Pipe, natural gas is used for cooking. (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 24.04.2013,)
8 pollutants are included to measure the Air
(SSC CGL 17.03.2013) Silicon is least likely to be found in
Cooking gas (piped natural gas -PNG) Quality Index in India.
commercial fertilizers. (SSC MTS 20.08.2021)
(SSC CGL 21.04.2013)
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 16.06.2002 Some Diseases due to metals
Cooking gas is a mixture of- butane
1. Cadmium → Itai – Itai Disease in Japan or
and propane
Ouch - Ouch disease in Rest of the world
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)Exam. 05.05.2002)
(SSC CPO S.I.Exam. 12.12.2010)

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(Pain in kidney, first noticed in people of This was the first disease due to Hg that Nuclear power plants in India
Japan) happened to the people of minamata 1. 1st → Tarapur, Maharashtra.
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.06.2011) creek of Japan. It gives paralytic attack It was established with the help of USA in
2. Iron → Siderosis Disease i.e. affects Brain. 1969. This is the oldest power plant in
(due to abnormal increase of iron in 6. Arsenic → Black foot Disease the world. This is used for the production
human body) White Lung Disease is due to Fibers of of Electricity.
Do not confuse with → Cirrhosis → cotton and Lungs cancer is due to Radon 2. Jaitapur, (Maharashtra) (Under
Disease of liver due to more alcohol 7. Chromium is toxic heavy metals Construction)
consumption found in modern tannery industries 3. Gorakhpur (Haryana) (Under
3. Copper → Wilson’s disease (Body construction)
(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam.
becomes yellow coloured) 28.08.2011 (Paper-1) 4. Narora Power plant (Bulaud Shehar,
As copper kills Bacteria so water kept in 8. Heavy metal pollution of water is Uttar Pradesh) (working)
copper container is good for our health caused by Paints 5. Rajuoli (Bihar)
But Excess of copper always affects our (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 11.12.2011 6. Haripur (West Bengal)
health Energy (Electricity) Productions in 7. Chhutka power plant (Madhya Pradesh)
Maximum permissible concentration of India 8. Bhumpur Power plant (Madhya Pradesh)
copper in drinking water in mg/L is 1. Energy producing plants in India as per 9. Kovadda power plant (Andhra Pradesh)
4. Nitrate: → Blue baby syndrome or amount of energy produced by them 10. Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu)
methemoglobinemia 1st → Thermal power plants 11. Kudankulum (Tamil Nadu)
(due to abnormal increase of nitrate in 2nd → Hydro power plants 12. Kaiga (Karnataka)
body) 3rd → solar power plants 13. Kakrapara (Gujrat)
Note: Brown Ring test is used to check 4th → Nuclear power plants 14. Mithi Virdi (Gujrat)
the presence of Nitrate in water This energy is used up to produce 15. Rawat bhata(Rajasthan)
5. Mercury → Minamata Disease electricity 16. Mahi banswara (Rajasthan)
America dropped 2 Atom bombs on Japan
Place Date Name of bomb Radioactive elements used Name of aircraft which dropped these bombs
Hiroshima 6-Aug-1945 LITTLE BOY Uranium Enola Gay
Nagasaki 9-Aug-1945 FAT MAN Plutonium B-29

