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 GE8076 Professional Ethics in Engineering
Department: CSE
Batch/Year : 2020-2024 / III

Created by: Dr.P.VALARMATHIE, PROF/CSE

Mr.V.M.JEMIN, AP/CSE

Date: 19.01.2023
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No Index Page

Number
1 Contents 5
2 Course Objectives 6
3 Pre Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 9
6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 10
7 Lecture Plan 12
8 Activity based learning 13
9 Lecture Notes 20
10 Assignments 47
11 Part A Question & Answer 48
12 Part B Questions 51
13 Supportive online Certification Courses 52
14 Real time Applications in day to day life and to 53
Industry
15 Contents beyond the Syllabus 54
16 Assessment Schedule 56
17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 57
18 Mini Project Suggestions 58

5
 2. COURSE OBJECTIVES

 To enable the students to create an awareness on Engineering Ethics

and Human Values

 To instill Moral and Social Values and Loyalty and to appreciate the

rights of others.

7
 3. PRE REQUISITES

• Ethics in engineering practice is about professional responsibilities of

engineers.

• Professional ethics have been recognized as an important foundation in

the practice of engineering for several decades in many industrialized
countries.

7
 4. SYLLABUS
GE8076 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN ENGINEERING

UNIT I HUMAN VALUES

Morals, values and Ethics – Integrity – Work ethic – Service learning – Civic virtue –
Respect for others – Living peacefully – Caring – Sharing – Honesty – Courage –
Valuing time – Cooperation – Commitment – Empathy – Self confidence – Character –
Spirituality – Introduction to Yoga and meditation for professional excellence and
stress management.

UNIT II ENGINEERING ETHICS

Senses of ‗Engineering Ethics‘ – Variety of moral issues – Types of inquiry – Moral

dilemmas – Moral Autonomy – Kohlberg‘s theory – Gilligan‘s theory – Consensus and
Controversy – Models of professional roles - Theories about right action – Self-
interest – Customs and Religion – Uses of Ethical Theories.

UNIT III ENGINEERING AS SOCIAL EXPERIMENTATION

Engineering as Experimentation – Engineers as responsible Experimenters – Codes

of Ethics – A Balanced Outlook on Law.

UNIT IV SAFETY, RESPONSIBILITIES AND RIGHTS

Safety and Risk – Assessment of Safety and Risk – Risk Benefit Analysis and
Reducing Risk - Respect for Authority – Collective Bargaining – Confidentiality –
Conflicts of Interest – Occupational Crime – Professional Rights – Employee Rights –
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) – Discrimination.

UNIT V GLOBAL ISSUES

Multinational Corporations – Environmental Ethics – Computer Ethics – Weapons

Development – Engineers as Managers – Consulting Engineers – Engineers as Expert
Witnesses and Advisors – Moral Leadership –Code of Conduct – Corporate Social
Responsibility.

8
 5. COURSE OUTCOMES

After successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

CO Highest
Course Outcomes
No Cognitive Level

Create awareness on human values and apply

CO1 K6
ethics in society.

Identify an ethical issue and assess variety of

CO2 moral issues using ethical theories in K5

engineering.

Analyze engineering, social experimentation

CO3 K4
and engineers as responsible experimenters

Realize engineers' safety and their

CO4 responsibilities, professional rights, employee K5

rights, and intellectual property rights.

Interpret various types of ethics like business

CO5 ethics, environmental ethics and computer K5

ethics.

Take part an engineers as managers,

CO6 consulting engineers, engineers as expert K4

witness and advisors.

9
 6. CO- PO/PSO Mapping

Program
Program Outcomes Specific
Course Level Outcomes
Outcomes of CO
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3

CO1 K6 - - - - - 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 - - -

CO2 K5 - - - - - 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 - - -

CO3 K4 - - - - - 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 - - -

CO4 K5 - - - - - 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 - - -

CO5 K5 - - - - - 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 - - -

CO6 K4 - - - - - 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 - - -

11
 Unit II- ENGINEERING ETHICS

Senses of Engineering Ethics– Variety of moral issues – Types of inquiry – Moral

dilemmas – Moral Autonomy – Kohlberg’s theory – Gilligan’s theory – Consensus and
Controversy – Models of professional roles - Theories about right action – Self-interest –
Customs and Religion – Uses of Ethical Theories

12
 7. Lecture Plan
UNIT II - ENGINEERING ETHICS

Mode of Delivery
Taxonomy level
Proposed Date
No. of Periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
Topic
S.No

1 1-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Senses of Engineering
Ethics – Variety of moral 1 CO2 Understand
issues

2 2-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Types of inquiry – Moral Understand
1 CO2
dilemmas

3 3-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Moral Autonomy –
1 CO2 Understand
Kohlberg’s theory

4 4-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Gilligan’s theory 1 CO2 Understand

5 7-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Consensus and
1 CO2 Understand
Controversy

6 8-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Models of professional
1 CO2 Understand
roles

7 9-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Theories about right Understand
1 CO2
action

8 10-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Self-interest – Customs
1 CO2 Understand
and Religion

9 11-2-23 K2 PowerPoint
Uses of Ethical Theories.
Engineering Ethics in 1 CO2 Understand
Companies

Total No. of Periods : 9

13 13
 8. Activity based learning
8.1 Crossword Puzzle

Across Down
1. refers to the qualities, 6.Who felt that men mostly focus their
competencies and skills of professionals. attention on content of the problem?
2.Which is seeks to produce the most 7. states that actions are morally
utility? right when law or custom approves
them.
3.The level of moral development based 8. Which inquiries are useful to identify
on the desire to derive benefits for values that guide individual and groups
oneself. in taking a decision?

4. describes ethical issues that may 9. is a bridge that links the

affect an engineer’s professional and responsibilities between one’s personal
personal life. and professional life.
5. can be defined as moral 10.The situations in which two or more
distinction and goodness. moral obligations come in conflict with
each other.

13
Answer

14
 8.2 CASE STUDY

Theory of right action

GENDER BASED DISCRIMINATION IN RELIGION

Gender-based discrimination is a widespread issue in many religions around the

world. This discrimination can take many forms, including unequal treatment
and limitations on women's rights and opportunities. Some examples of
gender-based discrimination in religion include:

1.Restrictions on women's leadership roles: In many religious traditions,

women are excluded from leadership positions, such as priests, ministers, or
imams. This limits their ability to shape the religious narrative and makes it
difficult for women to access spiritual guidance and support.

2.Unequal treatment in religious rituals: In some religious traditions, women

are excluded from certain religious rituals or are required to observe different
rituals than men. This reinforces gender-based distinctions and can lead to
unequal treatment of women in religious communities.

3.Limitations on women's education: In some religious communities, women

face barriers to accessing education, including religious education. This limits
their opportunities for personal and spiritual growth and reinforces gender-
based disparities.

4.Restrictions on women's dress and behavior: In some religious traditions,

women are required to wear specific clothing or to follow specific codes of
conduct that reinforce gender-based norms and restrict their freedom of
expression.

5.Inequality in marriage and family law: In some religious legal systems,

women face discriminatory laws and practices in areas such as marriage,
divorce, and child custody. This can limit their ability to protect their rights and
interests in these areas.

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 8.3 CASE STUDY

BORDER CONFLICT BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA

The longrunning territorial conflict between India and China over their borde
rs in the Himalayan region is referred to as the "India-China Border Conflict."
The conflict was initially caused by a shoddy border that was drawn during the colonial
era, and it has since gotten worse as a result of competing claims and territorial incursions
on both sides.

The conflict has continued to be a source of tension between the two nations
and has led to a number of minor military encounters and skirmishes, including the 1962
Sino-Indian War.

With a string of border skirmishes and military build-

ups on both sides of the border in 2020, the conflict has gotten worse in recent years.

Territorial disputes: China and India both assert their sovereignty over a number of border
ing regions, including the Aksai Chin region.

16
Question: If you were Engineer A, what would you do at this
point?

Outcome:

Engineer A was unhappy with this lack of leadership, but felt that he had
reported the problem up the “chain of command” so the problem was no longer his
responsibility. A few weeks later, while the plant was operating at maximum capacity,
local news media carried reports of a devastating fish-kill in a neighbouring creek
and poisoned birds in a downstream marsh. An investigation, carried out by
scientists from a government ministry, placed the blame clearly on the lax operating
procedures in the plant. The ministry charged the company and Engineer A with
violations of environmental regulations. A rancher, who had to pipe safe water to his
livestock, sued the company and Engineer A for damages. A lengthy series of legal
and disciplinary actions followed.

