Class Notes

Waste Management

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Subject Code: BETCK205F

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1st Year VTU Syllabus (2022 Scheme)

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Prepared by
Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M Assistant Professor Civil Engineering Department BGS College
of Engineering and Technology, Bengaluru-86.

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
Module 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
● Classification of solid wastes (source and type based), (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.4)
● Solid waste management (SWM), (2.1)
● Elements of SWM, (2.2, 2.2.1, 2.2.2)
● ESSWM (environmentally sound solid waste management) (3.1) and EST

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(environmentally sound technologies), (3.2)

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● Factors affecting SWM, (4.1)
● Indian scenario of SWM, (5.1)

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● Progress in MSW (municipal solid waste) management in India, (5.2)

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● Indian and global scenario of e-waste. (5.3)

Reference Links:

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1. https://urbandesignlab.in/waste-management-system-the-way-ahead/

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2. Important Article:
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https://www.recycling-magazine.com/2020/05/06/waste-management-crisis-in-india/
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3. Everything Households Need to Know about Solid Waste Recycling and Disposal
https://www.safehome.org/resources/solid-waste-recycling-disposal-guide/
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4. https://civilengineeringnotes.com/solid-waste-management/
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5. SWACHH BHARAT MISSION-MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE-MANAGEMENT MANUAL

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Part 1: https://cpheeo.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Part1(1).pdf
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Part 2: https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Part2.pdf
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6. https://swachhbharatmission.gov.in/SBMCMS/technical-notes.htm
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
1.1. Introduction:
What is Solid Waste? (Definition)

Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from human activities in
residential, industrial or commercial areas. OR

Solid waste comprises all the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are typically
solid in nature and that are discarded as useless or Unwanted. It is all-Inclusive of the

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heterogeneous mass from the urban community as well as more homogeneous accumulation of
agriculture and industrial wastes.

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It may be categorized in three ways. According to its:

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1. origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or institutional)

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2. contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper etc)
3. hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious etc).

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Solid Waste Management reduces or eliminates the adverse impact on the environment & human
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health. A number of processes are involved in effectively managing waste for a municipality.
These include monitoring, collection, transport, processing, recycling and disposal. The quantum
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of waste generated varies mainly due to different lifestyles, which is directly proportional to socio
economic status of the urban population.
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1.2. Origin of Waste:

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Figure 1. Waste classification by origin. Different activities generate different types of waste. Source: National Audit Office of Estonia

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 1.3. Types of Solid Waste
1.3.1. It can be classified into different types depending on their Source:
#Way 1
1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): It consists of household waste, construction and demolition debris
(CnD), sanitation residue, and waste from streets, generated mainly from residential and commercial
complexes. As per the MoEF it includes commercial and residential waste generated in municipal or

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notified areas in either solid or semi-solid form excluding industrial hazardous wastes but including

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treated bio-medical wastes.

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Image Source - http://ujtrjnhsnls.epac.to/

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2. Industrial Solid Waste (ISW): In a majority of cases it is termed as hazardous waste as they may

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contain toxic substances, are corrosive, highly inflammable, or react when exposed to certain things
e.g. gases.
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3. Biomedical waste or hospital waste: It is usually infectious waste that may include waste like
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sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical
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wastes, etc., usually in the form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human
excreta, etc. These can be a serious threat to human health if not managed in a scientific and
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discriminate manner.
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Image Source - https://aihms.in/blog/biomedical-waste-management-and-its-importance/

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 #Way 2
1. Commercial : This refers to solid waste containing leftover food, glasses, metals, ashes, etc,
generated from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, auto-repair shops, medical facilities, etc.
2. Residential : It includes solid waste from dwellings, apartments, etc… and it consists of leftovers
such as food, fruit and vegetable peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc.
3. Municipal : This solid waste includes dust, leafy matter, building debris, treatment plant residual
sludge, etc, which is generated from various municipal activities such as construction and
demolition, street cleaning, landscaping, etc.

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4. Institutional : This type of solid waste mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc, which is
generated from educational, administrative and public buildings such as schools, colleges,

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offices, etc.
5. Open Areas : This solid waste includes waste from areas such as streets, alleys, parks, vacant

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lots, playgrounds, beaches, highways, recreational areas, etc.
6. Industrial : Solid waste mainly includes process wastes, ashes, demolition and construction

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wastes, etc, due to ongoing industrial activities.

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7. Agricultural : Solid waste mainly consist of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural
remains, litter, etc, generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc. etc
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1.3.2. It can be classified into different types depending on their Type:
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1. Ashes and Residues : These are the substances remaining from the burning of wood, coal,
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charcoal and other combustible materials used for cooking and heating in the houses, institutes
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and small industrial establishments. When produced in large quantities, as in power generation
plants and factories, these are classified as Industrial wastes. Ashes consist of fine powdery
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residue, cinders and clinker often mixed with small pieces of metal and glass. Since ashes and
residues are almost entirely inorganic they are valuable in landfills.
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2. Street Wastes : These refers to solid waste that are collected from streets, walkways, parks and
vacant plots which consist of paper, cardboard, plastic, leaves, and other vegetable matter.
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Littering in public places is indeed a widespread and acute problem in many countries. solid
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waste management must address this menace appropriately.