Nuclear Bomb Testing in India (Atom Rat Poison(zinc phosphide) Onion and garlic have a (bad odour) smell
Bomb) Zn3P2 
gives
 Phosphene gas due to sulphur.
Date Operation Site Hot Geysers or hot water from inside the
name
 zinc phosphide 
earth surface is obtained when amount of
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 27.05.2001)
1974 Smiling Buddha Pokhran sulphur is higher at that place.
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 14.12.2008)
1998 Operation Pokhran (SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam. (2013) Volcanic eruptions contain SO2 mainly So,
shakti (SSC MATRIC LEVEL 27.05.2021, SSC CGL people are advised to stay away from
20.07.2014) such places as it may cause many
Now- a- days, we claim 90-110 atom
Due to eating of Zn3P2, a gas called phosphine respiratory diseases like Asthama.
bombs, we have with India
gas is formed inside body of rat so it moves Bullet proof jackets
Match sticks chemical  Potassium
out in open space. Polyebonate is used to make Bullet proof
chlorate + Antimony sulphide
Uses of Sulphur glass and mixey Jar.
Tip of match stick is made of which
Vulcanization of Rubber is done by adding Hardest Material:
phosphorus  Red phosphorus.
Sulphur ( for Hardening) in 5-10% amount Natural – Diamond
(SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 29.03.2009)
Holm's signal is an emergency signal in in Rubber. It is the process of improving the Manmade – Wurtzite (Boron nitrite) – 400
quality of rubber by heating it with Sulphur. GPa. (Made by china)
sea water.
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 24.10.1999)
= Calcium carbide + calcium phosphide (SSC MTS 05.05.2002, One of the hardest manmadeNorbide
CaC2 + Ca3P2 = Red coloured flame (gas) SSC CGL 04.02.2007& Hardness is measured in GPa = Giga Pascal
burns up frequently giving a signal in air. (SSC SAS26.06.2010)SSC CISF 29.08.2010, 19.06.2011, [It is a unit of hardness]
SSC CGL 19.10.2014, 19.06.32011)
The Quality of coal depends on the (SSC CHSL 16.11.2014) Hardest metal  Platinum, Chromium,
presence of amount of carbon. Isoprene Titanium
The basic chemical building block of
natural rubber obtained from trees
(SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam. 05.05.2002)
(SSC MTS (Non-Technical) Staff Exam. 20.02.2011) (SSC
10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam.10.11.2013,)

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Boron fibers + Carbon fibers  Stronger than steel fiber

Boron Carbide
Or
Norbide (40-50 GPa)  one of the man made hardest material.
Use

use
Bullet proof Jacket Polyamide (kevlar)

Glass Glass is a fomite. • Antimony Oxide: white

Raw materials used for the manufacture of (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 13.12.2022 Shift-1) • Sulfur: yellow-amber
glass are sand, soda and limestone. Glass is soluble in HF. • Uranium Oxide: fluorescent yellow, green
(SSC CONSTABLE 12.05.2013)
(FCI ASSISTANT 22.01.2012) • Chromic Oxide: emerald green
Heat resistant variety of glass is Flint
Manganese dioxide is used to remove the
(a) Silicates of Na and Ca (short trick SSC) glass green color from glass.
(b) Amorphous Solid (no shape) (SSC Statistical Investigators Grade–IV Exam. (SSC CGL 06.03.2020)
(c) Super cooled liquid 13.08.2006) Asbestos
(SSC Tax Assistant (Income Tax &Central Excise) Exam.
Fiber glass is used for making glass Asbestos is formed of Calcium and
11.12.2005) reinforced plastic Magnesium
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 26.06.2011) (SSC CPO S.I.Exam. 12.12.2010)
(SSC CPO 28.08.2011) (SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LCD Exam. 11.12.2011
Crooks glass is used for sun glasses
(SSC CGL. 08.02.2004)
(1400 – 1500° C  Heated + molten (Cemented roof) Building roof CaSiO2,
liquid – shaped to glass) MgSiO2
As after sometimes it is thicker at bottom Use – fire proof jackets or fire proof
Different colors of glass is due to material
(This process is called as Annealing)
different chemicals added into it Because it can't catch fire.
SSC – silicates of Na & Ca)
• Cobalt Oxide: blue-violet color Gun Powder (Barood)
Sodium silicate Silica (sand)
65-70%  silica Calcium
• Nickel oxide: deep blue color (SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-2)
(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit) Exam. 25.09.2005)
silicate
• Cadmium Sulfide: yellow Gun powder was invented by Roger Bacon.
Fiber glass is used for making glass Cadmium Sulphide has a tetragonal crystal (SSC CPO SI 16.12.2007)
system.
reinforced plastics. (CHSL 10.08.2021)
(SSC CPO SI 12.12.2010 & SSC CGL 19.06.2011)
• Gold Chloride: red
P-cha-s