Comments:
Obviously, Engineer A tried to do a good job by updating and distributing
the Operating Manual, by educating staff, and by informing the Operations Manager
and the Plant Director of hazards. However, when they failed to respond adequately,
the responsibility then fell back on the engineer, as the only technically competent
professional, to insist that the plant personnel follow adequate safety measures. In a
difficult situation such as this, Engineer A should have informed the Plant Director
that unsafe practices were unacceptable, and if the Plant Director refused to co-
operate, Engineer A should have consulted the Association for guidance. If a
solution still could not be found, Engineer A should have reported the unsafe
practices to the appropriate ministry. When senior management refuses to act on
clear dangers to the public or to the environment, professionals cannot defend
themselves by saying they were “only following orders.” As professionals,
engineers and geoscientists are usually the ultimate authority in the industrial
workplace and must insist on protecting the environment and the public when, in
their professional opinions, hazards are likely to cause injury or damage. Failure to
do so can lead to disciplinary action; every Code of Ethics requires the practitioner to
put public safety first.

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 8.4 Maintaining Confidentiality

Engineer A was hired as an electrical engineer by Company B, a

small manufacturer of control systems for heavy lifting equipment used by
loggers and contractors. The total market consisted of about 200 logging
firms, and the company had about a quarter of that market. That is, about 50
of the logging firms used the control system and were repeat customers,
providing about 90 percent of Company B’s sales volume. The control system
was not patented. Although the device was patentable, Company B’s owner
had decided to keep the concept secret, and all employees, including Engineer
A, signed trade secret documents, agreeing that they would not disclose or
otherwise duplicate, use, or sell the concept. After about three years as an
employee, Engineer A resigned from Company B to set up her own firm.

She designed a more advanced control device, improving upon the concept
invented by Company B. To sell her device, Engineer A contacted Company B’s
50 key repeat customers to get them to switch allegiance to her new firm and
to her improved product. Company B sued Engineer A in civil court for breach
of the confidentiality agreement, and won the case. In her defence, Engineer
A stated that, during her employment at Company B, she became aware of
flaws in the original device and her improved device overcame those flaws.
Testimony confirmed that she had never told colleagues at Company B that
she was aware of such flaws, nor did she suggest improvements to the device
while employed there. After the civil court judgment, the owner of Company B
asked the provincial Association to discipline Engineer A for unprofessional
conduct.

Question: Is Engineer A guilty of professional misconduct?

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Comments:

Since Engineer A was found liable in civil court, the ruling tends to confirm the facts of
the case. Engineer A did not act as a faithful employee of Company B. She was
apparently aware of flaws in the control device, but rather than use this knowledge for
the benefit of her employer, she used it, and the company’s trade secrets, to her own
advantage. She even used Company B’s proprietary list of regular customers to advance
her personal welfare. Such self - serving behaviour

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 9. Lecture Notes
UNIT II- ENGINEERING ETHICS
2.1 SENSES OF ‘ENGINEERING ETHICS’
The word ethics has different meanings but they are correspondingly related to
each other. In connection with that, engineering ethics has also various senses which are
related to one another.

Comparison of the senses of Ethics and Engineering Ethics

Ethics Engineering Ethics

Like the ethics, engineering ethics also
Ethics is an activity which concerns with
aims at knowing moral values related to
making investigations and knowing about
engineering, finding accurate solutions to
moral values, finding solutions to moral issues
the moral problems in engineering and
and justifying moral issues and justifying moral
justifying moral judgments of
judgments.
Engineering.

Engineering Ethics gives a total view of

Ethics is a means of contrasting moral Questions the moral problems and how to solve
from non-moral problems. these issues specifically related to
engineering field.
Ethics is also used as a means of describing the
Engineering ethics is also using some
beliefs, attitudes and habits related to an
individuals or groups morality. Eg. : Ethics given currently accepted codes and standards
in the Bhagavat Gita or the Bible or the Quran. which are to be followed by group of
engineers and engineering societies.
As per the definition of dictionaries – ‘moral Engineering ethics also concerns with
principles’ is about the actions and principles of discovering moral principles such as
conduct of the people. i.e. ethical or unethical obligation, rights and ideals in
engineering and by applying them to
take a correct decision.

From these senses of Engineering ethics, one can realize that it is the
study of morality.

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What is morality?

The term ‘morality’ concerns with (a) what ought or ought not to be done in a given situation,
(b) what is right or wrong in handling it, (c) what is good or bad about the persons, policies and
principles involved in it.If an action is said to be morally right or a principle is said to be morally
good, then they are said to be had some moral reasons in supporting it.

Moral reasons include respecting others and ourselves, respecting the rights of others, keeping
promises, avoiding unnecessary problems to others and avoiding cheating and dishonesty,
showing gratitude to others and encourage them to work.

So, if an engineering decision is said to be a good one, it has to meet out all the specifications.
These specifications must be covered both the technical and the moral specifications such as
safety of the product, reliability, easy maintenance and the product should be user-friendly with
environment.

2.2 VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES

There are so many engineering disasters which are greater/ heavier than the level of
acceptable or tolerable risk. Therefore, for finding and avoiding such cases such as nuclear plant
accident at Chernobyl (Russia), Chemical plant at Bhopal (India) where a big disaster of gas
leakage, occurred in 1980, which caused many fatal accidents.

In the same way, oil spills from some oil extraction plants (the Exxon Valdez plant),hazardous
waste, pollution and other related services, natural disasters like floods, earthquake and danger
from using asbestos and plastics are some more cases for engineering disasters.

These fields should be given awareness of engineering ethics. Hence it is essential for engineers
to get awareness on the above said disasters. They should also know the importance of the
system of engineering.

When malfunction of the system is a rapid one, the disaster will be in greater extent and can be
noticed immediately. When they ate slow and unobserved, the impact is delayed. So, the
engineers should not ignore about the functions of these systems.

21
These cases also explain and make the engineers to be familiar with the outline of the
case in future and also about their related ethical issues.

Approaches to Engineering Ethics:

Micro-Ethics: This approach stresses more about some typical and everyday problems
which play an important role in the field of engineering and in the profession of an
engineer.

Macro-Ethics: This approach deals with all the social problems which are unknown and
suddenly burst out on a regional or national level. So, it is necessary for an engineer to
pay attention on both the approaches by having a careful study of how they affect them
professionally and personally.
The engineers have to tolerate themselves with the everyday problems both from
personal and societal point of view.

Where and how do Moral Problems arise in Engineering?

Any product or project has to undergo various stages such as planning, idea, design, and
manufacturing which is followed by testing, sales and services. This has to be done by
engineers of various branches like Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Chemical etc. These
engineers may be grouped together as a team or they may be separated from each other
with an interconnection or co-ordination.

In spite of the engineers full attention and care, sometimes the product or project may be
unsafe or less useful. This may be due to some reasons 1) The product or project may be
designed for early obsolescence or 2) due to under pressure because of running out of
time, budgetary etc or 3) by ignorance on the size of the project, or 4) because of the
large number of a products sold on the mass market, people may be affected.

Some cases with which different areas covered by engineering ethics:

1. An inspector finds a faulty part in the manufacture of a machine, which prevents

the use of that machine for a longer period. But his superior, takes this as a minor
mistake and orders that the faulty part to be adjusted so that the delay in the process has
to be avoided. But the inspector doesn’t want this and so he is threatened by the
supervisor. 22
2.An electronic company applies for a permit to start a Nuclear Power Plant. When
the licensing authority comes for visit, they enquire the company authorities on the
emergency measures that have been established for safety of the surroundings. The
engineers inform them about the alarm system and arrangements have been made
in local hospitals for the treatment of their employees and they have no plan for the
surrounding people. They also inform that it is the responsibility of the people.

3.A Yarn Dyeing company which dumps its wastes in the nearby river. It causes
heavy damage to the people those who are using the river. The plant engineers are
aware of this, but they do not change the disposal method because their competitors
also doing similarly as it happens to be a cheaper. They also say that it is the
responsibility of the local government.

The above given examples clearly explain how the ethical problems arise most often
because of wrong judgments and expectations of engineers. These necessitate for
establishing some codes of conduct which has to be imposed on engineers decisions
on the basis of ethical view.

2.3. TYPES OF INQUIRY

Inquiry means an investigation. Like general ethics, Engineering ethics also involves
investigations into values, meaning and facts. These inquiries in the field of
Engineering ethics are of three types.

Normative Inquiries
Conceptual Inquiries

Factual or Descriptive Inquiries

2.3.1 Normative Inquiries

These inquiries are mostly helpful to identify the values which guide the individuals
and groups in taking a decision. These are meant for identifying and justifying some
norms and standards of morally desirable nature for guiding individuals as well as
groups. In most of the cases, the normative questions are given below:

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• How do the obligations of engineers protect the public safety in given situations?
• When should an engineer have to alarm their employers on dangerous practices?
•Where are the laws and organizational procedures that affect engineering practice
on moral issues?
•Where are the moral rights essential for engineers to fulfill their professional
obligations?
From these questions, it is clear that normative inquiries also have the theoretical
goal of justifying moral judgments.