3. Garbage : This refers to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the handling, sale, storage,
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preparation, cooking and serving of food. Garbage comprising these wastes contains rotting
organic matter, which produces an obnoxious smell and attracts rats and other vermin.
Therefore special attention is required in storage, handling and disposal of this type of solid
waste.
4. Bulky Wastes : These includes large household appliances such as refrigerators, washing
machines, furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees and branches. Since these

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 household wastes cannot be accommodated in normal storage containers, they require a
special collection mechanism.
5. Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Wastes : Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to
substances consisting of organic matter such as leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper,
textile, wood, etc, which is generated from various household and industrial activities. Because
of the action of microorganisms, these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler
compounds. Non-Biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials such as
plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc. Below is the table showing comparison between biodegradable

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and non-biodegradable wastes with their degeneration time. (time required to break from

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complex to simple biological form).

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6. Combustible and Non-Combustible Wastes : These consist of waste generated from
households, institutions, commercial activities, excluding food wastes and other highly rotting

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materials. Typically, combustible materials consist of paper, cardboard, textile, rubber, garden
trimmings, etc. Non-combustible materials consist of items such as glass, crockery, tin,

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aluminum cans, ferrous and non-ferrous materials and dirt.
7. Abandoned Vehicles : This includes automobiles, trucks and trailers that are abandoned on

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streets and other public places. However, abandoned vehicles have significant scrap value for
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metal and their value to collectors is highly variable.
8. Dead Animals : With regard to municipal wastes, dead animals are those that die naturally or
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are accidentally killed on the road. Note that this category does not include carcasses and
animal parts from slaughter-houses, which are regarded as industrial wastes. Dead animals are
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divided into two groups – large and small. Among the large animals are horses, cows, goats,
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sheep, pigs etc. Small animals include dogs, cats, rats, etc. The reason for this differentiation is
that large animals require special equipment for lifting and handling when they are removed. If
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not collected promptly, dead animals pose a threat to public health since they attract flies and
other vermin as they decay. Their presence in public places is particularly offensive from the
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aesthetic point of view as well.

9. Farm Wastes : These wastes result from diverse agricultural activities such as planting,
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harvesting, production of milk, rearing of animals for slaughter and the operation of feedlots. In
many areas, the disposal of animal waste has become a critical problem, especially from
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feedlots, poultry farms and dairies.

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10. Hazardous Wastes : These solid wastes are defined as wastes of industrial, institutional or
consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or over a period of time to
human beings and the environment. This is due to their physical, chemical and biological or
radioactive characteristics like ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity. Note that in some
cases the active agents may be liquid or gaseous hazardous wastes. These are, nevertheless,
classified as solid wastes and they are confined in solid containers.

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 Typical examples of hazardous wastes are empty containers of solvents, paints and pesticides.
Certain hazardous wastes may cause explosions in incinerators and fires at landfill sites. Others
such as pathological wastes from hospitals and radioactive wastes also require special
handling. Effective management practices should ensure that hazardous wastes are stored,
collected, transported and disposed of separately, preferably after suitable treatment to render
them harmless.
11. Sewage Wastes : The solid by-products of sewage treatment are classified as sewage wastes.
They are mostly organic and derived from the treatment of organic sludge separated from both

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raw and treated sewage. The inorganic fraction of raw sewage such as grit and eggshells is

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separated at the preliminary stage of treatment. This is done so that it may entrain putrescible

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organic matter with pathogens and must be buried without delay. The bulk of treated,
dewatered sludge is useful as a soil conditioner but is invariably uneconomical. Solid sludge

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therefore enters the stream of municipal wastes, unless special arrangements are made for its
disposal.

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1.4. Classification Of Waste in the Country (General Classification)
1. Municipal Waste ivil
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Generated from household and commercial activities. If dumped in the open, it can pollute the
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water bodies. This waste includes organic and biodegradable with some amount of plastic as well
and the same is segregated and sent for processing under the Plastic waste management Rules,
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2018. The per capita Municipal Solid Waste in the country ranges from 0.17 kg per person/day in
small towns to 0.62 kg per person/day in metropolitan areas. (Sunil Kumar, 2017)
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2. Plastic Waste
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Plastic waste is generated in urban areas on a huge scale as compared to rural areas. Plastic
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waste such as food packets, bags, and bottles has increased in the rural areas as well and there
is no provision for its recycling.(Dr. Raveesh Agarwal, 2015) Plastic waste be it in terms of
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wrappers or bags can be found littered on the streets of the country. It has the potential to harm
the soil, the water, and the air if it is burned. Now the government of India has banned single-use
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plastics.
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Image Source - India lacks an organized system for management of plastic waste. Photo: Pradeep Gaur/Mint

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
3. E-Waste
Electronic waste comprises the discarded electrical products that either are no longer in function
or no longer used. The waste is hazardous if not disposed of properly as the electronic circuits
contain different metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, beryllium, etc. These metals are toxic to
the human system and can cause respiratory problems, DNA damage, and even cancer or
cardiovascular diseases. Even the workers performing the recycling task can get exposed to toxic
metals.