Potassium nitrate
(KNO3) (75%) Charcoal Sulphur
(15%) (10%)
• Indian salt petre
• Explosive in fire • Helps in combustion (It causes respiratory problems)
crackers (easily burns) • To control temperature so that it
may burn easily.
Fire crakers colours/ flame test If any metal is kept on flame. It produces
different type of colours.
Name Colour Trick
Barium(chloride Green Green Bar
salt of Barium) (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam, 16.08.2015)

Strontium or Crimson Red(Bunsen flame) SLR

lithium salt (SSCCombined Matric Level (PRE)Exam. 21.05.2000)

Calcium Brick Red Cab Red

Copper Blue Blue copper
Magnesium White Magnesium
white
White flash light of mobile is due to Mg.
Sodium Yellow so ye

95
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Yellow lamp in streets  Na vapour lamp (sodium – Na)
(SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.06.2011)
(SSC 10+2 Level DEO & LDC Exam. 21.10.2012

Barium peroxide is a compound with (SSC MTS 06.08.2019) The yolk contains less water and more
formula BaO2. It is a powder that in white- Hypothetical Chemical Element: eka-francium protein than the white, some fat, and most of
greyish color without any smell (Odorless). Ununennium, also known as eka-francium or the vitamins and minerals of the egg. These
They used by many oil and gas industries element 119, is the hypothetical chemical include iron, vitamin A, vitamin D,
and it also used as bleaching agent. It is can element with symbol Uue and atomic number phosphorus, calcium, thiamine, and
irritate skin, eyes whenever come in contact. 119. Ununennium and Uue are the temporary riboflavin. The yolk is also a source of
It comes in Hazardous list substance. systematic IUPAC name and symbol lecithin, an effective emulsifier.
(SSC CPO 2022, 09.11.2022 Shift-1) respectively, until its discovery is confirmed The white contains more than half the egg's
Ba (element) + O2 (peroxide)  BaO2 and a permanent name is decided upon. total protein, a majority of the egg's niacin,
(Barium peroxide) Taj Mahal riboflavin, magnesium, potassium and
Breath analyzer Potassium dichromate Reason for yellow coloration of Taj Mahal  sodium, and none of the fat. The white of a
(Red orange) K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 and AgNO3 Acid Rain large egg contains about 17 calories.
(SSC Stenographer (Grade 'C' & 'D') Exam. 26.09.2010)
(Silver Nitrate)  mix use Breath analyzer Cigarettes
Stone Cancer/ Marble Couch are the effect of The chemical constituents of cigarettes
(drink and drive)
acid rain on Taj Mahal. The main reason is include:
Here AgNO3 acts as a catalyst to increase the
actually Acid Rain. Reasons for Acid Rain are Nicotine
rate of reaction.
presence of NO2 and SO2 in air.
C2 H5OH
K 2Cr2O7  H2SO4   Cr2 SO4 3 Nicotine is a colourless, poisonous alkaloid
Alcohol (SSC Constable (GD) Exam. 12.05.2013)
derived from the tobacco plant. It is a
 Red Orange  (Chromium sulphate (SSC CAPFs SI, CISF ASI &
Delhi Police SI Exam, 21.06.2015 powerful drug, which affects the brain and a
green colour) (SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam, 21.04.2013, 30.08.2015) person quickly becomes addictive.
It is used to detect whether a person is drunk (SSC 10+2 Level DEO &