2.3.2 Conceptual Inquiries

These are meant for describing the meaning of concepts, principles, and issues
related to Engineering Ethics. These inquiries also explain whether the concepts and
ideas are expressed by single word or by phrases. The following are some of the

questions of conceptual inquiries:

• What is the safety and how it is related to risk?
•What does it mean when codes of ethics say engineers should protect the safety,
health and welfare of the public?
• What is a ‘bribe’?
• What is a ‘profession’ and ‘professional’?
2.3.3 Factual / Descriptive Inquiries
These help to provide facts for understanding and finding solutions to value based
issues. The engineer has to conduct factual inquiries by using scientific techniques.
These help to provide information regarding the business realities such as
engineering practice, history of engineering profession, the effectiveness of
professional societies in imposing moral conduct, the procedures to be adopted when
assessing risks and psychological profiles of engineers. The information about these
facts provide understanding and background conditions which create moral problems.
These facts are also helpful in solving moral problems by using alternative ways of
solutions.

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These types of inquiries are said to be complementary and interrelated. Suppose an
engineer wants to tell a wrong thing in an engineering practice to his superiors, he has to
undergo all these inquiries and prepare an analysis about the problem on the basis of
moral values and issues attached to that wrong thing. Then only he can convince his
superior. Otherwise his judgment may be neglected or rejected by his superior.

2.4 MORAL DILEMMA

1. Definition
Dilemmas are certain kind of situations in which a difficult choice has to be made. Moral
dilemmas can also be called moral problems. Moral dilemmas have two or more foldings -
moral obligations, duties, rights, goods or ideals come into disagreement with each other.
One moral principle can have two or more conflicting applications for a particular given
situation. Moral dilemmas can be occurred in so many ways.

For example, suppose one gives a promise to his friend that he will meet him on the
evening of a particular day, but unfortunately on the same day his brother has met with
an accident and he has to take him to hospital. The dilemma here consists of a conflict
between the duty to keep promise and obligations to his brother. In this situation, to solve
his moral problem, he can make a phone call to his friend and make apology for his
inability to come. So, from the above it is clear that the duty to keep promise always has
two different and conflicting applications.

The moral dilemmas cannot easily be addressed or resolved always. It requires an

elaborate searching which sometimes causing extreme suffering and reflection of a
situation. The modern engineering practice compels that all the engineers have to face
boldly about the moral dilemmas in their careers.

To find a simple and clear solution to the moral problems in the field of engineering, there
must be some provision to allocate time to for learning ethics in engineering courses. But
at the same time, it should not be ignored in the following three categories of complex
and gloomy moral situations:

25
2. The Problem of Vagueness
The problem of vagueness is related to individuals. The individuals may not know
how to moral considerations or principles in resolving a moral problem at a
particular situation. For example, an engineer in a higher position of a company,
is responsible and having the sloe right to make purchases on his own and behalf
of the company. There may be many suppliers for supplying materials. In this
situation, a sales representative from one of the suppliers approaches him with a
moderating gift. In this case, the engineer may have some doubts like (i)
whether this is an acceptance of a bribe? (ii) Does it create a conflict of interest?
The solution is only with that engineer. He can also discuss with his colleagues
about the problem. The colleague may find the solution on the basis of previous
experiences,-it may not be a kind of bribe, but at the same time it should not be
encouraged in future because there is the possibility of supplying substandard
materials. It is difficult to arrive at the conclusion whether the gift is an innocent
amenity or an unacceptable bribe.

3. The problems of Conflicting reasons

These occur more frequently. In a difficult situation of a moral problem, an
individual may clearly know about what moral principle has to be applied to
resolve the problem. When it arises, there are two or more principles with clear
solutions lead into conflict with one another or one particular moral principle.
Simultaneously there can be of two different directions. In this case, that
individual has to choose a better one among them on the basis of the importance
and the applicability. For example, an engineer has given a promise to his
employer and another one to a colleague. If it is difficult to fulfill both the
promises, he can drop off one promise which is of least importance. If he
explains the situations to his colleagues, it can be understood.

4. The problems of disagreement

The individuals and groups in engineering companies may disagree with resolving
moral problems in difficult situations. The disagreement will be normally about
how to interpret, apply and balance the moral problems. In this situation they
have to use the following steps to resolve the problems.

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Steps / Procedures in facing / confronting moral dilemmas

All the above said three problems pave the way for the need of several steps in
resolving the moral dilemmas. All the steps are interrelated and they can also be
used jointly.

1. Identifying the relevant moral factors and reasons: i.e. Finding solutions for
(i) the conflicting responsibilities (ii) the competing rights and (iii) the clashing ideals
involved.

2. Collecting and gathering all the available facts which are relevant to the moral
factors while resolving.
3.Ranking the moral considerations or principles on the basis of importance as
applicable to the situation. But sometimes it is not possible when the objective is
to find a way to meet equally urgent responsibilities and to promote equally
important ideals.
4.Considering alternative courses of action for resolving the problems and tracing
the full implications of each. i.e. conducting factual inquiries.
5.Having talked with the colleagues, friend about the problem getting their
suggestions and alternative ideas on resolving that dilemma and

6. Arriving at a careful and reasonable judgment or solution by taking into

consideration of all important moral factors and reasons on the basis of the facts
or truths. But it seems to be difficult.
To conclude, only the study of Engineering Ethics can help in developing skills and
attitudes to follow the above steps in resolving a moral problem among the
engineers and other professionals bymeans of case studies, class room discussions
and debating.

2.5 MORAL AUTONOMY

Moral autonomy is defined as, decisions and actions exercised on the basis of
moral concern for other people and recognition of good moral reasons.
Alternatively, moral autonomy means ‘self determinant or independent’.

27
 The autonomous people hold moral beliefs and attitudes based on their critical reflection
rather than on passive adoption of the conventions of the society or profession. Moral
autonomy may also be defined as a skill and habit of thinking rationally about the ethical
issues, on the basis of moral concern.

Viewing engineering as social experimentation will promote autonomous participation and

retain one’s professional identity. Periodical performance appraisals, tight-time schedules
and fear of foreign competition threatens this autonomy. The attitude of the management
should allow latitude in the judgments of their engineers on moral issues. If management
views profitability is more important than consistent quality and retention of the customers
that discourage the moral autonomy, engineers are compelled to seek the support from
their professional societies and outside organizations for moral support.

It appears that the blue-collar workers with the support of the union can adopt better
autonomy than the employed professionals. Only recently the legal support has been
obtained by the professional societies in exhibiting moral autonomy by professionals in this
country as well as in the West.

The engineering skills related to moral autonomy are listed as follows:

Skills for improving moral autonomy
1.The engineers must have the competence for identifying the moral problems and ethical
issues related to the field of engineering – they must have the ability to distinguish and
relate these moral problems with the problems of law, economics, religions principles
etc. They must possess the skills of understanding, clarifying and assessing the arguments
which are against the moral issues.
2.They must have the ability to suggest the solutions to moral issues, on the basis of facts.
These suggestions must be consistent and must include all the aspects of the problem.

3. They must have the imaginative skill to view the problems from all view points and also
be able to suggest a proper alternative solution.
4.They must be able to tolerate while giving moral judgments and decisions which may
cause trouble. i.e. they have to understand the difficulties in making moral decisions.

28
5.They must have adequate knowledge and understanding about the use of ethical
language so as to defend or support their views with others.

6. They must have some better knowledge in understanding the importance of

suggestions and better solutions while resolving moral problems and also about the
importance of tolerance on some critical situations.
7. They must understand the importance of maintaining the moral honesty i.e. the
personal convictions and beliefs and individual’s professional life must be integrated.
They must have this skill of doing so.

Conclusion
From the above decisions on moral autonomy, we can conclude that moral autonomy
helps an engineer to increase his moral outlook in an appreciable manner. It also helps
him to be morally responsible in his daily activities.

Autonomy which is the independence in making decisions and actions, is different

from authority. Authority provides freedom for action, specified within limits, depending
on the situation. Moral autonomy and respect for authority can coexist. They are not
against each other. If the authority of the engineer and the moral autonomy of the

operator are in conflict, a consensus is obtained by the two, upon discussion and mutual
understanding their limits.
2 . 6 KOHLBERG’S THEORY
Moral Autonomy is based on the psychology of moral development. The first
psychological theory was developed by Jean Piaget. On the basis of Piaget’s theory,
Lawrence Kohlberg developed three main levels of moral development which is based
on the kinds of reasoning and motivation adopted by individuals with regard to moral
questions.

