BUILDING MATERIALS

Contents of Bricks: Properties and specifications

BRICK: A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements
in masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay, but
is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can
be joined using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. Bricks are produced in numerous
classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced
in bulk quantities.

Percentage of Constituents of Brick (Weight Basis)

There are six major ingredients of brick. The general percentage of these ingredients in brick
is given below:

Ingredient Percentage in brick

Silica (SiO2) 55%
Alumina (Al2O3) 30%
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 8%
Magnesia (MgO) 5%
Lime(CaO) 1%
Organic Matter 1%
Chief Ingredients of Brick and Their Functions
Silica (Sand) and Alumina (Clay), these two are the most prominent ingredients in brick
clay. When mixed with water in proper proportions, it gains plasticity. The plastic mass can
be easily molded and dried. It should not go through cracking, shrinkage or warping.

Alumina
Alumina is the main constituent of clay. It acts as a cementing material in raw brick. Brick
clay is plastic due to the presence of alumina. This plasticity ensures that bricks can be
molded. An excess amount of alumina in clay may cause the bricks to shrink, warp or crack on
drying and burning as any other cementing material.

Figure: Clay for Brick formation

Silica
Good quality bricks contain 50-60% silica. It is present in both free and combined form. As
frees sand, it remains mechanically mixed with clay. In combined form, it reacts with alumina
to form aluminosilicates. Silica prevents raw bricks from cracking, shrinking and warping.
The higher the proportion of sand, the more and shapely and uniform in texture will be the
brick. Although, excess silica destroys cohesion between the brick clay particles and makes
brick brittle and weak. The durability of bricks largely depends upon the proper proportion of
silica and alumina.
 Figure: Sand

Lime
Bricks should contain a little amount of finely powdered lime. It enables silica (of a required
portion) to melt at the furnace temperature of 1650oC and binds the particles of brick together
resulting in strong and durable bricks. At about 1100o C, lime acts as a catalyst to elevate the
furnace temperature to 1650oC at which silica fuses. This slightly fused silica works as a
strong cementing material. Excess lime in brick clay will cause vitrification of bricks. It
causes bricks to melt, as more than the required amount of silica will fuse. The bricks then
lose their shape and become disfigured.

Figure: Powdered Lime

Iron Oxide
Bricks contain a small quantity of Iron Oxide. Iron Oxide acts a flux like lime, thus helps
silica to fuse at low temperature. It imparts a red color to bricks upon burning. Iron also
increases the durability and impermeability of the bricks.
 Figure: Iron Oxide powder

Magnesia
A small proportion of magnesium decreases shrinkage and gives a yellow tint to the bricks.
An excess amount of it causes bricks to decay.

Harmful Ingredients of Brick

Lime

Excess lime melts the bricks and disfigures it. If CaCO3 exists (in the purest form, i.e., if it
contains at least 95% CaO) in lime-lump in brick clay, it converts into quicklime on burning.
When these bricks come in contact with water, quicklime slakes and expands. And causes
disintegration of bricks.

Alkalis
Alkalis are mainly salt of Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K). It acts as a flux in the kiln and
causes fusion, warping, and twisting of bricks. Alkalis absorb moisture from the atmosphere
and cause dampness and efflorescence in bricks (because of the presence of hygroscopic
salts, e.g., CaCl2, MgCl2, etc.).

Pebbles, Stones & Gravels

Their presence does not allow thorough mixing of earth, thus the bricks produced are weaker.
Such bricks cannot be broken at the desired section and they break very irregularly.

Figure: Pebbles, Stones, and Gravels

 Iron Pyrites (FeS)
Iron Pyrites causes crystallization and disintegration of bricks while burning. It discolors
bricks in the form of black slag.

Organic Matter

Organic matter in bricks makes bricks porous resulting in low density and weaker bricks.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS:

 Sun-dried bricks
 Burnt clay bricks
 Fly ash bricks
 Concrete bricks
 Engineering bricks
 Calcium silicate bricks
 Eco bricks
Sun-dried bricks:
These are un-burnt bricks made of clay. They are moulded and left under the sun to dry.
Burnt clay bricks: These are made of clay and put into the kiln for burning. They are used for
building walls, foundations, and columns, among others. There are four different types of
burnt clay bricks:
 First class: Quality with excellent edges
 Second class: Ground moulded and a bit irregular in shape
 Third class: Rough-edged and ground moulded, used for temporary construction
 Fourth class: Over-burnt and highly irregular, dark in colour with no water resistance feature

Fly ash bricks:

Also called Self-cementing brick, these bricks contain Class F or Class C fly ash as a part of
the formula.

Concrete bricks:

These bricks are made using solid concrete. The concrete is prepared using sand, coarse
aggregates, water, and cement.

Engineering bricks:

This type of brick offers high compressive strength. They are used for construction where low
porosity, frost resistance, acid resistance, and strength are mandatory.
 Calcium silicate bricks:
Also called sand lime bricks, they are made by mixing fly ash, lime, and sand. It is used for
masonry and ornamental works in different construction projects.
Eco bricks:
Porotherm hollow bricks are suitable walling solutions. They offer significant thermal
insulation and make walls stronger.

PROPERTIES OF BRICKS
1. Physical Properties of Bricks
These properties of bricks include shape, size, color, and density of a brick.

 Shape.
1. The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has Well defined and sharp edges.
The surface of the bricks is regular and even.
2. These are generally modifications of rectangular shapes.

 Size.
1. The size of brick used in construction varies from country to country and from place to place
in the same country.
2. In India, the recommended standard size of an ideal brick is 19 x 9 x 9 cm which with mortar
joint gives net dimensions of 20 x 10 x 10 cm.

 Colour.
1. The most common color of building bricks falls under the class RED. It may vary from deep
red to light red to buff and purple.
2. Very dark shades of red indicate over burnt bricks whereas yellow color is often indicative of
under-burning.

 Density.
1. The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the type of clay used and
the method of brick molding (soft-mud, Stiff-mud, hard-pressed etc.).
2. In the case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600 kg/cubic meter to 1900 kg/cubic
meter.
2. Mechanical Brick Properties.
 Under this heading of properties of bricks, compressive strength and flexure strength are
included.
 Compressive Strength of Bricks.
1. It is the most important property of bricks especially when they are used in
load-bearing walls.
2. The compressive strength of a brick depends on the composition of the clay and
degree of burning. It may vary from 35 kg/cm2 to more than 200 kg/cm2 in
India.
 Flexure Strength.
1. Bricks are often used in situations where bending loads are possible in a building. As
such, they should possess sufficient strength against transverse loads.
2. It is specified that the flexural strength of a common building brick shall not be less
than 10 kg/cm2.
3. Best grade bricks often possess flexural strength over 20 kg/cm2.

 Thermal Properties of Building Bricks.

1. . Besides being hard and strong, ideal bricks should also provide an adequate insulation
against heat, cold and noise.
2. The heat and sound conductivity of bricks vary greatly with their density and porosity.

3. Very dense and heavy bricks conduct heat and sound at a greater rate. They have,
therefore, poor thermal and acoustic (sound) insulation qualities.
4. For this reason, bricks should be so designed that they are light and strong and give
adequate insulation

 Specification of Bricks
A brick is small block of burnt clay with a size that can be held in one hand conveniently.
Brick should be thoroughly burnt, of uniform color, having plane rectangular faces, sharp
straight, right angle edges.

 Standard Modular size of common building brick is 190X90X90 mm

 The size of a Non-Modular brick is 9"X4-3/8"X2-11/16" (229X111X70 mm).But it is

specified as 230X110X70 mm.

 The weight of a brick is about 3 to 4 kg.

Recommended Sizes of Bricks

 Type of Bricks Normal Size (mm) Actual Size (mm)

Modular Bricks 200x100x100 mm 190x90x90 mm

Non -Modular Bricks 229x114x70 mm 230x110x70 mm

Visual Characteristics of Brick

 Good bricks should be burnt thoroughly so that they become hard and durable.

 Satisfactory burning of the bricks is ascertained by hard ringing sound when two
bricks are struck together.

 The bricks should have smooth and rectangular shapes with sharp corners and uniform
colors.

 The bricks should be free from cracks, chips, warp age, large particles of lime and
organic matters.

Water Absorption of Brick

Average water absorption of bricks after 24 hours of immersion in cold water should not be
more than 20% of its own dry weight.

The acceptable water absorption for clay bricks are between 12% and 20%. If you are using
engineering bricks the closer you are to the 12% the better the result will be. When the water
absorption is too low, i.e. below 12%, it may be difficult to obtain a proper bond between the
mortar and the bricks.

Raw Materials for Brick

Sufficient samples of the earth available must be tested to check if the soil is suitable for
composition of bricks and available abundantly in neighborhood.
It is reasonable uniformity of composition in the soil. Mechanical composition of the soil may
preferably confirm the following requirements.

 Clay 20 to 35 %
 Silt 20 to 35%
 Sand 35 to 45 %
 CEMENT

Contents: Cement Types, properties, grades, other types of cement and uses

A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them together.
The principal raw materials used in the manufacture of Ordinary Portland Cement are:
1. Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shales.
2. Calcareous or calcium carbonate, in the form of limestone, chalk and marl which is a
mixture of clay and calcium carbonate.
Gypsum is added to control the “setting of cement”. If not added, the cement will set
immediately after mixing of water leaving no time for concrete placing.
Chemical Composition

Components Percentage of mass

Calcium Oxide (Cao) 66.33
Silica(Sio2) 18.6
Ferric Oxide(Fe2o3) 4.03
Alumina(Al2o3) 3.77
Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 2.67
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2.13
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 1.39
Potasium Oxide (K2O) 0.46

Properties of Cement
Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical properties.
Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical properties of good cement
are based on:
 Fineness of cement
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Strength
 Setting time
 Heat of hydration
 Loss of ignition
 Bulk density
 Specific gravity (Relative density)

These physical properties are discussed in details in the following segment. Also, you will
find the test names associated with these physical properties.

Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is
achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. As
hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is
very important.
Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality cement
retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free
lime and magnesia.

Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

It is measured by Vicat Test.

In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat Apparatus. The plunger
of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of the cement. The plunger will
penetrate the cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency. A cement is said to
have a normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.

Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural. Various
factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing
conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading
conditions and age. While testing the strength, the following should be considered:

Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related. Cement strength
is merely a quality control measure.