LDC Exam. 28.10.2012, 10.11.2013, 20.12.2015)
Tar
or not i.e. presence of alcohol in his blood. (SSC 10+2 Stenographer Grade ‘C’ & ‘D’ Exam. ‘Tar’ is the term used to describe the toxic
Methyl alcohol CH3OH is Poisonous can't be 31.07.2016) chemicals found in cigarettes. It’s a sticky
used for drink (as an alcohol). When Petrol and Diesel are burnt, it releases brown substance that forms when tobacco
It can cause – Blindness gases which finally turns into acids and leads cools and condenses. It collects in the lungs
Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH is used for drink (good to Acid Rain. and can cause cancer.
alcohol) Petrol Diesel
Fact
Most poisonous gas  CO Carbon monoxide
Most harmful gas  SO2 N S An odorless, colorless gas that is released
Nitrogen mixed with oxygen for breathing by +O2 +O2 from burning tobacco. When it is inhaled it
divers in aqualungs. enters the blood stream and interferes with
(SSC MTS 05.05.2002 & NO2 SO2 the working of the heart and the blood
SSC CHSL 04.12.2011 & 11.12.2011) vessels Carbon monoxide and Benzene
When it H2O H2O
Red medicine (Detol) are the major pollutants of cigarette
rains
The antiseptic present in Dettol is HNO3 H2SO4 smoke
Enloroxylenol. (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 14.12.2008) .
(SSC CGL 21.04.2013)
Acidity of rain is measured by pH –meter.
(SSC CGL01.07.2012) Up to 15% of a smoker’s blood can be
Apple when cut turns into brown carrying carbon monoxide instead of oxygen.
Potassium per magnet (KMnO4).
coloured apple
Four oxygen atoms are present in a molecule
When an apple is cut (or bruised), oxygen is Arsenic
of potassium permanganate.
introduced into the injured plant tissue. This Arsenic-containing pesticides used in
(SSC CGL 23.08.2021)
When a drop of glycerol is added to crushed causes the PPO (Polyphenol Oxidize) enzyme tobacco farming occur in small quantities in
KMnO4 spread on a paper there is a violent in the apple's flesh to oxidize the cigarette smoke. Arsenic is commonly found
explosion. polyphenols turning them into some other in rat poison.
(SSC CGL 09.08.2015) brown coloured products. Hence the color Ammonia (NH3)
changed. (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-2)
Bayer’s’ reagent is Alkaline potassium Potatoes brown quickly when cutPotatoes Ammonia is a toxic, colorless gas with a
permanganate brown quickly when exposed to fresh air sharp odor. Ammonia compounds are
(SSC MTS 17.03.2013)
because they are packed with starch. When commonly used in cleaning products and
Some daily life medicines fertilizers. Also used to boost the impact of
these starches are exposed to oxygen, they
Anti helmenthic – Albendazol nicotine in manufactured cigarettes.
undergo a process called oxidation, which
Antipyretic – Reduce temperature of body. Acetone
leaves your potato with a grayish or
Ex: (PCM Paracetamol) Fragrant volatile liquid ketone, used as a
brownish tint.
Analgesics – Pain relief medicines – Pain (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) solvent.
killers. Exam. 21.05.2000) Acetone is an anesthetic agent in surgical
Tranquilizers – To reduce stress Egg operations
Antiperspirant deodorant – Aluminum. Egg shell is made up of calcium carbonate (SSC MTS (Non-Tech.) Staff Exam. 16.02.2014)