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Image Source - https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/industry/e-waste-is-a-treasure-trove-that-needs-to-be-tapped/83508370

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4. Biomedical Waste
The waste generated from the hospital or biochemical labs, which is generated during or after

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the operative processes. It would include the syringes, bandages, etc which would be equally
toxic for the environment and contagious to the human and animal population too as recently
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discarded masks, gloves, and PPE kits due to COVID, increased the waste. The Indian
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government had also laid down guidelines specifically for the management of Covid waste.
(Tewari, 2021)
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5. Demolition and Construction waste

This is generated regarding the construction and demolition of infrastructure. The waste can be
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used for new infrastructure, the concrete waste can be used in the construction of roads. These
can cause pollution to land and air.
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Image Source - https://www.nbmcw.com/article-report/infrastructure-construction/construction-demolition/construction-demolition-waste-as-aggregates-for-rigid-pavement-applications.html

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6. Hazardous waste
It includes all the toxic, explosive, and reactive waste and is the product of petrochemical or
pharmaceutical industries. It is responsible for water and air pollution.

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
Image Source - https://axil-is.com/blogs-articles/hazardous-waste-businesses-commonly-produce/

7. Battery Waste
It includes all the waste generated by the disposition of the batteries and it also contains heavy
metals. Today we are surrounded by batteries, all kinds of gadgets, small to big, and automobiles
(which will see an increasing trend with the advent of electrical cars). It has the potential to harm
the environment and human health.

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Image source - https://bit.ly/2Tfd0UM

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8. Radioactive Waste
It includes the waste generated from radioactive elements. The mines and the nuclear power

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plants. The radiation has the potential to disrupt the environment where no species will have a
chance for survival. It affects humans to the extent of cancer and tumors going through the
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generations. (Mishra, 2020)
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The waste management process for all the above classifications of waste has to be done
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according to the defined set of rules updated from time to time by the Ministry of Housing and
Urban Affairs and the CPCB . https://cpcb.nic.in/rules-2/
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
2.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM)
Solid waste management (SWM) is associated with the control of waste generation, its storage,
collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal in a manner that is in accordance with
the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, public
attitude and other environmental considerations.

Put differently, the SWM processes differ depending on factors such as economic status (e.g., the

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ratio of wealth created by the production of primary products to that derived from manufactured
goods, per capita income, etc.), degree of industrialisation, social development (e.g., education,

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literacy, healthcare, etc.) and quality of life of a location. In addition, regional, seasonal and
economic differences influence the SWM processes. This, therefore, warrants management

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strategies that are economically viable, technically feasible and socially acceptable to carry out
such of the functions as are listed below (http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/SWMTR/TR85.html):

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● Protection of environmental health.

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● Promotion of environmental quality.
● Supporting the efficiency and productivity of the economy.
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● Generation of employment and income.
SWM has socio-economic and environmental dimensions. In the socio-economic dimension, for
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example, it includes various phases such as waste storage, collection, transport and disposal, and
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the management of these phases has to be integrated. In other words, wastes have to be
properly stored, collected and disposed of by co-operative management. In addition, poor
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management of wastes on the user side such as disposing of wastes in the streets, storm water
drains, rivers and lakes has to be avoided to preserve the environment, control vector-born
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diseases and ensure water quality/resource.

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Against this background, we will study in Subsection 1.2.1 SWM system.

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
2.2 SWM system (Elements of SWM)

A SWM system refers to a combination of various functional elements associated with the
management of solid wastes. The system, when put in place, facilitates the collection and
disposal of solid wastes in the community at minimal costs, while preserving public health and
ensuring little or minimal adverse impact on the environment.

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2.2.1. The functional elements that constitute the system are:

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(i) Waste generation: Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at every
stage as raw materials are converted into goods for consumption. The source of waste

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generation, as we touched upon earlier in Section 1.1, determines quantity, composition and waste
characteristics (see Unit 2 for details). For example, wastes are generated from households,

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commercial areas, industries, institutions, street cleaning and other municipal services. The most
important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the identification of waste.

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(ii) Waste storage: Storage is a key functional element because collection of wastes never takes
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place at the source or at the time of their generation. The heterogeneous wastes generated in
residential areas must be removed within 8 days due to shortage of storage space and presence
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of biodegradable material. Onsite storage is of primary importance due to aesthetic

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consideration, public health and economics involved. Some of the options for storage are plastic
containers, conventional dustbins (of households), used oil drums, large storage bins (for
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institutions and commercial areas or servicing depots), etc. Obviously, these vary greatly in size,
form and material. We shall discuss waste storage in detail in Unit 3.
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(iii) Waste collection: This includes gathering of wastes and hauling them to the location, where
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the collection vehicle is emptied, which may be a transfer station (i.e., intermediate station where
wastes from smaller vehicles are transferred to larger ones and also segregated), a processing
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plant or a disposal site. Collection depends on the number of containers, frequency of collection,
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types of collection services and routes. Typically, collection is provided under various
management arrangements, ranging from municipal services to franchised services, and under
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various forms of contracts. Note that the solution to the problem of hauling is complicated. For
instance, vehicles used for long distance hauling may not be suitable or particularly economic for
house-to-house collection. Every SWM system, therefore, requires Unit 1: Introducing Municipal
Solid Waste Management an individual solution to its waste collection problem, and we will
explain this in Unit 3.