The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.

Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test should be
mentioned.

Strength of Cement
Compressive Strength

It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected to a
compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80
seconds.

Tensile strength

Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, now it does
not offer any useful information about the properties of cement.

Flexural strength

This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40 x40 x
160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on
multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low
and a final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45 minutes)

Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below 10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

 Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation
is high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is
affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness
and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining
the difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these
at 7th and 28th days).

Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained) causes
weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and
prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and
carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased loss of ignition.

Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be
air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying
range of density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement may
be any where from 3150 kg/ m3.

Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a
specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag
and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

Chemical Properties of Cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon),
bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast
furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw materials provides insight into the
chemical properties of cement.

1. TricalciumAluminate(C3A)
Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the hydration of
C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of hydration. C3A does not provide any
 more than a little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8% C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)

2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S)

C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the cement’s early
strength gain an initial setting.
3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain, dicalcium silicate in cement
helps the strength gain after one week.
4. Ferrite (C4AF)
Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln
from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it does not contribute much to the
strength of the cement.
5. Magnesia (MgO)
The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw material in dry process
plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the cement unsound and expansive, but a
little amount of it can add strength to the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also
causes less CO2 emission. All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.
6. Sulphur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.
7. Iron oxide/Ferric oxide
Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is mainly responsible for
the color of the cement.
8. Alkalis
The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine the alkali content
of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause some difficulty in
regulating the setting time of cement. Low alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in
concrete, can cause discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground granulated blast furnace slag is
not hydraulic on its own but is "activated" by addition of alkalis. There is an optional limit in
total alkali content of 0.60%, calculated by the equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.
9. Freelime
Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.
10. Silica fumes
Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of properties, especially
compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond strength. Though setting time is
 prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence,
Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume is usually produced for Portland cement
projects that require high strength.
11. Alumina
Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid temperatures since alumina
is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting but weakens the cement.
Mechanical Properties of Cement
The primary mechanical properties that determine the performance of concrete include
Compressive Strength: It describes the material’s capacity to withstand compression forces.

Young’s Modulus (Elastic Modulus): It describes the cement’s capacity to withstand persistent
deformation when pressure is applied.

Tensile Strength: It describes the capacity to withstand breaking when exposed to tension
forces.

Poisson’s Ratio: It describes the relationship between a material’s response to an applied force
in one direction (vertically) and a change in dimension in another direction (horizontal).

13 Types of Cement
 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
 Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
 Rapid Hardening Cement
 Quick setting cement
 Low Heat Cement
 Sulphate resisting cement
 Blast Furnace Slag Cement
 High Alumina Cement
 White Cement
 Colored cement
 Air Entraining Cement
 Expansive cement
 Hydrographic cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used.

Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at least two-thirds by
mass of calcium silicates, (3 CaO·SiO2, and 2 CaO·SiO2), the remainder consisting of
aluminium- and iron-containing clinker phases and other compounds. The ratio of CaO to
SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0. The magnesium oxide content (MgO) shall not exceed 5.0%
by mass.

The composition of Ordinary Portland Cement:

 Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)

 Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)

Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement

 It is used for general construction purposes.

 It is also used in most of the masonry works.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It reacts with
calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional cementations materials
when it is finely divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement:

 OPC clinker
 Gypsum
 Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)

Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement

 PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the
seashore, dam construction, etc.
 It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
 As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
 It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.

Rapid Hardening Cement

When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher content, it
gains strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening Cement.
It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.

Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement

 Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed like the
construction of pavement.
  It also gives high strength.

We have published three articles on rapid hardening cement on our website. In case you want to
learn more about RHC, you can visit the following link.

Quick Setting Cement

Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial setting time is 5
minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. The composition of Quick Setting Cement:

 Clinker
 Aluminum sulfate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)
 The aluminum sulfate increases the hydration rate of silicate.

Uses of Quick Setting Cement

 It is used in underwater construction.

 It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
 It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
 Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunnelling

Low Heat Cement

It is a spatial type of cement which produces low heat of hydration during the setting. Some
chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of hydration.
The chemical composition of low heat cement:

 A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

 A higher percentage (46%) of declaiming silicate (C2S).

Uses of Low Heat Cement

 It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind turbine
plinths.
 It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.
Sulphate Resisting Cement

Sulfate resisting cement is used to resist sulfate attacks in concrete. Due to the lower
percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets
reduced.

Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement

 Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3 % g/l
sulfate salts respectively.
 Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers,
concrete surface in the tidal zone, apron, Building near the seacoast.
 Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps,
drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls,
breakwaters, tetrapods, etc.

Blast Furnace Cement

Portland cement clinker and granulated blast furnace slag are intergraded to make blast
furnace cement. A maximum of 65 percent of the mixture could be comprised of blast furnace
slag.

Uses of Blast Furnace Cement

 It is highly sulfate resistant

 Frequently used in seawater construction.

High Alumina Cement

High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminum ore) and
ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total amount of
alumina content should not be lesser than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of
alumina to the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.

Uses of High Alumina Cement

 It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like workshops,
refractory, foundries, etc.
 It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.
White Cement

White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color. Amounts of iron
oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is expensive then OPC so not
economical for ordinary work.

Uses of White Cement

 It is usually used in decorative work.

 It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching
materials, and terrazzo surfaces.

Colored Cement

To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are ground with OPC. Types of pigments are
selected according to the desired color.

Uses of Colored Cement

 Colored cement is used for different decorative work.

Air Entraining Cement

It is seen that entrainment of air or formation of gas bubbles while applying cement increases
resistance to frost action, fire, scaling, and other similar defects. Air-entraining cement is a
special type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in concrete.

It is produced by grinding minute air entertaining materials with clinker by adding some
resinous materials e.g. vinsol resin to ordinary portland cement.

When the water in concrete gets frizzed due to low temperature, it expands. When air-
entraining cement, the air voids in concrete provides space for water to expand without
cracking concrete. But this type of cement does not provide high strength in concrete.

Uses of Air-Entraining Cement

 Especially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.
 It also resists the Sulphet attack.
 It is used where the de-icing chemical is used.
Expansive Cement

In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be possible to
overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.

Uses of Expansive cement

 It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.

 It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
 In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used.

Hydrophobic Cement

To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are ground with
water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid. These chemicals form a
layer on the cement particle and do not allow water to mix and start the hydration process.
When cement and aggregate are thoroughly mixed in the mixer, protective layers break and
start normal hydration with some air-entrainment which increases workability.

Uses of Hydrophobic Cement

 Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams, spillways, or
other submerged structures.
 It is also used in the construction of underground structures like tunnel etc.

Uses of Cement
Following are the different uses of cement in construction works:

1. To prepare cement mortar

2. To prepare cement concrete
3. To build fire proof and thermal proof structures
4. To build hydrographic and frost resistant structures
5. To build chemical proof structures
6. As a grout material
7. To construct Cement concrete roads
8. To manufacture precast members
9. For aesthetic concrete construction
 MORTAR

Contents: Cement mortar: Constituents, Preparation

Mortar is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate and water. When water is
added to the dry mixture of binding material and the inert material, binding material develops
the property that binds not only the inert material but also the surrounding stones and bricks.

TYPES OF MORTAR

 CEMENT MORTAR
 LIME MORTAR
 SURKI MORTAR
 GAUGED MORTAR
 MUD MORTAR

CEMENT MORTAR

Cement mortar composite has wide application in masonry work, plastering,repairing

damaged concrete, patching or filling, rendering, floor leveling, andthe development of precast
products.The composite is composed of binder,sand, water, and fibers with a maximum.size of
fine-grain material of 2 mm. The binder may be cement, mineral with polymeric or chemical
admixtures .
CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT MORTAR:-

Cement mortar should be composed of cement, sand, and water, be well-mixed, and have the
proper consistency to obtain a dense, homogeneous lining that will adhere firmly to the
substances surface. Cement-mortar lining should be applied by spinning, mechanical
placement (line traveling), the pneumatic process (shotcrete or gunite), and hand troweling.

PREPARATION:-

 Selection of Raw Materials

 Proportion of cement mortar
 Mixing of ingredients
1.SELECTION OF RAW MATERIALS:-

 The production of cement mortar can be done with a variety of materials, but it is
important to choose the correct ones for the job based on the construction's kind and
intended use.
 Mortar is created using Portland cement. For most construction tasks, ordinary
Portland cement is best. Lime is Sand must be of good quality and devoid of
contaminants like clay, dust, iron oxide, etc. Before combining it with cement, it needs
to be thoroughly cleaned. used to make composite mortars.
 Sand gives concrete strength and resistance to breaking and shrinkage. It gives mortars
bulk, which makes it affordable. It would be not only very expensive but also useless
to use simply cement.

2.PROPORTION OF CEMENT MORTAR:-

The Proportion means the relative quantity of different components to be mixed to make good
mortar, or simply the ratio between different materials.

Following are the proportions of cement mortar which is commonly recommended for
different works:

01. Masonry Construction:-

 For ordinary masonry work with brick/ stone as a structural unit. – 1:3 to 1:6
 Forreinforced brick work – 1:2 to 1:3.
 For all work in moist situations – 1:3
 For Architectural work – 1:6
 For load bearing structures – 1:3 or 1:4

02. Plaster Work:-

 For External Plaster and Ceiling Plaster – 1:4

 Internal Plaster (If sand is not fine i.e. Fineness Modulus> 3) – 1:5
 For Internal Plaster (if fine sand is available) – 1:6

03. Flooring Work:

 Mortar ratio of 1:4 to 1:8 (cement: sand, water to be judgmental), for 5 to 7 times
thickness of verified tiles, should be given as bed between RCC floor and tiles.

04. Pointing Work:

 For pointing work proportion of cement mortar should be 1:1 to 1:3

3. MIXING OF INGREDIENTS:-

 Sand and cement are appropriately combined in a dry environment to create cement
mortar. After that, water is gradually added and combined using a shovel. Clay and
other pollutants should not be present in the water.Either manually (Hand Mixing) or
mechanically mixing cement mortar is an option (Machine Mixing). Hand mixing is
frequently employed in modest projects. When mortar is needed in big amounts and
must be used continuously, mechanical mixing is necessary.
 CONCRETE

Contents: Concrete types:PCC and RCC, Grades of Concrete

Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with
a fluid cement (cement paste) that hardens (cures) over time. Concrete is the second-most-
used substance in the world after water, and is the most widely used building material.

PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE

Plain concrete, also known as plain cement concrete or PCC, is most commonly used for
paving and flooring.
Major ingredients of concrete are:
 Binding materials (like cement, lime, polymer)
 Fine aggregate (sand)
 Coarse aggregate (crushed stone, jelly)
 Water

A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents, workability
agents etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain concrete mixture.

The objective of plain cement concrete alias PCC is to arrange a firm impermeable bed to
RCC in the foundation where the soil is soft and flexible. It is mostly applied over brick flat
soling or devoid of brick flat soling. It is also known as Cement Concrete (CC) or Blinding
Concrete.
RCC

Reinforced concrete, concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two
materials act together in resisting forces. The reinforcing steel—rods, bars, or mesh—
absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete structure.

 Reinforced concrete is used for construction on a large scale, such as bridges, dams, piers,
tall buildings and stadiums. It is most commonly used in domestic construction for the
footings and foundations of smaller everyday dwellings.
 Reinforced concrete (RC), also called reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and
ferroconcrete, is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength
and ductility are compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile
strength or ductility.
NOTE
 Depending upon the proportion of ingredient, strength of concrete varies. It is possible to
determine the proportion of the ingredients for a particular strength by mix design
procedure. In the absence of mix design the ingredients are proportioned as 1:1:2, 1:3/2:3,
1:2:4, 1:3:6 and 1:4:8, which is the ratio of weights of cement sand to coarse aggregate.
 In proportioning of the concrete, it is kept in mind that voids in coarse aggregates are filled
with sand and the voids in sand are filled with cement.
 In terms of strength, naturally, RCC is stronger because the reinforcement helps in load-
carrying capacity. PCC is weaker and is only used for layering surfaces like plastering
work or flooring and most importantly in the layering if excavation to cast footings.
 Concrete Grades

 Proportion of ingredients usually adopted for various works are shown in table below.

Functions of Various Ingredients

Concrete Ingredients
Concrete has been used as a building material for thousands of years. The main ingredients
have been the same, but new admixture technologies allow designers and engineers to finely
tune the final properties of the fully set concrete.

Four Main Ingredients

Concrete is made up of four main ingredients: water, Portland cement, aggregates, and air.
The ratio of the ingredients changes the properties of the final product, which allows the
engineer to design concrete that meets their specific needs. Admixtures are added to adjust the
concrete mixture for specific performance criteria.
 Concrete ingredients: water, cement, aggregate, and air

Water
 The water in the concrete mix should be clean and free of impurities. The amount of
water relative to the amount of cement changes how easily the concrete flows, but also
affects the final strength of the concrete. More water makes for easier flowing
concrete, but also makes for lower strength concrete upon curing.

Portland Cement
 Cement hardens when mixed with water, which binds all of the ingredients together.
Portland cement is the most common cement used and is composed of alumina, silica,
lime, iron, and gypsum. Small amounts of other ingredients are also included.

Aggregates
 The majority of a concrete mixture is made up of both coarse and fine aggregates,
which help increase the strength of the concrete beyond what cement can provide on
its own. Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are used as aggregates. Recycled materials,
including blast furnace slag, glass (mostly for decorative purposes), and ground-up
concrete are starting to be used as concrete aggregates.

Air
 The fourth main ingredient of concrete is entrained air. While it usually isn't
considered an ingredient, the fact is that a concrete mix includes anywhere from 1% to
9% entrained air. Higher quantities of air should be included when the concrete will be
exposed to very cold or freezing conditions.

Admixtures
 Admixtures accomplish a variety of goals. This can be as simple as adding a pigment
to color the concrete. Other admixtures are used for faster curing times in cold
 weather, creating extremely high-strength concrete, or for increasing the flowable
nature of concrete without compromising the strength. Unfortunately, admixtures can
generate unwanted results such as poor adhesion of finish-flooring. For this reason,
many structural engineers and architects are hesitant to use admixtutres. We have an
article that covers a number of different admixtures.

Hydration: A Chemical Reaction

 While the moisture content reduces as the concrete sets, it is important to know that
concrete doesn't "dry." Rather, concrete sets through a chemical reaction called
hydration. This is why concrete can be placed under water.
 The concrete starts to set as soon as water is added to the mix. Therefore, the mix
should be constantly moved to help keep the particles from binding together (thus
rotating concrete trucks.) Most job sites require the concrete to arrive and be placed
within 90 minutes from initial mixing, but admixtures can extend that time.
Green Concrete and Hardened concrete
 Concrete has completely different properties when it is in its plastic stage. Concrete in
its plastic stage is known as also green concrete.
 The properties of green concrete include:

1. Workability
2. Segregation
3. Bleeding

4. Harshness

The properties of hardened concrete include:

1. Strength
2. Resistance to wear
3. Dimensional changes
4. Durability
5. Impermeability
 STEEL

Contents: Use of steel in buildings, types

Steel is an important alloy of iron and carbon. It is highly elastic, ductile, malleable and
weldable. Steel has high tensile and compressive strength and also stands wear and tear much
better.

USE OF STEEL IN BUILDING WORKS:

Steel can be used for various purposes in building works –

1. As structural material in trusses , beams, etc

2. As non-structural material for grills, doors, windows etc
3. In steel ,pipes , tanks etc
4. In sanitary and sewer fittings, rainwater goods etc
5. Corrugated sheets
6. As reinforcement for concrete

STEEL AS A REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE-

Although plain concrete is very strong in compression , it is very weak in tensile

strength .So, steel is being used in concrete reinforcement . It is equally strong in compression
and tension. The steel for reinforcing bars of other forms of round bars varying in diameter
from 5 to 40 mm , sometimes bars of other forms as mentioned above are also used.
Reinforced cement Concrete (RCC) is more rigid, highly durable and fire resistant. It posses
high tensile strength and it is economical in ultimate cost.

TYPES OF STEEL SECTION:

1.Mild Steel-

 It has a carbon content of about 0.23 -0.25% .

 For bars with a diameter of minimum 20mm, a higher value of this carbon content is
acceptable.
 Size ranges from 6mm up to 32mm (6,12,16,20,25 &32mm) depending on length and
diameter.
 The ultimate tensile strength is 250 N/mm^2 & young modulus is 2*10^5 N/mm^2 for
this material.
 Reinforcement in concrete was a typical usage for it window bars , grills & steel gates
are example of this type of materials.
2.HYSD bars-
 High yielding strength deformed bars
 Two types of HYSD bars termed as Fe-415 and Fe-500 tensile strength N/mm62.
 Have ribs on the surface make bond between concrete and steel greater.
 Bars come in diameter 8,10,12,16,20,22,25,28 & 32mm
 The bars are now being used as reinforcement instead of mild steel bar because their
higher strength in tensile & bond is stronger. These are called wind bars.

3.HIGH TENSILE BARS-

 Made with 0.8% carbon and .6% manganese as well as small amount of silicon,
sulphur, phosphorous to make them strong.
 The bars have tensile strength as high as 1400 to 1900 n/m^2 . The young modulus
steel is also same as that of mild steel.
 In prestressed concrete, reinforcing is provided by high tensile bars.

Fig- Types of steel

MARKET FORMS OF STEEL :

1.Angle Section-
Angle section may be of equal legs or unequal legs. Equal angles available in sizes
20mm*20mm*3mm to 200mm*200mm*25mm . The corresponding weights per meter lengths
are .95Kg to 73.60 kg. Unequal angles varies size forms 30mm*20mm*3mm to
200mm*150mm*18mm. Corresponding weights are from 1.10kg to 46.90 kg. Angle sections
are extremely used in structural steel work especially in the construction of steel roof trusses
and filler joist floors.

2.Channel Section –

Channel section consist of a web and two flanges. A channel section is designated by the
height of the web and width of flanges. It varies size from 100mm*45mm to 400mm*100mm .
The corresponding weight per meter length are respectively 5.80 kg to 49.40 kg. The ISI has
classified channel sections as junior channel, light channel and medium channel. It used as
structural members in steel framed structures.

3.Corrugated Sheets –

These are formed by passing steel sheets through grooves. These grooves bend and press steel
sheets and corrugations are formed on the sheets. They are usually galvanized and known as
GI sheets. They are usually used in roof covering.

4.Expanded metal –

This form of steel is available in different shapes and sizes. It is prepared from sheets of mild
steel, which are machine cut and drawn out or expanded. These are widely used for
reinforcing concrete in foundation , roads, floors and bridges etc.

5. Flat bars –

These are available in suitable widths varying from 10mm to 400mm with thickness varying
from 3mm to 40mm. They are widely used in construction of steel grillwork for windows and
gates.
6. I sections –

These are known as rolled steel joists and beams. The two flanges connected through a web.
They are available sizes from 75mm*50mm at 6.10kg to 600mm *210mm at 99.50Kg. Beams
are suitable for columns are available in H sections 150mm*100mm to 600mm*250mm size.

7.Plates-
The plate sections of steel varies from 5 to50 mm thickness. They are mainly used for
purposes-
  To connect steel beams for extension of the length
 To serve as tension members of steel roof truss.
 To form a built up sections of steel.

8.Ribbed torsteel beams-

They are varies from 6 to 50 mm size. They are widely use in reinforcement in concrete
structure such as buildings , bridges, roads, irrigation works. These bars have ribs on their
surface and they are produced by controlling twisting.

Fig- Various c/s of steel

9. T-sections –
It consists of flanges and web. They are available from size 20mm*20mm*3mm to
150mm*150mm*10mm size. These sections are widely used as members of steel root truss
and to form built up sections.

Fig- Steel T-Section

############################
 FOUNDATION

<Foundations, Classification, Bearing Capacity of Soil and related terms (definition only)>

FOUNDATION:
It is a part of structural system that supports and anchors the superstructure of a building
and transmits its loads directly to the earth. Foundation of a building as the name implies is
the starting of a building construction on site really. Types of building, nature of soil and
environmental conditions are the major determinant of type of foundation. Choosing a kind of
foundation depends on, ground conditions, groundwater conditions, site – the environment (the
buildings nearby) and structure of our building.