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In an acetone molecule one atom of oxygen is molecules using a two-dimensional surface
present. like a sheet of paper or a computer screen.
Caffeine: The alkaloid naturally found in (SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-3)

coffee, Cocoa and Cola nut Intermolecular force- the force that
(SSC GL Tier-I Exam.19.10.2014,) between the molecule is termed as
Intermolecular force.
(SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-3)
The London dispersion force is weakest
Intermolecular force. It act between the
adjacent atom of electron that occupy
Toluene position make the atoms form temporary
Toluene is a highly toxic chemical. Industrial dipole.It is a forces arise from transient
uses include rubbers, oils, resins, adhesives, dipoles in atoms that induce transient
inks, detergents, dyes and explosives. dipoles in nearby atoms, produce an
Methylamine attractive force and are significant only over
Chemical found in tanning lotion. short distances (~500 pm).
Pesticides (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 02.12.2022 Shift-1)
A number of pesticides (toxic chemicals used
to kill pests, usually insects) are present in
cigarette smoke. These pesticides find their
way into cigarettes because they’re used on
tobacco plants as they are growing.

Polonium – 210
Radioactive element – used in nuclear
weapons as well as an atomic heat source.
Methanol
Fuel used in the aviation industry.
Silver chains turns black
Rust is called oxidation, because oxygen in
the air starts to chemically react with the
iron's outer layers. Silver doesn't oxidize,
though; it tarnishes. Tarnish is formed when
sulfur or sulfur compounds come into
contact with silver.
Sorel cement
Sorel cement, also called magnesium
oxychloride cement (MOC) or magnesia
cement, it is non hydraulic cement made
from a mixture of magnesium oxide and
magnesium brine. It was discovered by the
French engineer Stanislas Sorel in 1867. He
has found limited use due to its very poor
water resistance and is commonly used
artificial stone, wallboards, and as a binding
agent in grindstones. On Mars it would be
used to prepare concrete.
The Sorel cement is a mixture of
magnesium oxide (burnt magnesia) with
magnesium chloride with the approximate
chemical formula MgC4Cl2(OH)6(H2O)8,
corresponding to a weight ratio of 2.5–3.5
parts MgO to one part MgCl2.
The name "Sorel cement" is also used for
zinc oxychloride cements, also discovered by
Sorel, which is prepared from zinc oxide and
zinc chloride instead of the magnesium
compounds and this is used as dental
filling.
NOTE:-
Dash-wedge formula is used to represent
the three-dimensional structures of

97
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20. Miscellaneous
Occurrence of Elements Minerals: The naturally occurring chemical (SSC CGL Tier-I (CBE) Exam.07.09.2016
Only a few elements such a noble gases, substance in the earth’s crust which is
nitrogen, and metals like gold, platinum, obtained by mining are called minerals.
Copper etc. occur in free state. Ores: The rocky materials which contain PO is not a symbol of chemical element
Most of the elements occur in combined state sufficient quantity of minerals so that metal potassium
as these are reactive in nature. Generally can be extracted profitably or economically (SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-2)

they occur in the form of their oxides, from it are known as ores. Elements in the Allochromatic minerals are coloured due
carbonates, silicates, sulphides, sulphates, ores can either exist in their native state or to impurities
(SSC STENO. 18.11.2022 SHIFT-3)
etc. in their combined states.
Note: Bridgmanite (magnesium sillicate)is
Earth’s most abundant mineral

Few important minerals

Combined State Element Name of the Mineral
Oxides Fe Haematite (Fe2O3 )
Al Magnetite (Fe2O3.FeO), Chromite (FeO.Cr2O3)
Mn Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O)
Pyrolusite (MnO2)
Carbonates Fe Siderite (FeCO3)
Ca Calcite (CaCO3)
Mg Dolomite (CaCO3. MgCO3)
Cu Malachite [CuCO3. Cu(OH)3]
Zn Calamine (ZnCO3)
Silicates Mg, Si Calcium magnesium silicate
(CaSiO3. MgSiO3) (asbestos)
Al, Si China clay (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)
Sulphides K, Al, Si Mica sheets (K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O)
Fe Iron pyrites (FeS2)
Cu Copper pyrites (CuFeS2)
Copper glance (Cu2S)
Hg Cinnabar (HgS)
Zn Sphalerite (ZnS)
Pb galena (PbS)
Halides Na Common salt (NaCl)
Al Cryolite (Na3AlF6)
K. mg Carnallite (KCl. MgCl2.6H2O)
Ca Fluorite (CaF2)
Sulphates Ba Barites (BaSO4)
Pb Anglesite (PbSO4)
Ca Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)

Elements in Biological Systems (vi) Zinc is present in the eyes of certain Elements found is liquid state at Room
A large number of elements are associated animals (cats). Temperature
with the living beings, both plants and (vii)Traces of magnesium, copper and → Bromine (m.p. =23°C) → non-metal
animal, e.g. Au, K, Ca, Mg, etc. manganese are associated with → Mercury (Hg) – 38.83°C
(i) Iodine is present in seaweeds. chloroplasts. → Gallium - 29°C
(ii) Nitrogen and potassium are essential for Deficiency of these elements may cause → Caesium - 28°C
plant life. some disorders in the body e.g., → Francium - 27°C →
(iii) Carbon and hydrogen are constituents of Caused by deficiency radioactive element
Disease
all organic compounds and are present in of the element If these are kept at room temperature or
the bodies of both animals and plants. 1. Anaemia iron kept in hand, they melt easily
(iv) Magnesium (Mg2+)is present in 2. Goitre iodine
chlorophyll (the green pigment in plants). 3. Retarded nitrogen, phosphorus,
(SSC MTS Staff Exam. 10.03.2013) growth of plants potassium
(v) Iron is a constituent of hemoglobin.
Discovery Scientist PYQs
Plasma Crooks
Excitonium Bertrand Halperin(1960) new form of matter called Excitonium
word “atom” Democritus (RRB GROUP-D 31.10.2018)