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
(iv) Transfer and transport: This functional element involves: the transfer of wastes from smaller
collection vehicles, where necessary to overcome the problem of narrow access lanes, to larger
ones at transfer stations; the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to
disposal sites. The factors that contribute to the designing of a transfer station include the type of
transfer operation, capacity, equipment, accessories and environmental requirements. We will
discuss these in Unit 3.

(v) Processing: Processing is required to alter the physical and chemical characteristics of wastes

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for energy and resource recovery and recycling. The important processing techniques include

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compaction, thermal volume reduction, manual separation of waste components, incineration and
composting. We will discuss the various functions involved in waste processing in detail in Unit 5.

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(vi) Recovery and recycling: This includes various techniques, equipment and facilities used to

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improve both the efficiency of the disposal system and recovery of usable material and energy.

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Recovery involves the separation of valuable resources from the mixed solid wastes, delivered at
transfer stations or processing plants. It also involves size reduction and density separation by air

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classifier, magnetic device for iron and screens for glass. The selection of any recovery process is
a function of economics, i.e., costs of separation versus the recovered-material products. Certain
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recovered materials like glass, plastics, paper, etc., can be recycled as they have economic value.
We will discuss the various aspects of recovery and recycling, respectively, in Units 6 and 7.
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(vii) Waste disposal: Disposal is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, be they residential wastes,
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semi-solid wastes from municipal and industrial treatment Management of Municipal Solid Waste
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14 plants, incinerator residues, composts or other substances that have no further use to the
society. Thus, land use planning becomes a primary determinant in the selection, design and
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operation of landfill operations. A modern sanitary landfill is a method of disposing solid waste
without creating a nuisance and hazard to public health. Generally, engineering principles are
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followed to confine the wastes to the smallest possible area, reduce them to the lowest particle
volume by compaction at the site and cover them after each day’s operation to reduce exposure
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to vermin. One of the most important functional elements of SWM, therefore, relates to the final
use of the reclaimed land. In
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Figure 1.1 below, we show you a typical SWM system with its functional elements and linkages:

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
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Figure 1.1 Typical SWM System: Functional Elements You must, however, note that all the elements

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and linkages shown in Figure 1.1 need not necessarily be always present in a SWM system. Being
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generic in its form, this system is applicable to all regions, irrespective of their relative state of
development (Tchobanoglous, et al., 1977).
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
2.2.2. Initial steps

In order to establish solid waste management in the affected area the following process should
be used:

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Waste management in urban areas
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Key components of solid waste management

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Solid waste management can be divided into five key components:

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● Generation
● Storage
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● Collection
● Transportation
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● Disposal
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Generation
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Generation of solid waste is the stage at which materials become valueless to the owner and
since they have no use for them and require them no longer, they wish to get rid of them. Items
which may be valueless to one individual may not necessarily be valueless to another.

For example, waste items such as tins and cans may be highly sought after by young children.

Storage

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
Storage is a system for keeping materials after they have been discarded and prior to collection
and final disposal. Where on-site disposal systems are implemented, such as where people
discard items directly into family pits, storage may not be necessary.

In Emergency situations, especially in the early stages, it is likely that the affected population will
discard domestic waste in poorly defined heaps close to dwelling areas. If this is the case,
improved disposal or storage facilities should be provided fairly quickly and these should be
located where people are able to use them easily. Improved storage facilities include:

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● Small containers: household containers, plastic bins, etc.
● Large containers: communal bins, oil drums, etc.

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● Shallow pits

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● Communal depots: walled or fenced-in areas

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In determining the size, quantity and distribution of storage facilities the number of users, type of
waste and maximum walking distance must be considered. The frequency of emptying must also

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be determined, and it should be ensured that all facilities are reasonably safe from theft or
vandalism.
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Collection
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Collection simply refers to how waste is collected for transportation to the final disposal site. Any
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collection system should be carefully planned to ensure that storage facilities do not become
overloaded. Collection intervals and volumes of collected waste must be estimated carefully.
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Transportation
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This is the stage when solid waste is transported to the final disposal site There are various
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modes of transport which may be adopted and the chosen method depends upon local
availability and the volume of waste to be transported.
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Disposal
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The final stage of solid waste management is safe disposal where associated risks are minimized.
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There are four main methods for the disposal of solid waste:

● Land application: burial or landfilling

● Composting
● Burning or incineration
● Recycling (resource recovery)
● Off-site disposal options

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
The technology choices outlined below are general options for the final disposal of waste offsite.

a. Landfilling

Once solid waste is transported off-site it is normally taken to a landfill site. Here the waste is
placed in a large excavation (pit or trench) in the ground, which is back-filled with excavated soil
each day waste is tipped. Ideally, about 0.5m of soil should cover the deposited refuse at the end
of each day to prevent animals from digging up the waste and flies from breeding.

