Structural Geology

Structural Geology
Structural Geology
• Introduction, Causes of Development of Structures,
Structural Elements - Folds, Faults, Joints, Unconformity,
Attitude (Dip, Strike), Outcrop Patterns, Outliers and
Inliers.
Introduction:
• Structural geology is the study of factors such as
origin, occurrence, classification, type and effects of
various secondary structures like folds, faults, joints,
rock cleavage and are different from those primary
structures such as bedding and vesicular structure,
which develop in rocks at the time of their formation.
 Outcrop
• Any Geological formation exposed on the
surface is called an outcrop.
 Attitude of geological structure
Attitude: Attitude refers the 3D orientation of geological
features like beds, joints, foliation etc. The attitude of beds or
joints is defined by their strike, dip direction and dip amount.
Strike: Strike is a geological direction given by the line of
intersection of the horizontal plane with bedding plane of the
layer of rock. It is measured in the field with the help of
compass
Dip Direction: Dip direction is the direction in which the beds
inclined. It is measured by Brunton compass, holding its north
towards the direction of inclined beds or foliation.
Dip Amount: Dip amount is the inclination with respect to
horizontal plane. The value of dip amount ranges from 0⁰ to
90⁰.
 Strike and Dip
• Strike refers to the direction in which a geological
structure is present. The strike direction may be
defined as the direction of the trace of the
intersection between the bedding plane
Strike and Dip
 Strike and Dip
• Dip literally means slope or inclination. In
structural geology dip is expressed both as
direction and amount. The dip direction is the
direction along which the inclination of the
bedding plane
Strike and Dip
Attitude of linear features
Plunge: vertical angle between the inclined linear
feature and an imaginary horizontal plane is called
plunge
Trend: Compass bearing in the direction of the
plunge of the linear geological feature is called
trend
Ture dip: it is the steepest path or shortest distance down a
planer surface. Water will flow directly down the true dip.

Apparent Dip: When the dip of the layer is measured in any

other direction which is not a right angled to the strike direction is
called apparent dip.
Relation between true and apparent dip:
Tanɵ = tanα*sinƍ
Where, ɵ = apparent dip
ƍ = angle between strike and cross section line
α = True dip
.

 .
Deformation:
When an object is changed temporarily or permanently
due to applied force.
Deformation of Rock

Within the Earth rocks are continually being subjected to

forces that tend to bend them, twist them, or fracture them.
When rocks bend, twist or fracture we say that they deform
(change shape or size). The forces that cause deformation of
rock are referred to as stresses (Force/unit area). So, to
understand rock deformation we must first explore these
forces or stresses.
 Stress
Stress is a force applied over an area. One type of stress
that we are all used to is a uniform stress, called
pressure. A uniform stress is a stress wherein the forces
act equally from all directions. In the Earth the pressure
due to the weight of overlying rocks is a uniform stress,
and is sometimes referred to as confining stress.
If stress is not equal from all directions then we say that the
stress is a differential stress.
Three kinds of differential stress occur.
Strain:
When rocks deform they are said to strain. A strain is a change in
size, shape, or volume of a material.
Strength:
the ability of an object to resist deformation
• compressive strength
• tensile strength
• shear strength
Kinds of differential stress
• Tensional stress (or extensional stress), which stretches
rock;
• Compression stress, which squeezes rock; and
• Shear stress, which result in slippage and translation.
FACTORS AFFECTING on ROCK DEFORMATION
• Pressure
Rocks near the surface, where pressures are low, usually
behave like brittle solids. Called brittle deformation.
At depth, where pressures are high, rocks show ductile
behavior. Called ductile deformation.
• Temperature
Rocks deform permanently in two ways: brittle
deformation and ductile deformation.
1. Rocks near the surface, where temperatures are low,
usually behave like brittle solids.
2. At depth, where temperatures are high, rocks show
ductile behavior.
.
• Strain rate
High Strain Rate forms a Brittle Deformation.
Low Strain Rate forms a Ductile Deformation.
• Rock composition
Hard composition of rocks (like granite) caused Brittle
Deformation.
Soft composition of rocks (like marble) caused Ductile
Deformation
TYPES OF DEFORMATION
a) ELASTIC DEFORMATION • STRESS is applied,
released and rock returns to original shape and
volume.
Material is not DEFORMED.
If stressed to a point where the material doesn’t
resume original shape and volume, the rock is
deformed.
Point at which this occurs is the ELASTIC LIMIT.
Pressure and temperature when stress is applied also
determine how rocks deform at the elastic limit.
 b) PLASTIC or DUCTILE DEFORMATION