word “molecule” Amedeo Avagadro (RRB GROUP-D 20.18.2018)

Cathode rays Julius Plucker (1859)

Anode Rays Goldstein

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Neutron James Chadwick (SSC MTS 16.02.2014, RRB JE 14.12.2014 & 29.05.2019, SSC TAX
ASSISTANT 05.12.2003, SSC SECTION OFFICER 14.12.2003, SSC CPO
SI 05.06.2016,
SSC CAPFS 04.07.2017, 07.07.2017 & SSC CHSL 14.10.2020, RRB
NTPC 19.01.2021) (SSC CHSL Exam 2022 Tier I, 09.03.2023)
electron J.J THOMSON IN 1897 (RRBNTPC 17.01.2017, RPF SI 24.2.2018, SSC CGL 04.02.2007,
04.06.2019, 07.06.2019, RRB NTPC 27.06.2019, RRB JE
28.08.2019,SSC MTS 05.08.2019)
developed the model of atomic structure Bohr and Rutherford (SSC CHSL 10+2 DEO & LDC Exam. 16.11.2014)

Dual Nature of Matter( de Broglie Equation) Louis de Broglie (1924)

Uncertainly Principle Heisenberg
Rules for Filling up of Electrons Pauli (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. year 1997)
building-up principle Aufbau
rule of Maximum Multiplicity Hund
Triads In periodic Table Dobereiner (RRB GROUP-D 15.10.2018) (SSC CPO 13.12.19)
law of Octave’ John Alexander Newland. (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022 Shift-3)

gallium and germanium

Stainless steel Harry Bearley (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE)Exam. 24.10.1999)
(FCI Assistant Grade-II Exam. 22.01.2012)
(SSC CPO (SI, ASI & Intelligence Officer) Exam. 27.05.2012)
(RRB NTPC 18.04.2016, RRB GROUP-D 24.10.2018, RRB JE 28.08.2019 &,
RRB NTPC 04.03.2021)
First recognizable periodic table (on the basis of Mendeleev
atomic weight)
Modern periodic table Henry Moseley
(on basis of atomic number)
Law of Octaves In 1865, John Newlands, (RRB ALP, 20.08.2018, 21.08.2018, RRB GROUP-D 16.11.2018, SSC CGL
10.06.2019, RRB NTPC 08.04.2021
(SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 07.12.2022 Shift-2, SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 09.12.2022
Shift-3)
structure of hydrogen Neils Bohr (SSC CGL MAINS 06.03.2023)
hydrogen isotope, or heavy hydrogen Harold C Urey (SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-1
Chromatography Tswett in 1906
methane mixed with air could be exploded using Alessandro Volta (SSC CGL 07.06.2019)
an electric spark
Sorel cement/ magnesium oxychloride cement French engineer
(MOC) or magnesia cement Stanislas Sorel in 1867

transuranium elements. Edwin Mattison McMillan (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 13.12.2022 Shift-2)
and Glenn T Seaborg
dynamite(prepared from nitro glycerol.) Alfred Nobel (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 08.12.2022 Shift-2)
(SSC MTS 06.08.2019)
(SSC CPO 2022, 11.11.2022 Shift-3)

Atom Bomb J. Robert Openheimer (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 24.02.2002)