Pre Conventional Level

It is nothing but self-centered attitude. In this level, right conduct is very essential for an
individual which directly benefits him. According to this level, individuals are motivated by
their willingness to avoid punishment, or by their desire to satisfy their own needs or by
the influence of the power exerted by them. This level is related to the moral
development of children and some adults who never want to go beyond a certain limit.

29
Conventional Level
The level deals with the respect for conventional rules and authority. As per this level the
rules and norms of one’s family or group or society has been accepted as the final
standard of morality. These conventions are regarded as correct, because they represent
with authority. When individuals are under this level, always want to please/satisfy others
and also to meet the expectations of the society and not their self- interest. Loyalty and
close identification with others have been given much importance.

Post Conventional Level

This level is said to be attained when an individual recognizes the right and the wrong on
the basis of a set of principles which governing rights and the general good which are not
based on self-interest or social conventions.

These individuals are called “autonomous”, because they only think for themselves and
also they do not agree t hat customs are always correct. They want to live by general
principles which are universally applied to all people. They always want to maintain their
moral integrity, self-respect and the respect for other autonomous peoples.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is very much related to the goals of studying
ethics at college level. To become morally responsible, an individual must be able and
willing to undergo with moral reasoning. Moral responsibility comes out of the foundation
of early moral training given by an individual’s parents and culture. This early training
helps to complete the above said three levels of moral development by an individual.

As per Kohlberg’s view only few people would reach the post conventional level which is
based on assumption that movement towards autonomous is morally desirable.

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2.7. GILLIGAN’S THEORY

Gilligan’s argument

Caorl Gilligan was one of the students of Kohlberg. She criticizes Kohlberg’s theory
on the basis of approached made by both male and female towards morality. On
the basis of her studies and researches, she criticizes Kohlberg’s theory which is
only based on male bias and his studies are of typically male preoccupation with
general rules and rights.

She also suggests that men are always more interested in resolving moral
dilemmas by applying some most important moral rules. But women always want
to keep up the personal relationship with all those involved in a situation and they
always give attention only on the circumstances responsible for that critical
situation and not on general moral rules.

She also states that Kohlberg’s theory is only on ethics of rules and rights. But
her theory is known as ethics of care. i.e. context oriented emphasis required to
maintain the personal relationship.

Levels of Moral Development

Gilligan recasts Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development on the basis of her
own studies of women, as follows:

Pre-Conventional Level

This is more over the same as Kohlberg’s first level i.e. Right conduct is a selfish
thing as solely one what is good for oneself.

Conventional Level

This level differs from Kohlberg’s second level. According to her, women don’t
want to hurt others and want to help others i.e. women always want to give up
their interests in order to help the others to fulfill their needs.

31
 Post Conventional Level

This level is also differed from Kohlberg’s level. In this level, individual (particularly
women) want to balance between caring about other people and their interests.
The main aim here is to balance an individual’s needs with those of others on the
basis of mutual caring. This can be achieved only through context -oriented
reasoning and not by abstract rules.

Heinz’s Dilemma
Gilligan’s criticism on the Kohlberg’s theory can be made very clear with the help of
a famous example used by Kohlberg in his questionnaires and interviews. This is
called Heinz’s Dilemma.

This example was about a woman and Heinz, her husband living in Europe. The
woman was affected by cancer. The doctors told her to use an expensive drug to
save her life. The pharmacist who also invented that medicine charged ten times
the cost of making the drug. Besides his poverty, Heinz took a lot of effort to
borrow money, but he could get only half of the amount needed. He approached
to the pharmacist and begged him to sell the medicine at a cheaper price or allow
him to pay for it later. But the pharmacist refused to do so. Finally, without any
hope, Heinz forcibly entered into the pharmacy and stolen the drug. The question
here is “Was the theft morally right or wrong?”

By asking this question among the male, Kohlberg has received two sets of
answers: One is based on the conventional level i.e. Heinz did a wrong thing.
Another one is based on the post conventional level i.e, Heinz was correct as the
life of the wife is more important than the property right of the pharmacist.

But when the same question was asked among the women, they gave (all
women) same answers. They replied that Heinz was wrong. They further told that
instead of stealing the medicine, Heinz could have tried other alternative solutions.
They also told that Heinz should have convinced still the pharmacist to get the
medicine.

32
From the above, Kohlberg concluded that women’s decisions are always based on
conventional rule and they always have different opinions in applying the general
moral rules and principles about the right to live.

On the basis of the Kohlberg’s comment on the women, Gilligan came to a different
conclusion. She tells that it shows greater sensitivity to people and personal
relationships. She concluded that the decision taken by women is context –oriented
and not on the basis of general rules ranked in order of priority.

Now, the question here is how Gilligan’s theory of moral development relates to moral
autonomy as a goal of studying ethics at the college level?

Autonomy requires independent reasoning on the basis of moral concern and not
Separated from other people. As per Gilligan’s theory and Kohlberg’s theory,
Moral autonomy should be consistent with context-oriented and also with an
Awareness of general moral principles and rights.

2.8 CONSENSUS AND CONTROVERSY

Consensus means ‘agreement’ and ’Controversy’ means disagreement. The
consensus and the controversies are playing the vital roles while considering the
moral autonomy.

When an individual exercises the moral autonomy, he cannot get the same results as
others get in applying moral autonomy. Surely there must be some moral differences

i.e. the results or verdicts will be of controversy. This kind of disagreements is

unavoidable. These disagreements require some tolerances among individuals those
who are autonomous, reasonable and responsible.

As per the principle of tolerance, the goal of teaching engineering ethics is not merely
producing an agreed conformity on applying moral principles among engineers but
also to reveal the ways of promoting tolerances to apply moral autonomy.

33
Both the goals of engineering ethics and the goals of engineering courses have some
similarities. These similarities have to be extended with the help of exercising authority.
For example, in the class room, the teachers are having the authority over students and
in the work place, the managers are having the authority over engineers.

There are two general points regarding the relationship between autonomy and
authority with reference to the class room:

1. Moral autonomy and respect for the authority cannot be differentiated or separated from
each other. Moral autonomy is exercised on the basis of moral concern for other people
and also recognition of good moral reasons. Authority provides for the framework in
which learning can take place. It is based on the acceptance of authority by both the
students and the professors. Without this acceptance, the classes cannot be conducted
in a smooth way. On the other hand, cheating will be encouraged and the trust between
faculty and the students may be reduced to some extent. These kind of deviations are
due to the absence of moral views and respect for authority. They must be coincide with
each other.

2.Generally a tension may arise among the individuals regarding the need for consensus
about authority and need for autonomy. This tension can be reduced by discussing
openly regarding a moral issue between students and faculty with the help of the
authority.

In short, conflicts will arise between autonomy and authority, when the authority is
misused. For example, in small classes, the students are having the authority to express ‘
their own views. But when the professor doesn’t allow them to do so, he misuses his
authority. This will create some moral problems between the students and the faculty.

34
2.9 MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ROLES
The main aim of the profession of engineering is to improve the public safety, wealth
and welfare. In order to perform these functions, the engineer has to play various
models to channelize his attitudes towards the achievements of objectives. They are
as follows:

Savior
The engineers are responsible for creating an utopian society in which everything is
possible and can be achieved without much effort. This can only be achieved through
technological developments made by the engineers for safe - guarding the society
from poverty, inefficiency, waste and manual labour.

Guardian
Engineers only know the directions through which technology will be developed. So,
they should be given position of high authority based on their expertise skills in
determining what is in the best interests of the society. They should act as guardians
to the technological improvements.

Bureaucratic Servant

Engineer’s role in the management is to be the servant who receives and translates
the directive of management into better achievements. They have to solve the
problems given by the management, within the limits set by the management.
Social Servant

The role of engineers is not only providing service to others but also their
responsibility to the society. The interests of the society can be expressed to the
engineers either directly or indirectly. So, the engineers, with the co -operation of
the management have the work of receiving society’s directives and satisfying the
desires of the society.

Social enabler and Catalyst

The engineer has to play a role of creating a better society and should be the cause
of making social changes. Service given by the engineers to the society includes
carrying out the social directives.Engineers are needed to help the management
and the society to understand their needs and to create decisions about
technological development.

35
Game Player

We cannot say that engineers are servants or masters of anyone. They are playing the
economic game rules which may be effective at a given time. Their aim is to play successfully
within the organization enjoying the happiness of technological work and the satisfaction of
winning and moving ahead in a completive world.