Purpose:-
There are numerous reasons a foundation is provided, some of which are:
 The most crucial purpose of providing Foundation is Structural Stability. Strength of
the foundation determines the stability of the structure to be constructed.

 A properly designed and the constructed foundation provide an even surface for the
development of superstructure at a proper level at over a firm bed.
 A well-designed foundation prevents the lateral movement of the supporting material
(which is the soil in this case) and thus ensuring the safety of the superstructure from
the detrimental effects of the lateral movements of soil.
 The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the loads from the
structure to a large base area, and then the soil underneath. This uniform transfer of
loads helps in avoiding unequal settlement of the building, which is one of the
detrimental defects in building construction.
Types of Foundation:-
1. Shallow foundation: If the depth of foundation is less than the width of foundation then
it is known as Shallow or stepped Foundation. It can be used where the bearing capacity
of soil on which the structure is to be constructed is maximum. Minimum depth of this
Foundation is 800mm and maximum depth not to be taken more than 4 meters.
2. Deep foundation: If the depth of footing greater or equal to the Width of footing, it is
known as the deep Foundation. Deep Foundation is used where the bearing capacity of
the soil is very low. The load coming from the superstructure is further transmitted
vertically to the soil.

Difference between Foundation and Footing:

 Foundation is a structure which transfers the loads from the superstructure to the ground,
while footing is the foundation which is in contact with the earth.
 A foundation can be shallow and deep, while a footing is a type of a shallow foundation.
so, all footings are foundations but all foundations cannot be footings.

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
 They are usually located no more than 6 ft below the lowest finished floor.
 A shallow foundation system generally used when
 The soil closes the ground surface has sufficient bearing capacity
 Underlying weaker strata do not result in excessive settlement.
 The shallow foundations are commonly used most economical foundation systems
 Types of spread footing: (either for Column or for Wall)

a) Single pad footing.

b) Stepped footing for a column.
c) Sloped footing for a column.
d) Wall footing without step.
e) Stepped footing for walls.
f) Grillage foundation.
(a) Isolated spread footings under individual columns which can be square, rectangular or
circular.

Column

Footing

(b) Wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of wall

Wall

Footing

(c) Combined footings support two or more columns. These can be rectangular or trapezoidal
in plan.
 A combined footing is necessary in following three reasons:
 Columns are placed very close to each other so that their individual footings overlap
each other
 When bearing capacity of soil is less so it is required to have a more spread area for
footing and so footing of adjacent column may overlap
 When external column is close to property line, it is not possible to provide isolated
footing for that column because it may be extended beyond the property line and so
combined footing solves the problem
 The essential condition to satisfy in combined footing is that, centroid of footing area
should coincide with resultant of column loads so that soil pressure distribution is
uniform under soil.
 Types of combined footing:

 Combined footing (Rectangular):

 Combined footing (Trapezoidal):
If outer column near property line carries a heavier load
 Strap footing
 Raft / mat foundation

Columns

Footing

Combined footing
(d) Strap or Cantilever Footing

 Strap footings are similar to combined footings.

 Reasons for considering or choosing strap footing are identical to the combined one.
 In strap footing, the foundation under the columns is built individually and connected by
a strap beam.
 Generally, when the edge of the footing cannot be extended beyond the property line,
the exterior footing is connected by a strap beam with interior footing.

(e) Raft / mat foundation:

 This is a large continuous footing supporting all the columns of the structure.
 This is used when soil conditions are poor but piles are not used.
 Raft foundation is provided
 When load transmitted by columns are so heavy or allowable soil pressure are so
small that individual footings if provided would cover more than about half of the
area, then it is better to provide a continuous footing called raft foundation under all
columns and walls
 Raft foundations are used to reduce settlement of structure located above heavy
compressible deposits i.e. they control differential settlement
 Types of raft foundation:
 Solid raft (A continuous slab covering all the columns)
 Ribbed raft (mat with a central hollow region when all the columns are connected by
a continuous beam which gets supported on the raft slab

Columns

Footing

Raft foundation
 Mat or Raft

DEEP FOUNDATION
1. PILE FOUNDATION

 A pile is a slender column provided with a cap to receive the column load and transfer
it to undelaying soil layer / layers.
 Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation.
 Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length.
 It is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing
capacity of soil near the surface is relatively low.
 Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing.
 Piles are also used to resist structures against uplift and provide structural stability against
lateral and overturning forces.
 They are used to reduce cost, and when as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable
to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond the reach of shallow foundations.
 Pile foundations are economical when

Soil with higher bearing capacity is at a greater depth.

When the foundation is subjected to a heavily concentrated load
The foundation is subjected to strong uplift force
Lateral forces are relatively pre dominant
When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
 Expansive soil like black cotton soil are present at the site
In marshy places where soil is wet soil/ soft soil/ water logged/ low laying area
When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature.
In the case of bridges, when the scouring is more in the river bed.
When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage.

2. PIER FOUNDATION

 Pier is a deep foundation structure above ground level that transmits a more massive load,
which cannot be carried by shallow foundations.
 It is usually shallower than piles.
 Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member that transfer heavy load from
superstructure to the soil by end bearing.
 Unlike piles, it can only transfer load by end bearing only and by not skin friction.

Difference between Pile and Pier foundation

Pile Pier
Piles are always below the ground level Piers are always above the ground
Larger in length and smaller in diameter Smaller in length and larger in diameter
Adopted when there is no hard bearing strata Adopted when there is hard bearing strata of
of soil available at reasonable depth soil available at reasonable depth but other
types of foundation construction is not
economical
Piles are driven through overburden soil into Pier is drilled by drilling machine
load bearing strata
Transfers full load through both bearing and Transfers full load through bearing action
friction action only only
Constructed at greater depth Constructed at shallower depth
Resist greater intensity of load Resist smaller intensity of load
 PIER foundation with PILE

3.WELL / CAISSON FOUNDATION

 Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction
of the dam, etc.
 It is generally used in structures that require foundation beneath a river or similar water
bodies.
 The reason for choosing the caisson is that it can be floated to the desired location and then
sunk into place.
 Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder depressed into the soil up to the
desired level and then filled with concrete, which ultimately converts to a foundation.
 It is mostly used as bridge piers.
 Caissons are sensitive to construction procedures and lack construction expertise.

 There are several types of caisson foundations.

1. Box Caissons.
2. Floating Caissons.
3. Pneumatic Caissons.
4. Open Caissons.
5. Sheeted Caissons.
6. Excavated Caissons.

CAISSON Foundation

DETAILS OF PILE AND PILE CAP

Classification of Pile foundation:
1. Based on Function or Use:

a) End Bearing Piles:

These are the pile used to transfer loads through water or soft soil to a suitable
bearing stratum.
b) Friction Piles:
This type of pile utilizes the frictional resistance force between the pile surface
and adjacent soil to transfer the superstructure load.
c) Combined end bearing and friction pile:
This pile transfers the super-imposed load both through side friction as well
as end bearing. Such piles are more common, especially when the end bearing
piles pass through granular soils.
d) Compactor Piles:
 These are used to compact loose granular soil thus increasing their bearing
capacity.
e) Batter pile:
A pile driven at an angle with the vertical to resist a lateral force
f) Sheet Piles:
Used as impervious cut-off to reduce seepage and uplift under hydraulic
structures.
They are rarely used to furnish vertical support but are used to function as
retaining wall
g) Anchor pile:
It provides anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling

Anchor piles can transfer both compressive and tensile forces as well as
bending moments to the ground, making them ideal as anchors for offshore
moorings, basements, and tunnels, etc. Moored floating offshore structures
impose a variety of load conditions on the anchor system.
h) Tension/uplift pile:
It anchors down the structures subjected to uplift due to hydro static pressure,
seismic activity or due to overturning moment

2. Based on Materials:
a) Timber Piles
b) Concrete Piles
c) Steel Piles
d) Composite Piles
3. Based on construction process:
a) Bored Piling:
Bored piles are installed by auguring into the ground forming a hole into which
concrete can be poured, thereby casting the pile in position.
b) Driven Piling:
Driven piles are driven or hammered into the ground with the use of vibration
c) Screw Piling
Screw piles are wound into the ground, much like a screw is wound into wood.
This is an efficient means of installation and coupled with their mechanism of
dispersing load, provides effective in-ground performance in a range of soils,
including earthquake zones with liquefaction potential
d) Mini Piling
Mini piling is a variation on piling that uses a narrower diameter. This makes
them light and inexpensive whilst still being able to support considerably
heavy loads. For the most common type of mini piling a hollow steel shaft is
screwed or drilled into the ground
e) Sheet Piling
Sheet pile walls are retaining walls constructed to retain earth, water or any
other filling materials. These walls are thinner in section compared to masonry
walls. Sheet pile walls are generally used for following: Water front structures,
i.e. in building wharfs, quays and piers.
4. Classification of Piles based on the effect of Installation:
 a) Displacement pile:(eg: Driven Cast in Situ concrete pile and Driven Precast
concrete pile)
b) Non- Displacement pile: (eg: Bored Cast in Situ concrete pile, Bored Precast
concrete pile)
5. Classification of Concrete piles:
a) Driven cast in-situ (CIS) piles (IS 2911-P1-S1-2010)
b) Bore cast in-situ (CIS) piles (IS 2911-P1-S2-2010)
c) Driven precast (PC) piles (IS 2911-P1-S3-2010)
d) Precast (PC) pile in pre bore hole (IS 2911-P1-S4-2010)

Pile foundation:
In this type of foundation, the load is transmitted by a vertical member. This vertical
member is known as a pile. These piles are generally made of steel, concrete and wooden.
These days precast members are used but we can create these members on site as well.
According to function pile foundation are of following types.
a) Bearing pile
b) Friction pile

Bearing pile:
They are driven till hard Strata or layer of Rock beds. The load is transmitted by columns to
the hard layer of soil.

Friction pile:
These piles are used where the soil is soft at a considerable depth. The load is transferred to the
soft soil due to the friction produced between the soft soil which is in contact with these piles.
 According to material piles are as follow
a) Concrete pile
b) Wooden pile or Timber pile
c) Steel pile
d) Composite pile

Concrete pile:
These piles are made up of concrete. The diameter of these pile varies from 30 to 50 cm.
Minimum length of these pile is not taken less than 20 meters and maximum it can be taken till
30 meters. Concrete piles are manufactured either by precast or cast in situ method.