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The location of landfill sites should be decided upon through consultation with the local
authorities and the affected population. Sites should preferably be fenced, and at least one

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kilometer downwind of the nearest dwellings.

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Advantages: A sanitary disposal method if managed effectively.

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Constraints: A reasonably large area is required.

b. Incineration
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Although burning or incineration is often used for the disposal of combustible waste, this should
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generally only take place off-site or a considerable distance downwind of dwellings.
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Burning refuse within dwelling areas may create a significant smoke or fire hazard, especially if
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several fires are lit simultaneously. Burning may be used to reduce the volume of waste and may
be appropriate where there is limited space for burial or landfill. Waste should be ignited within
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pits and covered with soil once incinerated, in the same manner as landfilling.
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The same constraints for siting landfill sites should be applied here also.
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Advantages: Burning reduces volume of combustible waste considerably; and it is appropriate in

off-site pits to reduce scavenging.
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Constraints: There can be smoke or fire hazards.

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c. Composting
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Simple composting of vegetables and other organic waste can be applied in many situations.
Where people have their own gardens or vegetable plots, organic waste can be dug into the soil
to add humus and fiber. This makes the waste perfectly safe and also assists the growing
process. This should be encouraged wherever possible, particularly in the later stages of an
emergency programme.

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
Properly managed composting requires careful monitoring of decomposing waste to control
moisture and chemical levels and promote microbial activity. This is designed to produce
compost which is safe to handle and which acts as a good fertilizer. Such systems require
considerable knowledge and experience and are best managed centrally. In general, they are
unlikely to be appropriate in emergencies.

Advantages: Composting is environmentally friendly; and beneficial for crops.

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Constraints: Intensive management and experienced personnel are required for large-scale

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operations.

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d. Recycling

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Complex recycling systems are unlikely to be appropriate but the recycling of some waste items
may be possible on occasions. Plastic bags, containers, tins and glass will often be automatically

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recycled since they are likely to be scarce commodities in many situations. In most developing
country contexts there exists a strong tradition of recycling leading to

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Lowe volumes of waste than in many more developed societies.
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Advantages: Recycling is environmentally friendly.
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Constraints: There is limited potential in most emergency situations; and it is expensive to set up.
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16

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
3. ESSWM (environmentally sound solid waste management)
and EST (environmentally sound technologies)

Each functional element is closely interconnected to minimize adverse impact of wastes on the
environment and to maximize the ecosystem carrying capacity. To derive optimal benefits from
this, we must apply environmentally sound solid waste management (ESSWM).

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3.1. Environmentally Sound Solid Waste Management (ESSWM) is an

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integrated approach for controlling and preserving the resources, both in quantity and
quality. To improve environmental quality and achieve sustainable development, it is

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necessary we use EST – environmentally sound technologies.

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Environmentally Sound Solid Waste Management (ESSWM) In any waste or resource
management system, we must pay attention to the interaction between human activities and

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the ecosystem. We have to recognise that human activities including consumption of

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goods/services, production of wastes, etc., have a serious impact on the carrying capacity
of the ecosystem. This in turn affects human health, as the environment deteriorates.
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The fundamental principles of ESSWM, which take into account economic and social issues
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along with environmental impact consideration, include the following:
● To ensure sustainable development of the ecosystem and human environment.
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● To minimize the impact of human activities on the environment.

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● To minimize the impact on the environment and maximize the ecosystem’s carrying
capacity.
● To ensure the implementation of ESSWM through environmentally sound technologies.
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3.2. Environmentally sound technologies (EST) refers to cost effective and energy
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efficient technologies, which generally perform better on the environment, as they do not pollute
ET,

the ecosystem’s vital components such as air, land or water and consider the reuse, recycling or
recovery of wastes.
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EST can be categorized broadly as follows:

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Hard EST: This includes equipment, machines and other infrastructure with their material
accessories to handle waste products and monitor/measure the quality of air, water and soil.
Soft EST: This supports and complements hard technologies and includes nature-based
technologies and management tools.
Nature-based technologies include processes and mechanisms nature uses within a specific
ecosystem (such as vermin composting) and its carrying capacity, while management tools

17

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
include system and procedures, policy and regulatory frameworks, and environmental
performance standards and guidelines. Hard and soft technologies complement one another to
achieve the goal.
EST is selected based on the following generic criteria, the indicators of which may vary
depending on the regions in which they are implemented:
Affordability: This means low investment, reasonableness, maintenance-free and durability.
Validity: This refers to effectiveness, easy operation and maintenance.
Sustainability: This means low impact, energy saving and cultural acceptability.