2.10 THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION (ETHICAL THEORIES)

2.10.1 Uses and Criteria
The ethical theories are useful in many respects.
1.In understanding moral dilemma. They provide clarity, consistency, systematic and
comprehensive understanding.
2.It provides helpful practical guidance in moral issues towards the solution.
3.Justifying professional obligations and decisions, and

4.In relating ordinary and professional morality.

Different criteria may be applied for evaluating various ethical theories and deciding upon the
best.

1. The theory must be clear and (coherent) formulated with concepts that are logically
connected.
2.It must be internally consistent, i.e., none of its principles conflicts with any other
3.The theory and its defense must depend, only upon facts.
4.It must organize basic moral values in systematic and comprehensive manner. It is to fix
priority of values and provide guidance in all situations

It must provide guidance compatible with our moral convictions (judgments) about concrete
situations. For example, if an ethical theory says that it is all right for engineers to make
explosive devices without the informed consent of the public, we can conclude that the
theory is inadequate.

Theories and judgments are continually adjusted to each other until we reach a reflective
equilibrium. Most of the theories converge towards the welfare of the humanity. The duty
ethics and right ethics differ in great extent on their emphasis. But they remain
complementary always.

36
2.10.2 Ethical Theories/Approaches
Several ethical theories have been developed over different times, each of them stressing
certain ethical principles or features. Each stresses a view and many a times, we find that
these theories converge and reinforce the ethics, in deciding upon the actions and justifying
the results.

1.Utilitarian Theory
The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which laws were morally best. They suggested that
the standard of right conduct is maximization of good consequences. Good consequences
mean either ‘utilities’ or the ‘balance of good over evil’. This approach weighs the costs and
benefits. Right actions are the ones that produce the greatest satisfaction of the preferences
of the affected persons. In analyzing an issue in this approach, we have to:

1. Identify the various courses of action available to us.

2. Ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will be derived from
each.
3.Choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least harm. The ethical
action is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number.

The ACT UTILITARIAN theory proposed by J.S. Mill (1806-73) focuses on actions, rather than
on general rules. An action is right, if it generates the most overall good for the most people
involved.
The RULE UTILITARIAN theory, developed by Richard Brandt (1910-97), stressed on the
rules, such as ‘do not steal’, ‘do no harm others’, ‘do not bribe’, as of primary importance. He
suggested that individual actions are right when they are required by set of rules which
maximizes the public good.
The act utilitarian theory permitted a few immoral actions. Hence, there was need to develop
rule utilitarian theory to establish morality and justice, in the transactions. For example,
stealing an old computer from the employer will benefit the employee more than the loss to
the employer. As per Act, utilitarian this action is right. But rule utilitarian observes this as
wrong, because the employee should act as ‘faithful agent or trustee of the employees’. In
another example, some undisciplined engineers are terminated with the blame for the
mistakes they have not committed.The process is unfair although this results in promotion of

overall good.
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 2.Duty Ethics
a) The duty ethics theory, proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) states, that actions
are consequences of performance of one’s duties such as, ‘being honest’, ‘not cause
suffering of others’, ‘being fair to others including the meek and week’, ‘being grateful’,
‘keeping promises’ etc. The stress is on the universal principle of respect for autonomy
i.e., respect and rationality of persons. As per Kant we have duties to ourselves, as we
are rational and autonomous beings. We have a duty not to commit suicide; a duty to
develop our talents and a duty to avoid harmful drugs. Kant insisted that moral duties
are categorical imperatives. They are commands that we impose on ourselves as well as
other rational beings. For example, we should be honest because honesty is required by
duty. A businessman is to be honest because honesty pays — in terms of profits from
customers and from avoiding jail for dishonesty.
b) On the other hand, the DUTY ethics theory, as enunciated by John Rawl, gave
importance to the actions that would be voluntarily agreed upon by all persons
concerned, assuming impartiality. His view emphasized the autonomy each person
exercises in forming agreements with other rational people. Rawl proposed two basic
moral principles; (1) each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty
compatible with an equal amount for others, and (2) differences in social power and
economic benefits are justified only when they are likely to benefit every one, including
members of the most disadvantaged groups. The first principle is of prime importance
and should be satisfied first. Without basic liberties other economic or social benefits
can not be sustained for long. The second principle insists that to allow some people
with great wealth and power is justified only when all other groups are benefited. In
the business scenario, for example, the free enterprise is permissible so far it provides
the capital needed to invest and prosper, thereby making job opportunities to the public
and taxes to fund the government spending on the welfare schemes on the poor
people.

C.W.D. Ross, the British philosopher introduced the term prima facie duties, which means
duties might have justified exceptions. In fact, most duties are prima facie ones; some
may have obligatory or permissible exceptions. Ross assumed that the prima facie duties
are intuitively obvious (self-evident), while fixing priorities among duties.

38
He noted that the principles such as ‘Do not kill’ and ‘protect innocent life’ involve high
respect for persons than other principles such as, ‘Do not lie’ (less harmful). This theory is
criticized on the fact, that the intuitions do not provide sufficient guideline for moral duty.
He has listed various aspects of Duty Ethics that reflect our moral convictions, namely:

3. Rights Theory

Rights are entitlement to act or to have another individual act in a certain way. Minimally,
rights serve as a protective barrier, shielding individuals from unjustified infringement of their
moral agency by others. For every right, we have a corresponding duty of noninterference.

a)The RIGHTS approach to ethics has its roots in the 18th century philosopher Immanuel
Kant, who focused on the individual’s right to choose for oneself. According him, what makes
human beings different from mere things is, that people have dignity based on their ability to
choose freely what they will do with their lives, and they have a fundamental moral right to
have these choices respected. People are not objects to be manipulated; it is a violation of
human dignity to use people in ways they do not freely choose. Other rights he advocated
are:
1.The right to access the truth: We have a right to be told the truth and to be
informed about matters that significantly affect our choices.

2. The right of privacy: We have the right to do, believe, and say whatever we choose
in our personal lives so long as we do not violate the rights of others.

3.The right not to be injured: We have the right not to be harmed or injured unless we
freely and knowingly do something to deserve punishment or we freely and knowingly
choose to risk such injuries.

4.The right to what is agreed: We have a right to what has been promised by those
with whom we have freely entered into a contract or agreement.

a)In deciding whether an action is moral or immoral, we must ask, does the action respect
the moral rights of everyone? Actions are wrong to the extent that they violate the rights of
individuals; the more serious is the violation, the more wrongful is the action. The RIGHTS
theory as promoted by John Locke states that the actions are right, if they respect human
rights of every one affected. He proposed the three basic human rights, namely life, liberty,
and property. His views were reflected in the modern American society, when Jefferson
declared the basic rights as life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.
39
c)As per A.I. Melden’s theory based on rights, nature mandates that we should not harm
others’ life, health, liberty or property. Melden allowed welfare rights also for living a decent
human life. He highlighted that the rights should be based on the social welfare system.

d)Human rights: Human rights are explained in two forms, namely liberty rights and welfare
rights. Liberty rights are rights to exercise one’s liberty and stresses duties on other people not
to interfere with one’s freedom. The four features of liberty rights (also called moral rights),
which lay the base for Government Administration, are:
1. Rights are natural in so far as they are not invented or created by government.

2. They are universal, as they do not change from country to country.

3.They are equal since the rights are the same for all people, irrespective of caste, race,
creed or sex.

4.They are inalienable i.e., one cannot hand over his rights to another person such as
selling oneself to slavery.

The Welfare Rights are the rights to benefit the needy for a decent human life, when one can
not earn those benefits and when those benefits are available in the society.

e)Economic rights: In the free-market economy, the very purpose of the existence of the
manufacturer, the sellers and the service providers is to serve the consumer. The consumer is
eligible to exercise some rights9. The consumers’ six basic rights are: Right to Information,
Right to Safety, Right to Choice, Right to be Heard, Right to Redressal, and Right to Consumer
Education.

Rights ethics is distinctive in that it makes human rights the ultimate appeal — the moral
bottom line. Human rights constitute a moral authority to make legitimate moral demands on
others to respect our choices, recognizing that others can make similar claims on us. Thus, we
see that the rights ethics provides a powerful foundation for the special ethical requirements
in engineering and other professions.

40
4. The Virtue Theory

This emphasizes on the character rather than the rights or duties. The character is the
pattern of virtues (morally-desirable features). The theory advocated by Aristotle,
stressed on the tendency to act at proper balance between extremes of conduct,
emotion, desire, attitudes to find the golden mean between the extremes of ‘excess’
or ‘deficiency’.
On the other hand, the Virtue Theory proposed by Mac Intyre, highlighted on the
actions aimed at achieving common good and social (internal) good such as social
justice, promotion of health, creation of useful and safe technological products and
services. Five types of virtues that constitute responsible professionalism, namely
public-spirited virtues, proficiency virtues, team-work virtues, self-governance virtues,

and cardinal virtues.