Rocks subjected to stress at temperature and pressure tend to,

resulting from.
An irreversible change in shape and/or volume occurs without
the rock breaking.
Rocks go beyond the elastic limit.
Atoms move about and adjust without the bonds breaking.
Atoms move from areas of high stress to those with low stress.
c) Brittle Deformation:
if the body gets rupture on applying stress, then such
deformation is called brittle deformation.
Reasons for rock deformation:
a. Tectonic activities
b. Temperature variation on the crust of
earth
c. Tendency of rock materials to undergo
more stable state
d. Overlying pressure
e. Incompactness of rock
Geological Structure
The structural features that are formed in the rocks due to
deformation and rock failure created by stresses through geological
times are called geological structures.
On the basis of mode of formation there are two types of structures.
a) Primary structures: Those structures that are formed during the
formation of rock. Generally they are found in sedimentary rock.
i) Bedding (stratification): the deposition of sediments into distinct
layers or beds is called bedding. The planes dividing differents
planes are called bedding planes. The thickness range from 1cm to
greater than1m
ii) Lamination iii) Cross bedding
iv) Graded beding v) Ripple marks
vi) Mud cracks vii) Rain print
viii) Track and trail
Secondary Structures:
The structure formed by modification of original structure or
development of the new shape, form and rearrangement of
minerals and grains of rocks after formation of rocks are reformed
as secondary structures.
i. Lineation
ii. Foliation
iii. Boudinage
iv. Crenulation cleavage
v. Folds
vi. Faults
vii. Joints/ Fractures
viii. Unconformity
 Folds
Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in
rocks. When a set of horizontal layers are subjected to
compressive forces, they bend either upward or downward. The
bend noticed in rocks are called folds.
Bending or undulation strata or layer of rock due to
deformation is called fold.
In terms of their nature too, folds may occur as single local bends
or may occur repeatedly and intricately folded to the tectonic
history of the region.
Folds
Parts of Folds

Crest

Core
Components of folds
Hinge line: The line passing through the point of maximum
curvature of fold is called hinge. It may be vertical, inclined or
horizontal.
Crest and trough: the line running through the highestbpoints is
called crest.
The line joining lowest points is called trough.
Limb: Limbs are sides or flank of a fold. A fold will have mimimum
2 limbs
Axial Plane: Axial surface is the surface drawn by joining all the
hinge lines drawn throughout the depth of a folded sequence. It
passes through all the points of maximum curvature.
Axis of fold: Any line parallel to hinge line drawn to represent the
general trend is called the axis of a fold.
Classification and Types of Folds

Usually, folds are classified on the basis of

• Basis of fold cross section
• Basis of orientation of axial plane
• Basis of Hinge line
• Basis of mode of occurrence
• Basis of interlimb angle
•Basis of dip isogones
a) Basis of fold cross section
Anticline and Syncline
When the beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is called
anticline. This fold is convex upwards. Naturally, in such a fold, the
older beds occur towards the concave side, In a simple case, the
limbs of anticline slope in opposite directions with reference to its
axial plane. But when the anticline is refolded, the inclined character
of limbs will be complicated.
Syncline is just opposite to anticline in its nature, i.e.
when the beds are bent downwards the resulting fold is
called syncline. This fold is convex downwards. In this
the younger beds occur towards the concave side and,
in a simple type of syncline, its limbs dip towards each
other with reference to the axial plane.
b. Basis of orientation of axial plane:
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Folds