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Examples of EST for collection and transfer of Waste

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1. Set-out containers is one of the major factors that most collection systems depend on. This is

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usually a paper or plastic bag, or a metal or plastic garbage or kraft paper bag in a metal or
wooden frame. Set-out containers of rural areas include bags, pots, plastic or paper bags,

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cane or reed baskets, concrete or brick vats, urns, boxes, clay jars, or any kind of container
available.

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2. Non-compactor trucks are more efficient and cost-effective than compactor trucks in small
cities and in areas where wastes tend to be very dense and have little potential for
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compaction. The use of lighter, more energy- efficient box-trucks, vans, and dump
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trucks can be appropriate for sparsely populated areas, where the main constraint on
collection efficiency is distance.
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3. Transfer trailers or compacting vehicles can carry larger volumes of MSW than regular
collection trucks, which allow them to travel longer distances carrying more waste. This
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lowers fuel costs, increases labour productivity, and saves on vehicle wear.
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Two Principal Groups of ESTs

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ESTs could be divided into two large groups:

1. Cleaner technologies and
ET,

2. Cleaning technologies.
Cleaner technologies are production processes, including monitoring and control techniques,
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which are less polluting, use resources (raw materials, natural resources, energy, etc.) in a more
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efficient way, produce cleaner products and less harmful residual wastes, if any.
Cleaning technologies are processes and products developed to neutralize the environmentally
harmful effects of a given process or activity. This group includes pollution monitoring,
assessment and control technologies (e.g. air pollution control, wastewater treatment, treatment),
waste treatment (e.g. solid/hazardous waste treatment, garbage disposal/recycling), and
remediation technologies (e.g. soil/water remediation, air cleaning)

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 g
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Economic Advantages of ESTs

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● Cost reduction and higher profits through more effective use of resources (raw materials,

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energy), lower end-of-pipe treatment expenses, and higher market value of green
products.

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● Opening of new environment-conscious markets and retaining of old
environmentally-responsible customers.
●
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Savings on charges imposed on polluters, avoidance of risks to come under criticism of
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media or consumer groups or to be shut down due to violation of increasingly restrictive
local environmental regulations.
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● Increased staff → motivation and productivity due to improved working conditions.
● Opening of → new opportunities (contracts, markets) due to improved corporate image.
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Characteristics of ESTs in Relation to Sustainability

1. Environmental Sustainability
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● Protection of ecosystems
● Protection of natural resources
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2. Economic Sustainability
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● Reduced production and pollution control costs

● Improved market acceptance
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3. Social and → Cultural Sustainability

● Preservation and enhancement of social and cultural values
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● Better health and working conditions

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
4.1. Factors affecting SWM system

Many factors influence the decision-making process in the implementation of a SWM system
(Phelps, et al., 1995). Some of the factors that need to be considered in developing a SWM
system are listed below:

(i) Quantities and characteristics of wastes:

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● The quantities of wastes generated generally depend on the income level of a family, as

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higher income category tends to generate larger quantity of wastes, compared to
low-income category.

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● The quantity ranges from about 0.25 to about 2.3 kg per person per day, indicating a

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strong correlation between waste production and per capita income. One of the
measures of waste composition (and characteristics) is density, which ranges from 150

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kg/m3 to 600 kg/m3 .
● Proportion of paper and packaging materials in the waste largely account for the

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differences. When this proportion is high, the density is low and vice versa. The wastes of
high density reflect a relatively high proportion of organic matter and moisture and lower
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levels of recycling.
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(ii) Climate and seasonal variations:

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There are regions in extreme north (> 70 N Latitude) and south (> 60 S Latitude), where
temperatures are very low for much of the year. In cold climates, drifting snow and frozen ground
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interfere with landfill operations, and therefore, trenches must be dug in summer and cover
material stockpiled for winter use. Tropical climates, on the other hand, are subject to sharp
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seasonal variations from wet to dry season, which cause significant changes in the moisture
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content of solid waste, varying from less than 50% in dry season to greater than 65% in wet
months. Collection and disposal of wastes in the wet months are often problematic. High
ET,

temperatures and humidity cause solid wastes to decompose far more rapidly than they do in
colder climates. The frequency of waste collection in high temperature and humid climates
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should, therefore, be higher than that in cold climates. In sub-tropical or desert climate, there is
no significant variation in moisture content of wastes (due to low rainfall) and low production of
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leachate from sanitary landfill. High winds and wind blown sand and dust, however, cause special
problems at landfill sites. While temperature inversions can cause airborne pollutants to be
trapped near ground level, landfill sites can affect groundwater by altering the thermal properties
of the soil.

20

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
(iii) Physical characteristics of an urban area:
In urban areas (i.e., towns and cities), where the layout of streets and houses is such that access
by vehicles is possible and door-to-door collection of solid wastes is the accepted norm either by
large compaction vehicle or smaller vehicle. The picture is, however, quite different in the inner
and older city areas where narrow lanes make service by vehicles difficult and often impossible.
Added to this is the problem of urban sprawl in the outskirts (of the cities) where population is
growing at an alarming rate. Access ways are narrow, unpaved and tortuous, and therefore, not
accessible to collection vehicles. Problems of solid waste storage and collection are most acute

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in such areas.