Wooden pile or Timber pile:

As the name suggests these piles are made up of wood. For these piles, seasonal Timber wood
is used. The diameter of the timber pile varies in between 20 to 50 cm. Length of a pipe is taken
20 times that of its diameter. The maintenance cost of these piles is more because as it is wood
if it comes in contact with water then it can be damaged by fungus or white ants. So care has
to be taken.

Steel pile:
These files are generally in shape of ‘I’ or hollow section. It can be easily driven in the soil
because it has a very small cross-sectional area. These piles can be used as a bearing pile but
cannot be used as friction piles because if we use them as a friction pile it can sunk in the soil
due to structural load.

Composite pile:
When the piles are made from more than one material they are known as composite pile. These
piles are made from concrete and wood. These piles are used in those areas where the water
table is up. These piles are used in such conditions just because concrete and wood both are
good water absorbers.
 Bearing Capacity of Soil

 When subjected to stress from loading, the soil has a tendency to distort. The soil’s
ability to resist displacement is influenced by a number of different variables, including
its moisture content, relative density, internal friction angle and the way in which force
is transmitted to the soil.
 The term “bearing capacity of soil” refers to the maximum weight per unit area that
soil can support without succumbing or being displaced.

 If the soil underneath a building cannot support the weight of the structure being
constructed, the structure may become unstable, which can result in fractures and other
forms of damage.

 As a result, in order to circumvent this problem, the bearing capacity of soil must be
taken into consideration while designing the foundation.

 Types of Bearing Capacity of Soil

1. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)

The gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil fails is called ultimate bearing
capacity.
2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)

By neglecting the overburden pressure from ultimate bearing capacity we will get net
ultimate bearing capacity.

3. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)

By considering only shear failure, net ultimate bearing capacity is divided by certain factor
of safety will give the net safe bearing capacity.

qns = qnu/ F

4. Gross safe bearing capacity (as)

When ultimate bearing capacity is divided by factor of safety it will give gross safe bearing
capacity.

qs = qu/F

5. Net safe settlement pressure (anp)

The pressure with which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable settlement is called
net safe settlement pressure.

6. Net allowable bearing pressure (qna)

This is the pressure we can used for the design of foundations. This is equal to net safe bearing
pressure if gnp > qns. In the reverse case it is equal to net safe settlement pressure.

 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity of Soil

1. Foundation width

Soil with little cohesiveness might have its bearing capacity reduced if the foundation is too
narrow. In cohesionless soil, where internal friction contributes significantly to soil shear
strength, a wider foundation will support a greater load. Soil with infinite depth, consistent
shear strength, and cohesive properties may support loads of any width foundation.

2. Foundation depth

A deeper foundation is necessary for increased bearing capacity. This is most noticeable in
cohesive-free soil when the texture is homogeneous. The opposite is true if the foundations are
pushed into a poor soil layer, which reduces their carrying ability.
Unless the building is anchored by under-consolidated soil or compressible soil that is
vulnerable to wetness, appropriate bearing capacity is typically assured by foundations set at
depths where the weight of the structure matches the weight of the displaced soil.

3. Surcharge and soil weight

One cannot exclude the bearing capacity contribution of water table-influenced surcharge and
subsurface soil. Construction, seepage, and elevation issues may be avoided if the water table
is kept below the foundation’s base. There will be no effect on the bearing capacity of soil from
water table levels below the failure surface.

4. Spacing between foundations

When designing a foundation, it is advised that a minimum separation between footings that is
1.5 times the width of the foundation be taken into consideration. This will help prevent a loss
in the foundation’s carrying capacity.

5. Dynamic motion and earthquake

The bearing capacity of soil might diminish due to repeated movement, which would raise pore
pressure. Earthquakes, vibrating equipment, and several other factors such as transportation,
explosion, and pile driving all contribute to cyclic motions.

When pore pressures are higher than the soil confining tension, the foundation soil may become
liquefied. The effective stress drops to zero due to liquefaction, leading to significant
deformation and a decrease in bearing capacity.

6. Frost action

Changes in the bearing capacity of soil may occur gradually over time due to frost heave in
particular soils that are in proximity to water and are exposed to subzero weather. Materials
with a low cohesiveness, such as those made up of a lot of silt-sized particles, are more
vulnerable to the effects of frost.

7. Subsurface voids

The bearing capacity of soil is diminished when subsurface voids are present within a crucial
depth under the foundation. The critical depth is determined by the depth at which the pressure
exerted by the foundation on the soil is no longer significant.
 8. Collapsible and expansive soils

When the soil is somewhat dry, its sturdiness and bearing capacity may increase significantly,
despite its tendency to collapse and expand. However, because of changes in moisture content,
the proportion of these soils might shift. As a result, there will be shifts in the structure’s base
on a global and regional scale. Soil movement brought on by rain and dry spells may cause
long-term, severe damage to buildings.

9. Potential heave

Consolidometer testing, carried out in line with ASTM D 4546, may reveal the presence of a
possible heave. The findings of this test are taken into account when deciding how to prepare
the foundation soils so that they are better able to resist or isolate the anticipated soil heave.

10. Soil reinforcement

The bearing capacity of weak or soft soil may be significantly boosted by the installation of
different types of reinforcement in the soil. These reinforcements can take the shape of metal
links, strips, arrays, geotextile fabrics, or coarse aggregates.

11. Seepage and soil erosion

Seepage and erosion of the soil surrounding and beneath foundations may both lower the
bearing capacity of the foundation soil and ultimately lead to its collapse.
 MASNORY WORKS

<Classifications, the definition of different technical terms>

 Masonry is used to indicate the art and craft of building and fabricating in stone, clay,
brick, or concrete block.
 The masonry wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as stones, bricks,
concrete, hollow blocks, cellular concrete and laterite, usually in horizontal courses
cemented together with some form of mortar.

 CLASSIFICATION OF MASONARY

1. Brick Masonry Construction

Brick is the most popular material for masonry. They are known to be durable, long lasting,
and have a classic look that has lasted the test of time. Bricks can come in a wide variety of
textures and colors. Due to the unique way that bricks are made, it can be difficult to match
color correctly.

2. Stone Masonry Construction

Stone is the most durable, strong and weather-resistant construction material compared with
any others. These are less affected by daily wear and tear. Masonry structures made out of
stone hence last for a longer period. It has a life period of 300 to 1000 plus years. Due to it’s
numerous advantageous, it is widely used in masonry construction.
Stone masonry can be either dressed or undressed. When undressed stone masonry is laid, it
has a less clean and irregular pattern but it provides an authentic and natural looks. When
dressed stone is laid, it looks much more like a pattern and comes in specific sizes.

3. Concrete Masonry Construction

In concrete masonry construction, the concrete blocks are pressed on the top of other similar
to brick masonry construction. This creates a staggered formation. The dimension of concrete
blocks is larger compared to bricks, so less time is required to lay concrete blocks.

4. Veneer Masonry Construction

This masonry construction is a type mainly used for remodeling and to provide interior finish.
It gives the appearance of a stone or brick wall with a better economy and insulation. Veneer
masonry units can be placed on the existing concrete wall giving a better appearance.

5. Gabion Masonry Construction

Gabions are baskets made out of zin protected steel or so-called galvanized steel that is filled
with medium-sized fractured stones. These gabions act as a single unit. It behaves like a
revetment or retaining walls.

6. Composite Masonry Construction

A composite masonry construction makes use of two or more types of building materials for
the construction. These masonry constructions are employed to increase the appearance of the
building and to use available material resources with the utmost economy.

 Various Terminologies

1. Face and Facing The outer or exposed face of the wall is called face and the material
used on the face is called facing.
2. Hearting and Filling The interior portion of wall between the face and back is called
hearting and filling.
3. Prepeds These are imaginary lines containing vertical joints of the masonry.
4. Voids These are spaces left between the blocks of stone in the masonry.
5. Spalls These are chips or stone pieces used for backing up or filling the interstices in
stone masonry.
6. Cornice It is the projecting ornamental course, usually moulded to add to the
appearance of the wall. A cornice is placed in a wall, at the junction of wall and roof.
7. Coping The top of a parapet wall is finished with a special course to protect it from
rain water.This course is called coping
8. Drip course To facilitate the drainage of water from the coping, a groove is cut on
the underside which is called drip course.
9. Parapet It is a low wall built round a terrace in the case of buildings with flat roofs.
It is intended primarily to act as a fence wall.
10. Course One horizontal layer of bricks or stones is called a course.
11. Jambs These are vertical sides of door and window openings on the back side. These
may be either square or splayed and are provided with recesses to receive door and
window frames.
12. Reveals These are exposed vertical surfaces which are left on the sides of an opening
in front of the door or window frame.
13. Sill This is the horizontal member of stone, concrete or timber provided to support the
vertical members of door or window frame.
14. Stretcher When the brick or stone block is laid in such a way that in the elevation its
length add thickness is visible, it is. Said to be lead as stretcher.
15. Header When the brick or block of stone is laid in such a way that its breadth and
thickness is visible, it is said to be laid as header.
16. Quoin The corner stone or brick is called quoin. This brick or stone block is used at
the corner of two walls meeting at light angles.
17. Queen closer It is the name given to the half brick which is provided just near the
quoin to displace perpends to provide the required lap at joints.
18. Brick Bat It is a half brick cut along its length.
19. King closer It is a brick cut in such a way that the width of one of its ends is half that
of a full brick.
 BRICK MASONRY

<Types, bonds, general principle>

Brick masonry is a highly durable form of construction. The systematic arrangement of
laying bricks and bonding together with mortar to form a unique mass, which can transmit
the load without failure, is known as brick masonry.
 Brick masonry offers durability, fire protection and ease of construction while
maintaining a warm, decorative appearance.

 Types of Bricks used in Construction

There are different types of brick used in the construction of brick masonry which include:

1. Common Burnt Clay Bricks

2. Concrete Bricks

3. Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)

4. Fly ash Clay Bricks

5. Engineering Bricks

6. Other Brick Types include bullnose, channel, coping, cownose and hollow bricks.

 Characteristics of good quality bricks

Some of the major properties of good quality bricks include:

1. Good bricks are sound, hard, and well burnt.

2. They have a fine compact texture and a uniform colour.
3. They have a metallic ringing sound when struck with a hammer or another brick.
4. They should not absorb more water than 20% of their own weight.
5. When dropped on another brick from a height of one metre, they should not break.
6. They should not contain any water-soluble sulphates or chlorides.