When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal halves in
such a way that one half is the mirror image, then the fold
is called as symmetrical fold. If the compressive forces
responsible for folding are not of the same magnitude,
asymmetrical folds are formed.
Overturned folds and Recumbent folds
 The folds in which both limbs dip at unequal angle in same
direction and axial plane is inclined is called overturned fold.
 The folds in which both limbs are horizontal and axial plane is
horizontal is called recumbent fold.
c. Basis of Hinge Line
Plunging and Non-Plunging Folds
The fold in the which hinge line is inclined or axis of
fold make angle with horizontal plane is called
plunging fold.
The fold in which hinge line is horizontal or fold axis
is horizontal is called non-plunging fold.
d. Basis of interlimb angle
Depending on the intensity of deformation, the
beds of the fold may or may not have uniform
thickness.
•Gentle fold: A fold in which the interlimbed angle
lies between 120⁰- 180⁰ is called gentle fold
Open fold: If the thickness of beds is uniform
throughout the folds, it is called an open
fold. Interlimbed angle lies between 70⁰-120⁰
Close fold: if the beds are thinner in the limb
portions and thicker at crest and trough, such a fold
is called closed fold. Angle of interlimbed between
30- 70⁰
.Tight fold: A fold in which interlimbed angle is lies
between 10-30 is called tight fold
Isoclinal fold: The fold in which interlimbed angle is
0- 10 and two limbs dip at equal angle is called
isoclinal fold.
 e. Basis of mode of occurrence:
Anticlinorium: It is a system of exceptionally large sized
folds running often for several hundred kilometers in
length and several kilometers in width. The general
trend of the folded system, when determined on an
averaged bending, is anticlinal in nature, that is, the
strata as a whole have been up arched.
It is the reverse of anticlinorium and may be defined as
an extensive system of folds having a clearly down
arched (synclinal) folding trend. Locally, however, the
strata may show numerous types of small-scale folds of
all types. The depressed or basin type general outline
of the strata indicates a major downward bending of
the crust along the extent of the synclinorium.
Domes and Basins
Usually, a fold will have two distinct limbs. But some folds do not
have any such specific limbs and appear as beds locally pushed up
or down, i.e. their shapes appear as dome or basin. In a dome,
which resembles an upper hemisphere, the dips are found in all
sides from the common central top point. Thus, this is a type of
anticline. In the basin, which is like a bowl, the slopes are just
opposite
f. Basis
of dip
Isogones

.
Basis of
Dip Isogones
OthersTypes of Folds
Cheveron folds: Usually the crest and troughs of beds are smoothly
curved. But some folds have sharply bent, angular crest and troughs,
such folds are known as “ Chevro folds”.
Isoclinal Folds:
Usually the folds have inclined limbs, i.e. the limbs will be
mutually diverging or converging with reference to axial planes. But
in some folds, the limbs will be mutually parallel to a great
extent. Such folds are called isoclinals folds. These folds may be
vertical inclined or horizontal.
 Fan Folds:
Usually in simple anticlines, the limbs dip away from one another
and in simple synclines they dip towards each other. But in the
case of fan folds, this trend is just the opposite, i.e. in anticlines
of fan folds, the limbs dip towards each other with reference to
their axial plane. In synclines of this kind, the limbs dip away from
each other. As the term suggests, these folds are fan shaped.
 Drag Folds

These are the minor asymmetrical folds within major folds but
confined only to incompetent beds which are sandwiched
between competent formations. These develop because of the
shearing/ dragging effect.
Mechanisms of Folding