(SSC S. O. (Commercial Audit Exam. 26.11.2006)
Hydrogen bomb Edward Teller (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 24.02.2002)
chloroform as anesthetic James Simpson invented (FCI ASSISTANT 05.02.2012)
silicates and aluminates of calcium in 1824, by Joseph (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 16.05.2010)
Aspdin
Gun powder Roger Bacon. (SSC CPO SI 16.12.2007)
pH scale S.P. Sorenson
quarks were first proposed by Murray Gell-Mann
‘father of Indian chemistry’. Prafulla Chand Ray

Atomic
Element symbol Scientist PYQs
number
Hydrogen H 1 Henry Cavendish (SSC CGL MAINS 06.03.2023)
Neon gas Ne 10 Morris W. Travers and William Ramsay
Sodium(Natrium) Na and 11 and 19 Humphrey Davy
and pottassium K
Thallium Tl 81 William Crookes (SSC CGL 07.06.19)
Polonium Po 84 Marie curie
Radium Ra 88 Marie curie and Pierre.
cerium, thorium Ce, Th 58, 90 and Jöns Jacob Berzelius (SSC CGL Pre. 2022, 05.12.2022 Shift-3)
(SSC CGL MAINS ,06.03.2023)
and selenium, and Se ,34
Berkelium Bk 97 Stanley Thompson, Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn Seaborg in (SSC CGL MAINS ,06.03.2023)
1949
Lawerncium Lr 103 Georgy Flerov and Albert Ghiorso (SSC CGL MAINS ,06.03.2023)

99
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(seaborgium) Sg 106 (Albert Ghiorso and colleagues in 1974) (SSC MTS Staff Exam. 24.03.2013,)
(SSC CGL MAINS ,06.03.2023)

Term Description PYQs

Synergism Exposures to mixtures of chemicals are greater than expected on the basis of (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.05.2013)
effects of exposure to each chemical individually.
Antagonism The effect or responses produced by two or more chemicals are less than the (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.05.2013)
sum of the effects or response that the chemical would produce individually
Pasteurization the process in which milk is heated to 70° C for 15 to 30 seconds. (SSC Statistical Investigators
13.08.2006)
Efflorescence: the loss of water of crystallization to the atmosphere by a compound
Physisorption It is reversible. •It generally occurs at low temperature.
•It forms multimolecular layer.
•It does not require any activation energy.
Convection a process in which hot, less dense materials rise upward and are (SSC CGL 13.08.21)
. replaced by colder, more dense materials

Kohlrausch law of states that limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as
independent the sum of the individual contribution of the anion and cation of the
migration of ions electrolyte
The solubility of a gas in a liquid at constant temperature is proportional to (SSC MTS 20.08.2019 , 22.08.19) (SSC CPO
09.12.19)
Henry’s law the partial pressure of the gas collected above the surface of the liquid or
solution.
soft drinks and soda bottles are sealed under high pressure to increase the
solubility of CO2
Raoult’s law state that for a solution of volatile liquids. The partial vapor pressure of each (SSC CPO 24.11.20)

in solution. component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present

Allopathy The branch of medicine involving synthetic chemical compounds

Pharmacology. The study of drugs and their action

OTEC Ocean thermal energy conversion. (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 19.06.2011)

SPM suspended particulate matter

COD: chemical oxygen demand.
Iso The term is prefixed to scientific terms to describe something that is constant

Extra :
Basic questions PYQs
When lead storage battery is discharged, Sulphuric acid is consumed (SSC MTS Staff Exam.10.03.2013,)

Sulphuric acid makes the atmosphere of venus have thick white and yellowish clouds. (SSC CPO 13.12.2019)

Manganese dioxide is used to remove the green colour from glass. (SSC CGL 06.03.2020)
Table salt gets moist during rainy season because sodium chloride contains hygroscopic (SSC S. O. (Audit) Exam. 09.09.2001)
impurities like magnesium chloride
Oxygen is not a noble gas. (SSC MTS 22.10.21)
Titanium is used in Space Crafts to withstand high temperatures (SSC CGL Tier-I Exam. 21.04.2013,)