 Benefits Of Brick Masonry

1. Due to the relatively regular shape and size of the bricks, the construction process is
not a particularly difficult one. Consequently, there is no requirement for expert
workers for the building job.
2. Brick masonry often makes use of lightweight bricks because of the nature of the
material. In contrast to bricks made of clay, there are numerous types of bricks that may
be purchased on the market that have a low overall weight. They are constructed using
a variety of components, including fly ash, powdered aluminium, quartz sand, and so
on. Because of this, working with bricks on a building site is a lot less difficult than
working with stone when it comes to masonry.
3. Brick masonry has a lower dead load when contrasted with stone masonry and masonry
constructed from aerated concrete blocks.
4. In contrast to stone masonry, brick masonry makes it possible to create brick walls
that are far thinner.
5. Brick is among the most valuable assets that can be used in the building industry. Bricks
are often the material of choice in any kind of building activity. As a result, you
shouldn’t have any trouble tracking down the bricks in any part of the city. When
compared to stone masonry, they are only accessible in locations that have stone
quarries.
6. In comparison to other types of masonry construction, brick masonry often has fewer
mortar joints. As a result, the total cost is cut down by a significant amount. In
addition to this, they have a high resistance to both fire and severe weather. They
are suitable for use in any wall construction, including those that prohibit the use of
stones and concrete block masonry.
7. In a structure that is being constructed out of brick masonry, it is simple to cut
apertures for doorways and window openings throughout the construction process.
 Disadvantages of brick masonry

1. Masonry that is made of brick is not earthquake-resistant. It is vulnerable to the

destruction that an earthquake might wreak.
2. The building procedure is one that takes a lot of time. Bricks have been replaced by
Autoclave Aerated Concrete (AAC) blocks as the material of choice in situations
when quick building is required.
3. In contrast to stone masonry, it does not possess the same levels of strength and
durability.
4. Plastering is required in the context of brick masonry buildings in order to achieve a
smooth finish, which may lead to a rise in the amount of construction.
5. Bricks have a natural ability to absorb water; as a result, there is a chance of
moisture inside brick walls. Plaster and paint are vulnerable to deterioration as a
result of this factor.

 Types Of Brick Masonry:-

1. Brick Work in Mud

 The mud is used to fill up various joints brick masonry work.

 Thickness of the mortar joint is 12 mm.

 it is the cheapest type of brick masonry

 employed for construction of walls with maximum height of 4 m.

Fig. Brick work in mud

2. Brick Work in Cement
 This type of brick masonry is construction by laying bricks in cement mortar rather than
mud which is used in brick work in mud.
 There are three major classes of brick work in cement which are summarized in the
table below.

Classes Descriptions

1. Cement of lime mortar is used,

First Class 2. The surface and edges of bricks are sharp,

3. And the thickness of mortar joints doesn’t

exceed 10mm

1. Ground moulded bricks are used,

Second Class 2. Bricks are rough and shape is slightly

irregular,

3. The thickness of mortar joint is 12 mm.

1. Bricks are not hard ,rough surface with

distorted shape,
Third Class
2. Used for temporary structures,

3. Used in places where rainfall is not heavy.

 Fig. Brick work in cement

 TYPES OF BONDS IN BRICK MASONRY

1. Stretcher bond

 The stretcher is the term used to describe the long section of the brick. With a stretcher
bond, just the portion of the bricks that will be used to extend the wall outward is
exposed to the mortar.

 Due to the fact that it has a constant running pattern, the Stretcher bond is also often
known as the running bond. Garden facades, retaining walls, dividing walls, chimney
stacks, etc., are often built using stretcher bonds as a foundation for the underlying
masonry structure. For reinforced concrete framed buildings, it may be utilised for
outside walls as well.

 Advantages:

i. It is simple and uncomplicated to put together.

ii. It is not necessary to use skills labourers in order to create a stretcher bond.

 Disadvantages:

i. Stretcher bond is only appropriate for walls that are one-half the thickness of a brick,
for example, the partition walls, thus it cannot be applied in the event of full-width brick
walls that are thick.
ii. It is not possible to build masonry walls by using a stretcher bond when the building
has a long span or a high height since this kind of bond cannot handle the loads that
are applied.
iii. Stretcher bond is not acceptable for use in landscape masonry construction or
architectural masonry building.
2. Header bond

 To create a header bond, the brick’s header face is used, as the name suggests. When
looking at a brick from above, the smaller square face is the header.

 Unlike the stretcher bond, in which the header portions of the bricks remain hidden, the
header bond displays the bricks’ header faces. Header bond, as opposed to stretcher
bond, is used for walls of full brick thickness.

 The term “header bond” is also sometimes used interchangeably with “heading bond.”
The bricks are laid out in such a way that the overlapping is approximately half of the
brick’s breadth. This is achieved by employing three-quarter brickbats for structural
features, which means that the offsets are created by utilising half a brick.

 Advantages:

 It is quick and straightforward to put together.

 It is not necessary to use skilled labour to complete the structure as you would with a
stretcher bond.

 Disadvantages:

 It lacks substantial power when pointed towards the wall.

 It’s not something you want to use while building visually significant masonry
structures.
3. English bond

 Bricks in English bonds are laid in a pattern with alternating header and stretcher
courses. The English bond crossover is made by placing a queen closer adjacent to a
quoin heading.

 It has two alternating courses of stretchers and headers.

 In comparison to the traditional header and stretcher bond, this one is much more
strong and long-lasting.

 Advantages:

 It has a high degree of tensile and shear strength.

 It is suitable for use in the building of masonry walls, including almost any thickness.

 Skilled labor not required

 Disadvantages:

 It does not have a very attractive visual appearance.

 A rather high cost is associated with the development of these types of bonds.
 There is a greater chance of moisture getting in via the traverse joints because of
this.
4. Flemish bond

 Flemish bond is a kind of brick bond in which the headers and stretchers of each
course are swapped. Consequently, the bond is established by alternating the
placing of the header face and also the stretcher face in mortar, with the quoin
header starting each alternate course.

 Quoin closer is positioned in opposite directions from the quoin header to create a
face lap. Using central support, the header face of a Flemish bond is held up above
the stretcher.

 Quoin header: A quoin which is a header in the face of a wall and a stretcher
in the face of the return wall.

 Queen closure: A closer that is less than half a brick. specifically : a brick of
full length and thickness but half width that is used at the end of a course next
to the quoin header

 Advantages:

 It is quite cost-effective.
 In terms of its visual attractiveness, it is of the highest calibre.

 Disadvantages:

 Skilled labor required.

 It doesn’t have the same strength as the English bond.
 ROOFS AND ROOF COVERINGS

<Functional requirements, basic technical terms, roof covering material>

A roof may be defined as the uppermost structural element of a building provided to protect it
from the damaging effects of weather elements such as rain, wind, heat, snow, etc.

 Functions Of Roofs
 Functions of roofs are as follows.
1. To prevent from dampness, heat, sound, etc...
2. To carry loads from the roofs, live load and dead load.
3. To provide protection from weather for workers working under any
construction.
4. To allow light and air in and out of the building.
5. To place conduits.
6. Useful for future renovations.

 Classification of roofs

All roofs provide protection from the elements: sun, rain, wind, dust, heat, cold,and animals
and insects. But each different kind of roof protects against somethings better than others. In
addition the different roof styles vary in their durabilityand ease of construction.

 Roofs can be classified into three types.

1. Flat roofs
2. Sloped roofs
3. Curved roofs.
 1. Flat Roof

 Flat roofs are suitable in plains where the rainfall is moderate and heat is great. A gentle
slope (say upto 10°) is given to the flat roof to drain away the rain water.
 The construction and maintenance of flat roofs is easy.
 They are fire resistant and have better insulating properties. They can resist high. wind
loads.
 The most commonly used flat roofs are Madras Terrace roof and R.C.C roof are
explained below.
i. Madras Terrace Roof
(i) It is an old type of flat roof and it is not constructed now-a-days. Since this type of
roofing was widely used in Madras it is called Madras Terrace Roof. The construction
of Madras Terrace Roof is explained below:
(ii) Wooden joists are placed over the walls or beams along the shorter span at a spacing of
450 mm to 500 mm. A course of well burnt terrace bricks of size 150mm x 50mm x
25mm is placed on edge in lime mortar laid diagonally across the joists.
(iii)After the brick course is set, brick bat concrete (3 parts of brick bats, one part of gravel
and sand and 50% of lime mortar by volume) is laid to a thickness of 100mm and is
then compacted to 75mm thickness by wooden hand beaters.
(iv) The surface is kept wet for about 3 days for curing. After the brick bat concrete has set,
three layers of flat tiles are laid in cement mortar 1:3 over the concrete. The top surface
is plastered with three coats of lime mortar and is polished. The bottom ceiling is
plastered with cement mortar 1:3 to a thickness of 12mm.
ii. Reinforced Cement Concrete Roof (R.C.C Roof)
 R.C.C. roof is becoming very popular now-a-days because of its strength and durability.
For small spans of roofs (upto 4m) a simple R.C.C. slab may be used. When the spans
are larger (more than 4m), the length is divided into bays and the slabs are stiffened
with beams at intervals.
 Construction of R.C.C. roof is carried out as follows:
(i) Centering sheets of steel or timber are placed over the supports
(ii) The reinforcement (steel rods) is placed in the form of grid on the centering
sheets. A minimum clear cover of 15 mm is maintained by using pre-cast cover
blocks made of cement mortar of mix at least 1: 2.
(iii)The cement concrete of mix 1:2:4 is mixed thoroughly and placed on the
reinforcement and is well consolidated by means of hand rammers or with
mechanical vibrator.
(iv) The concrete is cured for at least 7 days.
(v) After the concrete has sufficiently hardened, the centering sheets are removed.

R.C.C. roofs are required to be protected against weathering agencies such as rain,
snow, heat etc by providing a weathering course Weathering course consists of lime
concrete with broken brick aggregate in the ratio of 1:2.5 (1 part of lime and 2.5
parts of brick aggregate) and two course of flat files set in cement mortar of mix
1:3. The thickness of the weathering course is about 75 mm. This layer makes the
roof leak-proof.