• Folding of rocks takes place by different ways of accommodation

of stress. In many cases, slips or shear occur in between the beds.
• The process is similar to slipping of cards which occurs when the
set is fold. If they are not allowed to slip over one another, folding
of the set cannot take place.
• This is the way in which folding generally occur in the case of
hard and competent rock like quartzites.
• In another kind of folding, folds are characterized by thinning of
the limbs and thickening of crest and troughs. This takes place
commonly in weak and incompetent rocks like shales.
Mechanisms of Folding
Mechanisms of Folding
 Causes and Effects of Folding
• Most of the important folds, as already pointed out, are due to
tectonic causes. But a few folds of a minor type are due to non-
tectonic causes.
• Mainly, the compressive and shear type of tectonic forces are
responsible for the folding phenomenon. Igneous intrusion of
viscous magmas such as laccoliths and lopoliths also contribute to
folding.
• Non-tectonic causes like landslide, creeping differential
compaction, isostatic setting and glaciations too are responsible for
some folds. These are minor in terms of frequency of occurrence
and magnitude.
Causes and Effects of Folding
Causes and Effects of Folding
• When a folded area is affected by weathering and erosion,
interesting topographic features are produced as follows,
immediately after folding, anticlines by virtue of their upward
bending appear as hills and synclines due to downward warping
appear as valley. During folding in the crest portions, the
geological formation are subjected to tensional forces and hence
numerous fractures appear there. Because of these fractures,
crest portions are eroded quickly leading to conspicuous
degradations locally.
 Causes and Effects of Folding
• On the other hand, trough portion are highly compressed and
hence offer a greater resistance to erosion. Thus, they stand out in
the long run at agreater elevation, while the adjacent parts degrade
fast. The net result of this response to erosion is that the anticlines
will change over to valleys, while synclines change 'over to hills..
This paradoxical phenomenon is popularly expressed as “anticlinal
valleys and Synclinal hills” The anticlinal valley are the typical
example of inliers and the synclinal hill are example of outlier.
 Faults
• From the Civil engineering point of view, faults are the most
unfavorable and undesirable geological structures at the site for
any given purpose, i.e. for location of reservoir; as foundations
site for construction of dams, importance bridges or huge
buildings, for tunneling; for laying roads, railways tracks, etc.
• This is because faults considerably weaken the rocks and
render the sites in which they occur as unfavorable places for
all constructional purposes.
• Fault is rupture developed in rock mass along which there has
been a relative displacement of two sides parallel to the fracture
plane. Fault is result of brittle deformation due to tensional and
compressive forces.
Faults
Faults
 Joints and Faults
• Structurally, faults may be described as fractures
along which relative displacement of adjacent blocks
has taken place.
If such relative displacement does not take place on
either side of fracture plane, it is called a joint. Thus
both joint and faults are fractures in rocks but with
difference in the kind of displacement.
Joints may be described as a set of aligned parallel
cracks or openings in geological formations.
 Nature of Fault Plane
• Rarely the displacement during faulting occurs
along a single fault plane. In many cases, faulting
takes place along a number of parallel fractures,
Such a zone which contains a number of closely
spaced sub-parallel fractures along which the
relative displacement has taken place is called
shear zone or fault zone.
• A fault plane may be plain or straight or may
be curved or irregular, it may be horizontal or
inclined or vertical.
 Parts of a Fault
• The different parts of a fault are:
Fault Plane
This is the plane along which the adjacent blocks
were relatively displaced. In other words, this is the
fracture surface on either side of which the rocks
had moved past one another. Its intersection with
the horizontal plane gives the strike direction of the
fault. The direction along which the fault plane has
the maximum slope is its true dip direction.
Parts of a Fault
 Parts of a Fault
Foot Wall and Hanging
Wall:
When the fault plane is
inclined, the faulted block
which lies below the fault
plane is called the “foot wall”
and the other block which rests
above the fault plane is called
“hanging wall”.
In this case of vertical faults,
naturally the faulted blocks
cannot be described as foot
wall or hanging wall.
 Parts of a Fault
Slip:
The displacement that occurs during faulting is called
the slip. The total displacement is known as the next slip.
This may be along the strike direction or the dip direction
or along both.
 Parts of a Fault
Heave and Throw:
The horizontal component of displacement is called
“heave” and the vertical component of displacement is
called “throw” In vertical faults, there is only throw, but
no heave. In horizontal faults, there is only heave, but no
throw.
Classification and Types of Faults
• Like folds, faults also have been classified on
the basis of different principles as
• Types of displacement along the plane.
• Relative movement of foot wall and hanging
wall.
• Types of slip involved.
• Mode of occurrence of faults
Classification and Types of Faults
Based on Genetics
• In the case of inclined faults, if the hanging
wall goes down with reference to the footwall,
it is called Normal fault or Gravity fault.
These terms are very appropriate because of
the hanging wall is normally expected to move
down along the slope of the fault plane under
the influence of gravity.
Classification and Types of Faults
Classification and Types of Faults
• If the kind of displacement of the hanging wall is
opposite to this, the fault is called Reverse faults
or thrust fault. These terms also are appropriate
because in such fault plane and, therefore the type
of displacement is the reverse of the normally
expected downward movement of the hanging
wall under such a condition.
• If the relative displacement of the hanging wall is
neither upwards nor downwards with reference to
the inclined fault plane, but sidewards, then such
faults are described as Sinstral Faults or Strike slip
fault.
Classification and Types of Faults
Classification and Types of Faults
Based on geometry
• Slip has been already described as the displacement
along the fault plane. If the displacement is along the
strike direction of the fault plane, such a fault is
described as Strike fault. The fault in which the strike
of the fault and dip of adjacent beds are parallel is
called dip faults. If the displacement occurs partly
along the strike direction of the fault plane, such a
fault is called an oblique slip fault.
Strike Slip Fault
Oblique Slip Fault
Classification and Types of Faults
Classification and Types of Faults
Horst and Grabens
• When normal faults with mutually diverging or
converging fault plane occurs, then a few
wedge-shaped blocks called “horst” are
displaced upwards and a few other called
“grabens” are displaced downwards.
Horst and Grabens of large magnitude are
called block mountain and rift valleys.
Classification and Types of Faults
 Causes of Faulting
• Faults may occur due to various causes, among them tectonic
causes are responsible not only for most of the faults but also
for faults of grater magnitude.
• It may be recollected that faults develop mainly due to shear
and sliding failures resulting from tectonic forces. It is natural
that compression and tensional forces be mutually interlinked
because if in one part of the crust there is compression, in the
adjacent part there will be tension.
• In addition to these main causes, sometimes, the formation
of magmatic intrusions such as bysmaliths, may also
contribute to faulting, though on a very small scale.
Occasionally, local settlement under the influence of gravity
may also cause minor faulting.
 Effects of Faulting
• The faulting phenomenon produces dislocation in
lithology and topography. Hence, they offer evidences
to recognize faults in the field. Proper geological
investigation followed by geological mapping enables
one to detect the occurrence of faults in any area.
• Slickness, fault drags, brecciation, mineralization
zones, repetition and omission of strata and offsets of
beds are some of the lithological evidences of Faulting.
• Topographical evidences include various surface features
like, offset ridges, parallel deflection of valley, reversal
of drainage, straight reverse courses,and a straight and
steep coastal lines.
Effects of Faulting
Field Identification criteria of geological structures
i) Field identification of folds
a) Direct observation
b) Repetition of strata
c) Attitude of beds
ii) Field identification of faults
a) Presence of slickenslide
b) Repetition and omission of strata
c) Presence of fault breccia and fault gouge
d) Aligned hot water spring
e) Topographic variation
f) Frequent landslide
g) Offset streams
 Joints
• Joints are fractures found in all types of rocks. They are cracks or
openings formed due to various reasons. Naturally, the presence of
joints divides the rock into number of parts or blocks.
Joints are the fracture developed in rock there has been no relative
displacement along the fracture plane
Joints
Effects of Joints
• From the civil engineering point of view, joints are
important because they split the rocks into a number of
pieces which, in turn, reduce the competence of rock
mass, increase the porosity and permeability and make
them susceptible to quick decay and weathering.
• Joints But a few advantages that accompany joints are;
their occurrence increases the ground water potential in any
place.
Classification of Joints:
On the basis of spatial relation
• Systematic joints: joints that shows distinct regularity in the
occurrences which can be easily measured or
mapped. Such joints occur in parallel joint set that are
repeated in the rocks at the regular intervals.
• Non-systematic joints: the joints that don’t posses any
regularity in their occurrence and distribution.