5. Self-realisation Ethics

Right action consists in seeking self-fulfillment. In one version of this theory, the self to

be realized is defined by caring relationships with other individuals and society. In

another version called ethical egoism, the right action consists in always promoting what
is good for oneself. No caring and society relationships are assumed.

6. Justice (Fairness) Theory

The justice or fairness approach to ethics has its roots in the teachings of the ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle, who said that “equals should be treated equally and
unequals unequally.” The basic moral question in this approach is: How fair is an action?
Does it treat everyone in the same way, or does it show favoritism and discrimination?

41
2.11 SELF-INTEREST

Self-interest is being good and acceptable to oneself. It is pursuing what is

good for oneself. It is very ethical to possess self-interest. As per utilitarian theory, this
interest should provide for the respect of others also. Duty ethics recognizes this aspect
as duties to ourselves. Then only one can help others. Right ethicist stresses our rights
to pursue our own good. Virtue ethics also accepts the importance of self-respect as link
to social practices.

In Ethical Egoism, the self is conceived in a highly individualistic manner. It

says that every one of us should always and only promote one’s own interest. The
ethical egoists do not accept the well being of the community or caring for others.
However this self interest should not degenerate into egoism or selfishness, i.e.,
maximizing only own good in the pursuit of self-interest. The ethical egoists hold that the
society benefits to maximum when (a) the individuals pursue their personal good and (b)
the individual organizations pursue maximum profit in a competitive enterprise. This is
claimed to improve the economy of the country as a whole, besides the individuals. In
such pursuits, both individuals and organizations should realize that independence is not
the only important value. We are also interdependent, as much as independent. Each of
us is vulnerable in the society. Self-respect includes recognition of our vulnerabilities and
interdependencies. Hence, it is compatible with caring for ourselves as well as others.

Self-interest is necessary initially to begin with. But it should be one of the

prime motives for action; the other motive is to show concern for others, in the family as
well as society. One’s self-interest should not harm others. The principles of ‘Live and let
(others) live’, and ‘reasonably fair competition’ are recommended to professionals by the
ethicists.

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2.12 CUSTOMS AND RELIGION
2.12.1Customs
Ethical Pluralism: Various cultures in our pluralistic society lead to tolerance for various
customs, beliefs, and outlooks. Accordingly ethical pluralism also exists. Although many
moral attitudes appear to be reasonable, the rational and morally concerned people can
not fully accept any one of the moral perspectives. There are many varied moral values,
which allow variation in the understanding and application of values by the individuals or
groups in their everyday transactions. It means that even reasonable people will not agree
on all moral issues and professional ethics.

Ethical Relativism: According to this principle, actions are considered morally right when
approved by law or custom, and wrong when they violate the laws or customs. The
deciding factor is the law or the customs of the society. Should we accept the principle of
relativism or not? A few reasons to accept this are explained in the following paragraphs:

Laws appear to be objective ways for judging values. The laws and customs tend to be
definite, clear and real, but not always. Further moral reasons allow objective criticism of
laws, as being morally lacking. For example, the Apartheid laws of South Africa violated the
human rights of the native Africans. No legal protection was available for native citizens for
a long time. Now, of course, these laws have been repealed.

Ethical relativism assumes that the values are subjective at the cultural level. Moral
standards also vary from culture to culture. The objectivity is supported by the existing
laws of that society. The relative morality accepted, supports the virtue of tolerance of
differences among societies. This argument is also not fully acceptable. As per ethical
relativism, the actions and laws of the Nazis and Hitler who vowed on Anti-Semitism and
killed several million Jews would be accepted as right.

Moral relationalism or moral contextualism: According to this, the moral judgments

must be made in relation to certain factors, which may vary from case to case. The morally
important factors for making judgments include the customs and laws. The virtue ethicists
hold that the practical wisdom should prevail upon assessing the facts and in the
judgment.

43
This principle was accepted by the early anthropologists because they had a specific
tendency to over-stress the scope of moral difference between cultures. The human
sacrifices and cannibalism were accepted. But the modern anthropologists insist that
all cultures shall exhibit the virtue of social welfare and safety against needless death
or physical or mental harm. Moral differences were based on the circumstances and
facts and not on the difference in moral attitudes. For example, the pharaohs buried
the live attendants along with their dead king with the belief that they would
continue to serve the king in his after life.

2.12.2 Religion
Religions have played major roles in shaping moral views and moral values, over
geographical regions. Christianity has influenced the Western countries, Islam in the
Middle-East countries, Buddhism and Hinduism in Asia, and Confucianism in China.
Further, there is a strong psychological link between the moral and religious beliefs
of people following various religions and faiths. Religions support moral responsibility.
They have set high moral standards. Faith in the religions provides trust and this
trust inspires people to be moral. The religions insist on tolerance and moral concern
for others. Many professionals who possess religious beliefs are motivated to be
morally responsible.

Each religion lays stress on certain high moral standards. For example, Hinduism
holds polytheistic (many gods) view, and virtues of devotion and surrender to high
order. Christianity believes in one deity and emphasizes on virtues of Love, Faith, and
Hope. Buddhism is non-theistic and focuses on compassion and Islam on one deity
and adherence of ishan (piety or pursuit of excellence) and prayer. Judaism stresses
the virtue of ‘tsedakah’ (righteousness). But many religious sects have adopted poor
moral standards, e.g., many religious sects do not recognize equal rights for women.
The right to worship is denied for some people. People are killed in the name of or to
promote religion. Thus, conflicts exist between the ‘secular’ and religious people and
between one religion and another. Hence, religious views have to be morally
scrutinized.

44
2.12.2.1 Divine Command Ethics

As per this principle, the right action is defined by the commands by God. It implies
that to be moral, a person should believe in God and an action is right only if it is
commanded by God. There are some difficulties in this approach, namely, (a) whether
God exists or not is not clear. (b) How to know what are the God’s commands? and (c)
How to verify the genuineness of the commands? Further, religions such as Hinduism,
Islam, and Christianity accept the existence of God. But Buddhism, Taoism, and
Confucianism adopt only faith in a right path and do not believe in God.

Socrates was said to have argued that God, an entity which is responsible, morally good,
and beyond fear or favor, would not command murder, rape, torture, immoral activities,
and even mass suicide. Many such crimes were committed in the name of God then and
continue even now in different parts of the world. Some Western leaders had claimed that
God had commanded them to invade against the Middle-East countries. If anyone claims
to have obtained commands from God to kill people merciless, then we have to conclude
that the person is not religious but insane.

2.13 USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES

Ethical theories have so many uses. Out of them, the following three are the most
important uses:

Understanding moral dilemmas.

Justifying professional obligations and ideas and
Relating ordinary and professional morality

45
 Video Links

Unit II- Engineering Ethics

S.No Topic Video Link

https://youtu.be/K_Uh09RAjR8
1 Engineering Ethics
https://youtu.be/UbvaJdFhgPE

Introduction to Engineering https://youtu.be/CY1UHFiOsJ8

2
Ethics

Ethical Theories of Action https://youtu.be/lrlS2S4Aovk

3

Moral Dilemmas https://youtu.be/2P_tpJPaAJc

4

https://youtu.be/1hRt8_z0_Bc
5 Models of Professional Roles

Self Interest, Custom &

https://youtu.be/REsyywT9zRs
6 Religion

Gilligan's Theory of Moral

https://youtu.be/9xGYlU6V9Co
7 Development

46
 10. Assignment Unit II

1) State Meaning of moral dilemma. Describe the types and few steps in confronting

Moral Dilemma. in the lifeReal life case study?

2) Why Carol Gilligan was critical of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.

3) Explain the need of tolerance for different customs and ethical relativism in

adverse society with suitable example.?

4) Discuss about the skills needed for Moral Autonomy.

Course Outcome : 02

Program Outcome : PO6, PO8, PO9, PO10, PO12

47
 11. Part A Question and Answers

S.N K
Question and Answers CO
o Level
Define moral Dilemma.
Dilemmas are certain kind of situations in which a
difficult choice has to be made. Moral dilemmas can (K1)
1 (CO2)
also be called moral problems. Moral Dilemmas have
two or more folding’s - moral obligations, duties, rights,
goods, or ideals come disagreement with each other.
What is the significance of engineering ethics?
An activity and an area of inquiry. Ethical problems,
2 (CO2) (K1)
issues and controversy Set of beliefs, attitudes and
habits. Morally correct.
What is engineering ethics?
Engineering ethics involves normative inquiry in order
to aim at identifying and justifying the morally desirable
3 (CO2) (K1)
norms or standards that ought to guide individuals or
groups. Normative questions include what ought to be?
And what is good?
What do you mean by ethical pluralism?
Ethical pluralism is the view that there may be
alternative moral perspectives that are reasonable, but
4 (CO2) (K1)
no one of which must be accepted completely by all
rational and
morally concerned persons.
Write any three uses of ethical theories.
Ethical theories are very useful in understanding and
resolving moral dilemmas. In estimating the
5 professional obligations and ideals. Determine to what (CO2) (K2)
extent, the obligations can be exercised in a given
situation.