.
 2. Sloping or Pitched Roof





 Sloping roofs are suitable in those areas where rainfall is very heavy. The different
types of sloping roofs are;

(a) Single roofs

(b) Double or purlin roofs

(c) Trussed roofs

(a) Single roofs

Single roofs consist of only common rafters which support the roof covering material. The
types of single roofs are:

(i) Lean-to-roof

(ii) Coupled roof

(iii) Couple close roof

(iv) Collar beam roof

(i) Lean-to-roof :- Lean-to-roof consists of common rafters sloping to one side only. They are
supported on wall plates at both ends. Wooden battens are fixed to the rafters at about 150mm
c/c. The roof covering material is placed on the battens. The maximum span of this types of
roof is about 2.5m. These type of roofs are used for verandah and sheds.

(ii) Coupled roof: This type of roof consists of two rafters sloping upward from the walls
and they are connected at the top by means of a ridge piece. The ridge piece is wooden
member which runs horizontally at the apex. The maximum span of coupled roof is
about 3.5m.
(iii) Coupled close roof: Coupled close roof is similar to coupled roof except that the common
rafters are connected by a tie beam at the bottom. The tie beam prevents the common rafters
spreading from their supports. This type of roof is suitable for spans upto 4.2m.

(iv) Collar beam roof: In collar beam roof, the tie beam is raised to the middle of the rafters
to prevent the rafters from bending in the middle. Th type of roof is suitable for spans upto
5.0m.
(b) Double or Purlin roofs :-

These roofs consist of rafters and purlins. The purlins provide intermediate support to the
rafters. Each rafter is supported at three points

(i) at the bottom on the wall plate

(ii) (ii) at the middle by a purlin and

(iii) at the top by the ridge piece. This type of roof is suitable for spans upto 5.5m.
 (c)

C)Trussed roofs:-

When the span of the roof exceeds 5m, it is preferable to use trusses in the sloped roofs. A
truss is a framework consisting of vertical, horizontal and inclined members. The spacing of
the wooden trusses is generally 3m. The various types of trusses in use are;

(i) King-post truss

(ii) Queen-post truss

(iii) Mansard truss

(iv) Bel-fast truss

(i) King-post truss: A king-post truss consists of a tie beam, two inclined
principal rafters, two struts and a vertical post (king-post) The spacing
of the king-post truss is about 3m. The struts are the compression members
which prevent the sagging of principal rafters. The king-post prevents the
sagging of the tie beam at its centre. The purlins are placed at certain interval
on the principal rafter to support the common rafters, King-post truss roof
is suitable for spans varying from 5 to 9m.
(ii) Queen post truss: Queen-post truss consists of two vertical posts (queen
posts) instead of one as in king-post truss. The queen posts are connected
at the top by a straining beam and at the bottom by a straining sill. The
straining sill is used to counteract the thrust from the inclined strut. Queen-
post trusses are suitable for spans upto 12m.
(iii)Mansard roof truss: It is a combination of king-post and queen-post
trusses, the upper portion consisting of king-post truss and the lower portion

of queen-post truss. These trusses are suitable for spans upto 18m.

(iv) Bel-fast roof truss: This truss consists of this section of timber, with its top
chord curved. The span of this type of truss is about 30m.
 (v) Steel Sloping Roof Trusses :-

The use of steel trusses prove to be economical for spans greater than 12 metres. Steel trusses
are light in weight and can be fabricated in different shapes and sizes to suit the structural as
well as architectural requirements.

The erection of steel trusses is very easy, rapid and economical. Steel truss roofs are suitable
for factories, workshops, warehouses, etc.

The most suitable sections for steel truss roofs are angles, as they can effectively resist both
compression and tension stresses. The various shapes of steel trusses with their spans are given
below:
 3. Curved Roof

 In order to provide architectural effects to buildings, the top surface of the roofs are
sometimes curved. Such roofs are termed as curved roofs.
 Cylindrical and parabolic shells, shell domes, doubly curved shells, etc are some of the
examples of curved roofs.
 These types of roofs are suitable for public buildings like libraries, theatres, recreation
centres etc.
 Components Of Roof
1. Ridge Board: A horizontal timber or metal resting at the peak of the roof. The
rafters and trusses are connected to the ridge board for a cohesive framework.
2. Solid Decking: A composite decking made of solid materials. It resembles real wood
and particularly strong and stable for bearing heavy load.
3. Felt Underlayment: It is a waterproofing layer made of regular felt, stacked above
the solid decking board and then completely covered by the shingles or other roofing
materials.
4. Shingles: Roof covering typically of flat and rectangular shapes and made of various
materials such as slate, wood, flagstone, plastic, metal and composite materials.
5. Vent Pipe Flashing: An external installation on the roof that uses the vent pipe
system to prevent water seeping in and create damage.
6. Skylight: A window installed on the roof or ceiling for the purpose of daylighting.
7. Chimney Flashing: A waterproofing seal installed at the intersection of the roof
and chimney and used to prevent moisture penetration.
8. Chimney: A vertical structure through the roof that ventilates smoke and
combustion gases from a fireplace, boiler or stove to the outside atmosphere.
9. Collar Beam: The horizontal beam connecting two rafters that intersect at the ridge.
10. Rafter: One of a series of diagonal members of the truss that meet at the apex in
order to support the roof deck and its loads.
11. Valley Flashing: A waterproofing seal installed along the roof’s valley line.
12. Valley Underlayment: A waterproofing layer that protects the roof valleys from
leaking.
13. Spaced Sheathing: Also called Skipped Decking, it refers to the installation of the flat
panels by spaces apart and results to a ladder-type appearance.
14. Fascia: The sheath covering the ends of the rafters.
15. Lookout: The horizontal joist projecting in cantilever from the wall plate.
16. Rake: The inclined sides of a gable end.
17. Gutter: A duct for water discharge system for a building.
18. Downspout: The channel that transports rainwater from the gutter.
19. Splash Block: Found underneath the downspout and used to transport the rainwater
from the gutter in a direction away from the house
 Roof Coverings

 A roof covering is a material which is placed over a sloping roof to safeguard the roof
against the weathering elements.
 The roof requires a cover to protect the house from adverse goods of the environment.

 The roof cover should be kept clear of leaves, accumulated dirt, etc. Metal roofing can
provide a home with the look of any other common roofing material. A roof must have
thermal sequestration, fire resistance, and sound sequestration the various types of
materials general in the markets in different shapes and sizes.

 There are several different types of roofs with pictures materials.

1. Thatch
2. Tiles
3. Solar shingles
4. Wood shingles
5. Asbestos cement sheet

1. Thatch covering: This is the cheapest roof-covering, commonly used in villages. It is

very light, but is highly combustible. It is unstable against high winds. It absorbs
moisture and is liable to decay.

 Advantages of Thatch Roof

• Thatched roofs give excellent sequestration.
• Thatched roofs are generally veritably durable and long-lasting.
• Thatch is one of the most environmentally pleasant accoutrements used for a roof
• Thatched roofs also progress veritably well and will shape into natural forms.

 Disadvantages of Thatch Roof

• Thatched roofs keep to regular conservation is needed. The quantum of conservation
demanded will depend on the accoutrements.
• Thatched roof is advanced Insurance because of the advanced threat of fire damage.

2. Tiles: Use of tiles for roofing is one of the oldest, and is still preferred for residential
buildings. Tiles are named according to their shapes and pattern. The different types of
tiles generally used are: Flat tiles, curved tiles, half-round country tiles, spanish tiles,
mangalore tiles etc.

 Advantages of Tile Roofs

1. Roof tiles are relatively a sight to see. They can transfigure a house into an
awful masterpiece with the beauty they give.
2. Roof tiles have a long life expectancy.
3. Pipe roofs offer protection against nonentity boring and rotting, which also helps to
promote.
4. Pipe roofs are made from a fire-resistant material.

 Disadvantages of Tile Roofs

1. Tiles roofs have a delicate. It isn’t recommended to walk on the pipe due to the
possibility of it breaking.
2. The pipe is known to be heavy. This is a major debit of getting a pipe roof.
3. Tiles roofs needed conservation.
4. One of the biggest problems with pipe roofs is the underlayment paper and the
proper ventilation.

3. Solar Roof tiles or Solar Shingles :Solar roof tiles are known as solar shingles, aren’t
only used as a roofing material but also generate electricity. Solar roof tiles or solar
shingles are photovoltaic modules, and it produces electricity by landing sun. These
tiles are commercially available in the request.

 Advantages of Solar Shingles

1. They look like regular shingles and come in numerous sizes and styles; they can round
nearly any structure scenery.
2. They exclude the need for a large installation area that traditional solar panels bear.
3. Installation is simple and hassle-free.
4. They can be combined with traditional shingles to cover large or complex roofs.

 Disadvantages of Solar Shingles

1. Solar shingles cannot store energy, and also they won’t give power at night or during
storms.
2. The roof may be at the correct angle for the shingles to catch the sun.
3. There must be sufficient face area to install solar shingles to collect enough light to
produce electricity.
4. Wood Shingles: Wood shingles are a thin timber board around 1 cm thick. They are
generally thick in shape. The length and breadth of this board vary from 30 to 40 cm
and6.5 cm to 25 cm singly. Shingles are not common paraphernalia for
the roof covering as they are liable to decay or crack under the atmospheric goods.This
type of roof covering material is mainly used in place of ducts or swaths and where it’s
available in a wide range.

 Advantages of Wood Shingles

1. This type of roof covers visually appealing roof styles.

2. Wood shingles have continuity and energy effectiveness.
3. Advantage of wood shingles resistant to severe storms.

 Disadvantages of Wood Shingles

1. One of the disadvantages of wood shingles needed regular conservation.

2. Wood shingles have been brought effectively.

5. Asbestos Cement sheets Asbestos cement sheets are another type of roof covering
material and are considerably used for the canted roof. It consists of an amalgamation
of cement and pulverized asbestos. This amalgamation is ultimately converted into a
thin distance or ducts, and it’s well known as asbestos cement sheets or A. C sheets.
 There are mainly two kinds of A. C sheets that are available in the request. One is the’
Big six type,’ and the other is ‘Trafford.’Asbestos sheets are available
in different lengths varying from1.5 to 3m.