On the basis of geometry

There are three types of joints on the basis of geometry:
1. Strike joints
2. Dip joints
3. Oblique joints
4. Bedding Joints
Geometric Classification

.
Classification of Joints
Genetic Classification:
 .

.
.
.
 Unconformities
• Unconformity is one of the common geological structure found in
rocks. It is somewhat different from other structures like folds, faults
and joints in which the rock are distorted, deformed or dislocated at a
particular place. Unconformity is a plane of discontinuity that
separates sequence of rocks which differ notably by age.
• When a sedimentary rocks are formed continuously or regularly
one after another without any major brake, they are said to be
conformable beds, and this phenomenon is called conformity. All the
beds belonging to conformable set shall possess the shame strike
direction, dip direction and dip amount.
• On the other hand, if a major break occurs in sedimentation in
between two sets of conformable beds, it is called an unconformity.
Unconformities
 Types of an Unconformity
Types of Unconformities
• Based on factors such as type of rocks, relative
attitude of sets involved and their extent of
occurrence, the different types of unconformities
are named as
Non-Conformity
• When the underlying older formation are
represented by igneous or metamorphic rocks
and the overlying younger formation are
sedimentary rocks, the unconformity is called
“non-conformity”
Types of an Unconformity
 Types of an Unconformity
Angular Unconformity
• When the younger bed and older set of
strata are not mutually parallel, then the
unconformity is called “angular
unconformity”. In such a case, beds of one set
occur with a greater tilt or folding.
 Types of an Unconformity
Disconformities
• On the other hand, if the bed of the younger
and older set are mutually parallel and the
contact plane of two sets is only an erosion
surface, then the unconformity is called
“disconformities” in this case, the lower set of
beds have undergone denudation before the
deposition of the overlying strata commenced.
 Types of an Unconformity
Paraconformity
• When the two sets of beds are parallel and
the contact is a simple bedding plane, the
unconformity is called “paraconformity”. In
such cases, the unconformities is inferred by
features like sudden change in fossil content
or in lithological nature.
Types of an Unconformity
Assignment:
1) Define apparent dip. Write down the engineering
consideration of fault and joints during civil engineering
construction.
2) What id unconformity? Discuss the important of fold while
construction of any civil engineering structure.
3) Discuss on rock deformation. How can you recognize fold
and fault in the field?