Differentiate Moral and Ethics?

Moral:
 Refers only to personal behaviour.
 Refers to any aspect of human action.
 Social conventions about right or wrong conduct.
6 Ethics: (CO2) (K1)
Involves defining, analyzing, evaluating and resolving
moral problems and Developing moral criteria to guide
human behaviour. Critical reflection on what one does
and why one does it. Refers only to professional
behaviour.

48
S.N K
Question and Answers CO
o Level
What are the types of Theories about Morality/
Right action?
Virtue ethics – Virtues and vices
7 Utilitarianism – Most good for the most people (CO2) (K2)
Duty ethics – Duties to respect people
Rights ethics – Human rights

State Ethical Egoism.

It deals with self-interest. Each person is the best judge
of their own self-interest and is responsible for
8 (CO2) (K1)
maximizing their own interest. Egoism preaches
selfishness but morality should encourage love,
compassion etc.
Differentiate Ethical Relativism and Ethical
Egoism.
Ethical egoism – the view that right action consist in
9 (CO2) (K1)
producing one’s own good. Ethical relativism – the view
that right action is merely what the law and customs of
one’s society require.
What is moral integrity?
Moral integrity is the strength of character on the basis
10 of moral concern and moral values. Integrity is the (CO2) (K1)
bridge that links the responsibilities between personal
life and professional carrier.
Differentiate profession and
professionalism.
Profession is a job through which someone
makes living. Professionalism covers
11 (CO2) (K1)
comprehensively all areas of practice of a
particular profession. It requires skills and
responsibilities involved in engineering
profession.
Give the importance of Lawrence Kohlberg’s and
Carol Gilligan’s theory.
Kohlberg gives greater emphasis to recognizing rights
12 and abstract universal rules. Gilligan Stresses the (CO2) (K1)
importance of maintaining personal relationships based
on mutual caring.

49
S.N K
Question and Answers CO
o Level
What is consensus and controversy?
Consensus means agreement and controversy means
13 (CO2) (K1)
disagreement. Both plays the vital roles while
considering moral autonomy.
What is the relationship between moral
autonomy and authority?
Moral' autonomy is exercised on the basis of moral
14 (CO2) (K1)
concern for other people and recognition of good moral
reasons. Authority provides the frame work in which
learning can takes place in class room/work place.
What are the concepts of pre-conventional &
conventional level in Gilligan's theory?
Carol Gilligan recast the theory of Kohlberg as follows.
Pre conventional level: Desire to derive benefits for
oneself. Right conduct is viewed in a selfish manner as
15 solely what is good for oneself. (CO2) (K1)
Conventional level: Here the basic motive is willingness
to sacrifice one's own interests and a strong desire to
hurt other's interests. Mostly women are always willing
to give up their personal interests in order to serve the
needs of others.
Define Ethics. Mention some universally
accepted ethical standards. (C
"Ethics" as the "discipline dealing with what is good and
bad and with moral duty and obligation," "a set of
moral principles or value" or "a theory or system of
moral values." Ethics assists individuals in deciding
16 when an act is moral or immoral, right or wrong. Ethics (CO2) (K1)
can be grounded in natural law, religious tenets,
parental and family influence, educational experiences,
life experiences, and cultural and societal expectations.
Ethical Standard such as Focus on ethics, Corporate
culture, Managerial
Define Professionalism?
Professionalism means behaving in an ethical manner
while assuming and fulfilling your rightful
responsibilities in every situation every time, without
17 fail. To get a bit more granular, one can say that it (CO2) (K1)
means, in part, conducting your affairs in such a way as
to engender trust and confidence in every aspect of
your work.
S.N K
Question and Answers CO
o Level
Define Moral Autonomy?
Moral autonomy, usually traced back to Kant, is the
capacity to deliberate and to give oneself the moral law,
18 rather than merely heeding the injunctions of others. (CO2) (K1)
Personal autonomy is the capacity to decide for one self
and pursue a course of action in one's life, often
regardless of any particular moral content.
List the methods that can be applied when
testing is inappropriate.
1. Scenario Analysis
19 (CO2) (K1)
2. Failure Mode Effect Analysis
3. Fault-tree analysis
4. Even-tree analysis
What are the models of professional roles?
 Engineers as saviors
 Engineers as Guardians
20  Engineers as Bureaucratic servants (CO2) (K1)
 Engineers as social servants
 Engineers as social Enablers and catalysts
 Engineers as Game Players
Mention the various types of inquires.
 Normative inquires
21 (CO2) (K2)
 Conceptual inquires and
 Factual inquires
What do you understand by Business ethics?
22 Business Ethics is concerned with the rules by which (CO2) (K1)
and individual lives his or her personal life.
State Gilligan’s theory.
According to Gilligan, males have tendency to over-ride
the importance of moral rules and convictions while
23
resolving moral dilemmas; whereas females have (CO2) (K1)
tendency to try hard to preserve personal relationships
with all people involved in a situation.
What is meant by self interest?
Self-interest is nothing but one’s personal good. It
refers to the goodness of oneself in the long run. Each
of the ethical theories recognizes the importance of
24 self-respect. Utilitarian considers one’s own good as (CO2) (K1)
well as the good of others. Duty ethicists stresses
duties to ourselves and for won well-being. Ethicists of
rights emphasize our rights to pursue our own good.
 12. Part B Questions

S.N K
Questions CO
o Level
1 Explain the gillieyan’s theory for moral development. (CO2) (K2)

Explain Kohlber’s theory in detail.Discuss three types of

2 (CO2) (K2)
inquiry.

3 What are the uses of ethical theories? Explain it. (CO2) (K1)

Explain in details about the sense of engineering

4 (CO2) (K1)
ethics?
Explain the theory of human right ethics and its
5 (CO2) (K2)
classification?
What is meant by self interest? Relate the term with
6 (CO2) (K1)
“Ethical egoism” with suitable examples.

7 Discuss the different models of professional roles. (CO2) (K2)

Explain the need of tolerance for different customs and

8 ethical pluralism in adverse society with suitable (CO2) (K2)
example.

9 What are the scopes of engineering ethics? (CO2) (K1)

What are the different ethical theories available for

10 (CO2) (K1)
right action, self-interest, duty ethics?
Explain the need of tolerance for different customs and
11 ethical relativism in adverse society with suitable (CO2) (K2)
example.
Explain the vital role of consensus and controversy
12 while considering moral autonomy in Engineering (CO2) (K2)
ethics.
State Meaning of moral dilemma. Describe the types ( K1,
13 (CO2)
and few steps in confronting Moral ilemma. in the life? K2 )
Explain the theory of human right ethics and its
14 (CO2) (K2)
classification?

52
 13. Supportive Online Certification Courses
UNIT 2

S.No. Name of the Course Certification Website link

Platform

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/1
NPTEL
1. Ethics 09/106/109106117/
IIT Madras

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/1
Ethics in Engineering NPTEL
2. 10/105/110105097/
Practice IIT Kharagpur

Coursera https://www.coursera.org/l
Ethics, Technology
earn/ethics-technology-
3. and Engineering Eindhovan engineering
University of
Technology

https://ocw.mit.edu/courses
/engineering-systems-
MIT division/esd-932-
4. Engineering Ethics engineering-ethics-spring-
OpenCourseware
2006/

https://www.mooc-
Ethical Dilemmas in Edx list.com/course/ethical-
5. Professional dilemmas-professional-
Delft University of engineering-edx
Engineering Technology

53
 14. Real time applications in day to day life and to
industry

UNIT 2
1. EXAMPLES OF REAL WORLD ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11948-000-0042-y.pdf
Nine examples are presented in the above article, illustrating the kinds of
problems encountered in actual practice by conscientious engineers. These cases are
drawn from the records of IEEE Ethics Committee and from the experience of ethics
helpline initiated recently by the Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science.