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(iv) Financial and foreign exchange constraints:
Solid waste management accounts for sizeable proportions of the budgets of municipal

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corporations. This is allocated for capital resources, which go towards the purchase of
equipments, vehicles, and fuel and labour costs. Typically, 10% to 40% of the revenues of

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municipalities are allocated to solid waste management. In regions where wage rates are low, the
aim is to optimise vehicle productivity. The unfavourable financial situation of some countries

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hinders purchase of equipment and vehicles, and this situation is further worsened by the acute
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shortage of foreign exchange. This means that the balance between the degree of
mechanisation and the size Management of Municipal Solid Waste 20 of the labour force
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becomes a critical issue in arriving at the most cost-effective solution.
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(v) Cultural constraints:

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In some regions, long-standing traditions preclude the intrusion of waste collection on the
precincts of households, and therefore, influence the collection system. In others, where the
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tradition of caste persists, recruits to the labour force for street cleaning and handling of waste
must be drawn from certain sections of the population, while others will not consent to placing
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storage bins in their immediate vicinity. Social norms of a community more often than not
over-ride what many may consider rational solutions. Waste management should, therefore, be
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sensitive to such local patterns of living and consider these factors in planning, design and
operation.
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(vi) Management and technical resources:

Solid waste management, to be successful, requires a wide spectrum of workforce in keeping
with the demands of the system. The best system for a region is one which makes full use of
indigenous crafts and professional skills and/or ensures that training programmes are in place to
provide a self-sustaining supply of trained workforce.

21

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 g
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 g
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 g
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 g
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 g
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 g
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27

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
5.1 I Indian Scenario of municipal solid waste Management.

Parameter Status

Population density 382/person/km

Dour to Door Collection. 18 State

Segregation of the waste of the source. 5 state

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Unsanitary landfill site constructed 1285 (variable)

Compost /vermicompost facilities operated by

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urban local bodies (ULB). 95

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ULB's under construction compost (vermicompost facility 173

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Operating pipe composting facility 7000

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Operating Refuse Derived fuel (RDFS)

Operating Bingar plants.

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645
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Energy generation plant 11 (6 Operational)
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Over all solid wente management status (2020-21)

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Total quantity of seed waste generated in india

Total quantity of I solid waste generated - 160038.9TPD

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Total waste collected - 152749.5 TPD (95.4%)

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Total waste treated - 79956.3 TPD (50%)

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Total waste landfilled -294.27.2 (18.4%)

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Total waste remains unaccounted - 50655.4 (31.7%))

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5.2 Progress in municipal solid waste management in India

or
Trends in solid waste management.
SWM information for the last six years (2015-21) has been examined and following are the
observations.

28

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
a) Per capita solid waste generation - Per capita solid waste generation has been calculated for
the last six years and is given in the below table. The trend in per capita waste generation is a
marginal decreasing trend observed over the last six years.

Table-solid waste generation per capita.

Years Solid waste generation per capita (gm/day)

2015-2016 118.68

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2016-2017 132.78

2017-2018 98.79

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2018-2019 121.54

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2019-2020 119.26

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2020-2021 119.07

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b) Solid waste processing - Trend of percentage solid waste processed during the last 2015-2021
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i:e, given in table. Increasing trend in percentage of solid waste processed has been observed
during the last five years where in percentage solid waste processed has increased from 19% in
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2015-16 to 49.49.96% in 2020-21.
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Table - year wise solid waste processed.

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Years Percentage of Process

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2015-2016 20%

2016-2017 20%
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2017-2018 39%
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2018-2019 39.5%
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2019-2020 48%
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2020-2021 50%

b) Trend in solid waste landfilled - Trend of percentage solid waste land filled during 2015-21 is
giver in table, Decreasing trend in solid waste landfilled has been observed during the last six
year where in solid waste landfilled has decreased from 54% in 2015-16 to 18.4% in 2020-21.

29

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 Years Percentage of Landfilled

2015-2016 40%

2016-2017 41%

2017-2018 55%

2018-2019 33%

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2019-2020 29%

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2020-2021 18.4%

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d) Trend in gap in solid waste management

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Percentage gap in solid waste management has been calculated for the period 2015-21, the
details of which are given in below table. Decreasing trend in the gap in solid management has

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been observed up to 2019-20 during the last six years where the percentage gap in Solid waste
management has decreased from 40.99% in 2015-16 to 25.8.2% in 2019-20 and slightly increased
to 31.70% in 2020-21.
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Table - Gap in Solid waste Management.
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Years Gap in solid waste Management
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2015-2016 40.99%
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2016-2017 79.75%

2017-2018 9.38%
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2018-2019 30.35%
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2019-2020 25.82%
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2020-2021 31.70%
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30

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 E- Waste
5.3 What is E-Waste?
E-Waste is a term used to describe discarded electrical and electronic equipment. It includes a
wide range of products, from old computers and televisions to cell phones and refrigerators.