Hydrogen peroxide is used to restore the colour of old oil paintings and used as a (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 11.12.2005) (SSC CPO
11.12.19)
substitute for chlorine in bleaching(used for pulp bleaching in the paper industry). It is an
effective sterilizing agent.
Iron rusts quickly in Sea water (SSC CGL Tier-I Re-Exam–2013, 27.04.2014)

Copper is exposed to the atmosphere for some time. It becomes coated with green carbonate (SSC CGL Prelim Exam. 13.11.2005) (SSC CAPFs
(CPO) SI & ASI,Delhi Police SI Exam.
(CuCO3 Cu (OH) 2) 20.03.2016)
Rock salt is mineral containing sodium (SSC Combined Matric Level (PRE) Exam.
30.07.2006
Cadmium does not react with water to produce hydrogen. (SSC CPO 06.09.2009)

An electrochemical cell which is used as a source of direct electrical current at constant voltage (SSC CPO. 07.09.2003)
(SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO & PA/SA Exam,
under standard conditions is called a Battery 06.12.2015
The fundamental scientific principle in the operation of battery is dissociation of electrolytes
When the process of formation of hydrogen by passing steam over red hot iron is presented in the (SSC MTS 13.10.2021)
form of a balanced chemical equation, then the number of water ,molecules on the left hand side of
the equation is four.

100
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The National Chemical Laboratory (India) is located in Pune (SSC Tax Assistant Exam. 29.03.2009)

At -40 temperature are Fahrenheit and Celsius equal. (SSC MTS. 22.08.2019)
YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide) is a superconductor at relatively high temperature is the (SSC MTS 16.08.2019)
Peculiarity of this compound
The metal used for making aircrafts and rockets is Nickel (SSC GL Tier-I Exam.19.10.2014)

Electrolysis of an aqueous solution of copper sulphate using copper electrodes gives - Copper (SSC Stenographer (Grade 'C' & 'D') Exam.
09.01.2011)
at cathode and oxygen at anode.
Country which launched the world’s first satellite dedicated to monitoring Greenhouse Gas (SSC (South Zone) Investigator Exam.
12.09.2010)
emission is Japan.
Friedrich Wohler Isolated the element beryllium in pure metallic form. (SSC CGL MAINS ,2022)

Fredrick Sanger is the only scientist in the world to have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (SSC CGL 04.03.20)
twice.
Brown stains in vessels and clothes indicates the presence of high quantities of manganese in (SSC MTS. 20.08.2019)
water.
Soldering of two metals is possible because of the property of Cohesion (SSC CHSL 10+2 LDC, DEO & PA/SA Exam,
06.12.2015
Bleaching action of chlorine is due to oxidation reaction.
Pyrrhotite is an ore/mineral of Nickel.
a non –volatile solid is added to water, its boiling point will increase
In MnO-4 ion the color is not due to d-d transition.
The charge has to be passed reversibly to obtain maximum work from a galvanic cell.
Copper is not an alloy.
If the equilibrium constants for the systems H2+I2 2HI, and 2HI -H2+I2 are K1 and K2
respectively, the relationship between K1 and K2 is: K1=1/K2
In carbon dating, a weak C-14 molecule deteriorates and transforms into N-14 (SSC MTS 08.10.2021)

A wooden bat can be classified as an opaque object. (SSC MTS 06.10.2021)

Electronic waste (e- waste) has now been used up by Japan to make a new metal which will be
used up for giving gold medals, silver medals in Olympic 2020.
The three carbon molecules broken down from six-carbon molecules of glucose during the first (SSC CHSL 12.10.20)
step in the process of nutrition in all organisms is called pyruvate.
Perfluorocarbons is one of the six pollutants under Kyoto protocol regulations (SSC MTS 08.10.2021)
The Maillard reaction takes place during the cooking of meat . (SSC CHSL 15.04.21)
1. The first theoretical basis of the particle was given by the famous physicist Fermi in 1934. It is
a new particle that is electrically neutral and weakly micro-atom.
(RRB NTPC 12.04.2016)
It is a spontaneous process so that for it delta G is negative
(SSC CAPFs SI, CISF ASI & Delhi Police SI Exam. 22.06.2014)

101