2. How Ethical Thinking Applies to Real Life

Here are some ways we can apply ethics to our life:

Consider how you interact with animals. Some folks may think animals don’t ethically
matter. However, most ethical theories disagree. So before you abuse a dog, take a bite
out of that next steak, or raise cattle inhumanely, you have to consider some ethical
arguments. After all, animals feel pain and suffer just like humans. Perhaps this possibility
of pain and suffering entitles them to rights and considerations that you’re ethically
expected to respect.
Be kinder to the environment. People typically see recycling or using certain kinds of
household products as neutral lifestyle choices. However, ethics may actually demand a
particular sort of interaction with the world around you. Sawing down a tree is innocent
enough, but when you think of trees as parts of ecosystems that keep humans alive,
things become less clear-cut.
Respect and defend human rights. What are the basic things to which humans are
entitled just because they’re humans? This question forms the basis of an inquiry into
human rights. Ethics has a lot to say about what those rights are, who has them, and why.
Many 21st century debates about torture, genocide, women’s rights, free speech, and
welfare all focus on human rights
Become more ethical in your career. Ethical professionals are better professionals.
Lawyers, engineers, doctors, accountants, and journalists must avoid conflicts of interest
and be sensitive to the ethical requirements of their jobs. However, keep in mind that
being ethical in your profession can lead to surprising results. Lawyers, for instance, have
to defend some pretty shady characters in order to give everyone a fair defense.
Engage with medical advances. Some of the most contentious ethical problems of today
arise in the practice of medicine and with the use of biotechnology. Human cloning,
abortion, euthanasia, and genetic engineering challenge long-standing beliefs about
human life, identity, and dignity.

54
 15. CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS
UNIT 2

1. Applications of Engineering Ethics

Engineering Ethics in College/Education
The main engineering ethics problem that college students are face with is
academic integrity. Academic integrity can show itself in the form of cheating by
copying someone’s work, intentional cheating, plagiarism, and/or self-plagiarism.
However, professional ethics is something that can be learned even when it
conflicts with personal ethics, as for example, a situation where you are
personally okay with building a product that can harm the environment, yet save
lives. You can learn professional ethics and realize that something that is harmful
to the environment is not okay. Ethics codes can even help you see the bigger
picture. For example, in the previous scenario, these codes can help you re-
evaluate your ethics and realize that something that is harmful to the
environment will eventually be harmful to the people around you and yourself.
Thus, there are many ethics classes in universities across the world. Some
universities even require engineers to take classes on ethics. For example, Cohen
et al. (2005) developed a model called the Air Model (AIR)SM to help students
reflect and develop their personal code of ethics. AIR stands for Awareness (of
ethical issues), Investigation (of those issues), and Responding (to those issues).
Engineering Ethics in the Professional World
In the professional world, ethical engineering problems come up in many cases.
One of these includes the case of a professional using someone else’s work that is
published in the widespread market of publication. Another is the case of a
professional using someone else’s work that is not published yet and stealing their
idea. Engineers who have good engineering ethics often have a good sense of the
value of life. They don’t hesitate to admit that they made a mistake because they
know that the cost of not owning up to your mistakes can have disastrous
consequences. It might even cost a human life.
Engineering Ethics in Companies
Not only do individual engineers have to be conscious of engineering ethics, but
also companies. Companies have to be aware of their Corporate Social
Responsibility and Environmental Responsibility. Corporate Social Responsibility is
a company’s responsibility to give back to the community that they profit from
and to behave ethically so that both they and their community can benefit.
Environmental Responsibility is a business’s initiative to leave the environment
(where it is taking its resources from) the same, if not better, that it is found it.
2. Application of Ethical Theories to Leadership
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/philosophy/application-of-ethical-
theories-to-leadership.php
3. Application of Ethical Theories in Business
https://ncys82.wordpress.com/2013/03/15/ethical-theory-and-its-
application-to-contemporary-business-practice/

55
 16. ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Assessment Tools Proposed Date Actual Date

I ASSESSMENT 07-03-2023
II ASSESSMENT 26-04-2023
MODEL 20-05-2023

56
17.PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS &REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS:
1.Mike W. Martin and Roland Schinzinger, ―Ethics in Engineering‖, Tata McGraw Hill,
New Delhi, 2003.
2.Govindarajan M, Natarajan S, Senthil Kumar V. S, ―Engineering Ethics‖, Prentice
Hall of India, New Delhi, 2004.
REFERENCES:
1.Charles B. Fleddermann, ―Engineering Ethics‖, Pearson Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, 2004.
2. Charles E. Harris, Michael S. Pritchard and Michael J. Rabins, ―Engineering
Ethics – Concepts and Cases‖, Cengage Learning, 2009.
3.John R Boatright, ―Ethics and the Conduct of Business‖, Pearson Education,
New Delhi, 2003
4.Edmund G Seebauer and Robert L Barry, ―Fundamentals of Ethics for Scientists
and Engineers‖, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001.
5.Laura P. Hartman and Joe Desjardins, ―Business Ethics: Decision Making for
Personal Integrity and Social Responsibility‖ Mc Graw Hill education, India
Pvt.Ltd.,New Delhi, 2013.
6.World Community Service Centre, ‗ Value Education‘, Vethathiri publications,
Erode, 2011.

57
 18. MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

Use the case of Gerald Wahr given below to illustrate your view regarding moral obligation and
employment. Can accepting a position ever be immoral? Use moral theory to explain your point
of view, and your advice for Gerald.

An Only Opportunity
*This case is one of thirty-two cases which address a wide range of ethical issues
that can arise in engineering practice provided by the Center For the Study of Ethics in Society,
Western Michigan University edited by Michael Pritchard.

Gerald Wahr was not prepared for such a sudden turn of events. He was
scheduled to complete his degree in chemical engineering in June. He planned to return to
help his parents run the family farm right after graduation. However, in early May his father,
Hans Wahr, became seriously ill, and it was evident he would be hospitalized for an extended
period of time. Gerald’s mother and his older brother could continue to run the farm. But the
medical bills would quickly mount. Without an additional source of income, the family would
soon begin defaulting on its mortgage payments. The best hope for saving the farm would be
for Gerald to find employment as an engineer.

Since Gerald had expected to return to the farm, he already missed many
opportunities for job interviews. He would have to work quickly. After an intensive search, only
one solid opportunity surfaced. Pro-Growth Pesticides, Inc. would be on campus next week to
interview candidates for a supervisory job requiring a degree in chemical engineering.

Gerald certainly seems well qualified for the job. However, there is a hitch. The
Wahr farm uses strictly organic methods. Gerald’s father had always opposed the use of
pesticides on their farm. In fact, he was rather outspoken about this among the farmers in the
area. Gerald admired this in his father. As a young child he often proudly announced that he
wanted to grow up to be just like his father. Hans Wahr, however, had different ideas about
this. A high school dropout, Hans advised young Gerald to further his education. “Without a
college degree,” he told Gerald, “you’ll be as ineffective as I am. You have to fight fire with fire.
If you really want to show those pesticide folks a thing or two, you’ve got to be able to talk
their language.” So, Gerald decided he would go to college and study chemical engineering.
Gerald’s study of chemical engineering did nothing to shake his conviction that organic farming
is best. Quite the contrary. He is now more convinced than ever that the pesticide industry is
not only harming the environment generally, but farm products in particular.

Should Gerald go for the interview? Discuss.

 At first Gerald rejects the idea of going for the interview. He thinks of it as
a matter of integrity. How could he work for a company that researches, produces,
and markets the very products he and his family have so long opposed? However, his
friends counsel him otherwise. Here are some of their arguments:

Allen: Look, if you don’t go for the job, someone else will. The job won’t go away just
because you stay away. So, the work’s going to be done anyway. Your refusing the job
won’t change a thing.

Bob: Right! Furthermore, you need to look at this from a utilitarian point of view–the
greatest good for the greatest number. If you don’t go for the job, someone else who
really believes in pesticides will–and that’s going to make things even worse! If you
take the job and aren’t gung ho, that might just slow things down a little.

Don: Besides, you might be able to introduce a few reforms from the inside. That
won’t kill the pesticide industry, but it might make it a little bit better–certainly better
than if some zealous pesticide nut takes the job.

Allen: So, it’s pretty clear what to do. All things considered, you ought to go for the
job. It’s your only real chance to save the farm; and if someone else gets the job, Pro-
Growth will cause even more harm. You can’t be a purist about these things. It’s not a
perfect world, you know.

• How reasonable are these arguments? How might Gerald respond to

them?

• Consider the costs and benefits of taking the job/NOT try to get the job.

• Argue that Gerald Should or Should NOT try to get the job and explain
why.

• Describe the conflicts experienced by Gerald as the result of competing

values, obligations, and interests.

• Refer to ethical theories and humanitarian principles in your discussion of

the issues raised in this case.
 Thank you

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