5.3.1 Major Sources of E-Waste.

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● House Hold

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● Business and Industry

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5.3.2 INDIAN AND GLOBAL SCENARIO OF E-WASTE

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● Electronics industry is the world's largest and fastest growing manufacturing industry.

● The growing quantity of E-Waste from electronic industry is beginning to reach

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disastrous proportions.

●
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Electronic waste or E-Waste comprises of old, end-of-life electronic appliances such as
computers, laptops, TVs, DVD players, refrigerators, freezers, mobile phones, MP3
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players, etc., which have been disposed of by the original users.

● E-Waste contains many hazardous constituents that may negatively impact the
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environment and affect human health if not properly managed.
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● Various organizations,bodies, and governments of many countries have

adopted/developed the environmentally sound options and strategies for E-Waste
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management to tackle the ever growing threat of E-Waste to the environment and human
health.
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● Most of the activities right from the collection, transportation, segregation, etc., are
done by unorganized sectors manually.
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● Being a rich source of reusable and precious material, E-Waste is also a good source of
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revenue generation for many people in India.

● In India, most of the operations related to E-Waste such as collections, segregation,

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recycling, and disposals are performed manually.

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● In absence of adequate technologies and equipment, most of the techniques used for
the recycling of E-Waste are very raw and dangerous.

● India is the "Third largest electronic waste producer in the world"; approximately 2 million
tons of e-waste are generated annually.

● Annually, computer devices account for nearly 70% of e- waste, 12% comes from the
telecom sector, 8% from medical equipment and 7% from electric equipment.

31

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 ● Private sector companies generate nearly 75% of electronic waste, with contribution of
individual household being only 16%.

● 1.975 million tonnes of e-waste in 2016 or approximately 1.5kg of e-waste per capita.

● India is one of the largest generators of e-waste in the world. In 2020, India generated an
estimated 3.23 million metric tons of e-waste. This number is expected to grow to 5.2
million metric tons by 2025.

● The rapid growth of e-waste in India is being driven by a number of factors, including the

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increasing use of electronic devices, the shorter lifespans of these devices, and the lack

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of adequate e-waste management systems.

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● Only a small fraction of e-waste in India is currently recycled. The vast majority of e-waste
is either disposed of in landfills or incinerated. This is a major waste of resources, and it

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also contributes to environmental pollution.

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● In India, among top ten cities, Mumbai ranks first in generating e-waste followed by Delhi,
Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur.

ivil City- Wise E- Waste generated in India

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
 ● The three states that produce the most e-waste are as follows: Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Other states that produce significant e-waste are Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.

State- wise E-Waste generated in India

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
5.3.3 GLOBAL E-WASTE SCENARIO
● Asia is the largest e-waste producer.

● In 2022, an increase of 3.4% was estimated of the generated e- waste globally, hitting
59.4Mt.

● In 2021, an estimated of 57.4Mt of e-waste was generated globally.

● In 2019, an enormous volume of e-waste (53.6 Mt, with a 7.3kg per capita average) was

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generated globally. This number is expected to grow to 74.7 million metric tons by 2030.

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● In 2016, Asia was the territory that had the most extensive volume of e-waste(18.3 Mt).

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● CHINA, the US, and INDIA produce the most e-waste.

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● Only 17.4% of e-waste is known to be collected and properly recycled.

● There is over 347Mt of unrecycled e-waste on earth in 2023.

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● Estonia at 76%, Norway at 72%, and Iceland at 71% have the highest recycling rate. The

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data presented below is ranked according to the amount of formally collected and
recycled waste.
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https://techreport.com/statistics/global-ewaste-statistics/

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
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5.3.4 Impact of e-waste

E-waste is a major environmental and public health hazard. Electronic devices contain a
variety of hazardous substances, such as lead. mercury, and arsenic. When these devices are
not properly disposed of, these substances can leach into the environment and contaminate
soil water, and air. E-waste can also pose a fire hazard, and it can release harmful toxins into
the air when burned.

35

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.
5.3.5 What can be done?
There are a number of things that can be done to address the problem of e-waste. One
important step is to reduce the amount of e-waste that is generated. This can be done by
designing electronic devices for durability and repairability, and by encouraging consumers to
reuse and repair their devices instead of replacing them. Another important step is to improve
e-waste management systems. This includes developing and implementing effective e-waste
collection and recycling programs

Governments, businesses, and individuals all have a role to play in addressing the problem of

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e-waste. By working together, we can reduce the environmental and public health impacts of
e-waste and create a more sustainable future.

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5.3.6 Here are some tips for individuals to reduce their e-waste:

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● Buy less stuff. Only buy electronic devices that you really need.
● Buy high-quality devices that are built to last.

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● Repair your devices instead of replacing them whenever possible.
● Donate or sell unwanted devices instead of throwing them away.

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By following these tips, we can all help to reduce the global e-waste problem.
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36

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and
Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.