 Advantages of Asbestos Cement Sheets

1. Asbestos cement sheets are a veritably good thermal insulator and increase the energy
effectiveness of the structure.
2. It’s largely resistant to fire and doesn’t burn fluently.
3. It formed a veritably strong material when mixed with cement and was used as a
cumulative to form a compound material called asbestos cement.
4. It’s a veritably affordable and veritably cost-effective material, hence extensively used.
5. It’s considerably used as a defensive roofing material in corrugated form.
6. It’s largely durable and rainfall evidence. It’s resistant to damage from termites.
7. Asbestos cement sheets are veritably easy to clean and maintain but delicate to repair.

 Disadvantages of Asbestos Cement Sheets

1. The major disadvantage of utilizing asbestos is that it’s seriously dangerous to health.
2. Due to this major disadvantage, new accouterments are being manufactured as a relief
to asbestos.
 Straw board
 Aluminum and sword
 Floors

<Function, types, flooring materials (brief discussion)>

 Floor are the horizontal elements of a building structure which divide the building into
different levels for the purpose creating more accommodation within a limit space. The
floor consists of the following two components :-

1. A subfloor (or base course) – The purpose of this component is to impart strength and
stability to support floor covering and all other super imposed loads.
2. Floor covering (or flooring) – This is the covering over the subfloor and is meant to
provide a hard ,clean ,smooth, impervious,durable,and attractive surface to the
floor.
 Purpose of flooring is to get a good hard , level ,&beautiful surface for living. The floors
directly resting on the ground are known as ground floors while the floors of each storey
are known as upper floors.
 The selection of flooring can be made considering the following factors :-

i. Initial cost vi. Hardness xi. Sound

ii. Thermal vii. Durability insulation
insulation viii. Comfortability xii. Maintainance
iii. Appearance ix. Damp
iv. Smoothness resistance
v. Cleanliness x. Fire resistance

 Functions Of Flooring:

1. Floors must withstand loads that will be imposed on them. The ground floor of
buildings, depending on whether it is for residential purpose (where the use is restricted
to persons and furnitures), or for industrial purposes (where much heavier loads from
equipment are anticipated), should be strong enough to withstand the loads. The
 strength of ground floors is assured by the provision of hardcore bed which helps to
reduce the amount of rising water, provide clean surface for the concrete oversite and
impacts the floor with the required stability .
2. Floors must prevent the growth of vegetable matter inside the building, this is
achieved by the provision of an oversite concrete bed for the ground floor.
3. Floors must prevent damp penetrating inside the building. By the provision of DPM
of rubber emulsion and polyethene film sheets below the floor screed, damp is
eliminated from solid ground floors. In the case of suspended timber ground floor,
under floor ventilation is provided to prevent stagnant moist air accumulating below it.
4. Floors must provide thermal insulation. This is taken care of by incorporating a layer
of insulating material to reduce the heat loss into the ground below. The material which
is of high thermal resistance e.g. mineral fiber is incorporated below the DPM and the
floor screed.
5. Floors must provide an acceptable surface finish which will meet the needs of users
in terms of comfort, safety, cleanliness e.t.c. A floor screed will meet this requirement,
and as well provide falls for drainage purposes and give thermal insulation.
6. Floors must provide adequate sound insulation. The reduction in sound transmission
will depend on the mass of floor construction.

 Types Of Flooring :

The various types of commonly used ground floor finishes are as follows :-

1. Mud & Moorum Flooring - These floorings are used in low cost housing, specially
in villages. Over the hard layer of earth filling mud or moorum layer is provided. The
floor needs a thin wash of cow dung at least once a week.
2. Brick Flooring - This is also a cheap floor construction. It is commonly used in
godowns and factories. Bricks are laid flat or on edges. Bricks of good quality should
be used for the construction. Brick layer is provided on sand bed or on lean concrete (1
: 8 : 16) bed. In both cases joints are rendered flush and finished with cement mortar.

3. Stone Flooring - Laminated sand stones or slates of 20 mm to 40 mm thick in the

form of slabs of 300 mm × 300 mm or 450 mm × 450 mm or in the form of
rectangles of size 450 mm × 600 mm are used as floor finishes. The stone slabs are
laid on 20 to 25 mm thick mortar spread over concrete bed. The joints are to be finished
with rich mortar.
4. Concrete Flooring - It is modestly cheap and durable floor and hence commonly
used in residential, commercial and industrial buildings. It consists of two courses-base
course and wearing coat. Base course is laid over well compacted soil. Its thickness is
usually 75 mm to 100 mm. It consists of lean cement concrete mix (1 : 4 : 8) or lime
concrete containing 40% of 1 : 2 lime mortar and 60% of coarse aggregate of 40 mm
size. After base coarse is hardened wearing coat of 40 mm is laid. It consists of panels
of 1 m × 1 m, 2 m × 2 m or 1 m × 2 m. Alternate panels are laid with 1 : 2 : 4
concrete using wooden, glass or asbestos strip separators of 1.5 mm to 2.0 mm
thickness. To get good bond between base coarse and wearing coat cement slurry wash
is given before laying wearing coat panels. After 34 days of laying of one set of panel,
another alternate panels are laid. Top of these panels are finished by tamping the surface
with wooden floats and tapping with trowels, till cement slurry appears on top. It needs
curing for 7 to 14 days.

5. Granolithic Flooring - Granolithic is also known as granolithic paving and

granolithic concrete is a type of construction material composed of cement and fine
aggregates, such as granite or other resistant rocks.It is generally used as a floor or
paving. It has a similar appearance to concrete and is used to provide a durable surface,
where texture and appearance are generally not important.It is usually placed as a table.
 Tables are a type of floor placed on top of the structural element to provide a level
surface on which the “worn floor” is placed.

6. Terrazzo Flooring - Terrazo finishing coat is applied over concrete flooring to get
pleasing appearance. Terrazo finish consists of 75 to 80% of surface marble chips
embedded in cement mortar.

7. Mosaic flooring - It consists of a finishing coat of small pieces of broken tiles of

China glazed or of marble arranged in different patterns set in lime-surkhi or cement
mortar. The base coarse is concrete flooring and on it 30 to 40 mm mortar layer is
provided. On this mortar layer broken pieces of China glazed or marble are set to get
 different attractive patterns. After 20 to 24 hours of drying the top is rubbed with
carborundum stone to get smooth and polished surface.

8. Marble Flooring Marble slabs are cut to get marble tiles of 20 to 25 mm thickness.
They are laid on floors similar to other tiles. With power driven machine surface is
polished to get even and shining surface. This type of flooring is widely used in
hospitals and temples.

9. Wood Or Timber Flooring - Timber flooring are used in dancing halls and in
auditoriums. Timber plates may be directly placed on concrete bed or may be
 provided over timber frame work. In latter case it is necessary to provide proper
ventilation below the floor. This flooring is costly.

10. Granite Flooring - When it comes to flooring types, granite is an elegant option. A
naturally occurring stone available in a variety of colours in the Indian market, granite
flooring can bring a note of sophistication to any setting. Due to its high stain-
resistance and durability, this is one of those types of flooring that is fairly easy to
maintain. You only need to protect it from scratches. The stone keeps cool for most
parts of the year, making it amongst the best flooring for house in India.

11. Asphalt Flooring - This floor is water-resistance, unclean, junction, acid-resistance

and charming in look and like pretty famous nowadays and this floor are even anti-skid
 and soundless. Asphalt flooring is a flat plane coating produced from a combination of
asphalt, chrysotile, paint, and glass beads. It is generally about 1/8 or 3/16 inch flat and
is impenetrable, flameproof, low-price, and straightforward.Asphalt flooring will grow
for humid and basic guidelines, whereas linoleum does not take so long, and it is virus-
resistance, acidic and oils, and animal oil. It can apply where the floor climate is lower
than 80 degrees Fahrenheit.

FLOORING MATERIALS
Flooring is laid over the base floor. The different materials used for flooring are :-

 Mud and moorum  Wood and timber  Terrazzo

 Plastic or PVC  Linoleum  Magnesite
 Stones  Concrete  Asphalt
 Tiles  Granolite  Glass
 Bricks  Mosaic  Marble
 Rubber  Cork
 PLASTERING AND PAINTINGS

<Objectives, types, preparation, and procedure of application>

 PLASTERING
 Plastering work is a crucial part of construction projects; the reason for plastering in the
first place is to cover uneven surfaces of the blockwork or masonry work. The purpose
of the plastering is to cover blockwork, masonry work, columns & the structure of the
building with cement sand mortar.
 Plaster helps with the protection of the wall from fire, rainwater, leakages of water on
the ceiling area. Just like RCC & blockwork, Plastering plays an important role to make
a structure sustainable.

 Objectives Of Plastering:-
1. To provide an even, smooth, regular, clean and durable finished surface.
2. To protect the surfaces from atmosphere influenced by acting as protective layer.
3. To conceal defective workmanship and covers up cheap quality material.
4. To protect the internal surfaces against dust and vermin.
5. To form a good base for white washing, color washing, painting or distempering.
  IS Code For Used For Plastering Work:

Indian standards (BIS codes)

o IS 1661 : 1972 (reaffirmed 2001) : Code of practice for application of cement &
cement-lime plaster finishes.
o IS 1542 : 1992 (reaffirmed 2003) : Sand for plaster
o IS 1489 for portland pozzolona cement.
o IS 8112 for grade 43 OPC.

 Cement- Sand ratio used in Plastering

1:3 – Normally used for rich fill mortar which required to fill the cracks, repair work and
sometimes in first coat of external walls.

A. 1:4 – Usually used for external walls of the building

B. 1:5 & 1:6 – Usually used in internal plaster works.

 Types Of Plastering Mortar:-

1. Cement mortar: The ideal mortar for outdoor plastering work is cement mortar. It is
made out of cement, sand, water in a specific ratio. The typical cement mortar mix used
for plastering ranges from 1:4 to1:6.
2. Lime mortar: It is made up of right amount oof water, sand and either fat lime or
hydraulic lime
3. Cement-lime mortar: It contain properties of both the lime as well as cement mortar
4. Gypsum mortar plaster: White cementing material is made of gypsum or partly
dehydrated, usually added to special retarders or hardeners. Used in a plastic state (with
water), it hardens by setting the gypsum back into the water.
5. Clay plaster: It is a blend of clay and sand, making it a beautiful and environmentally
friendly alternative to conventional plaster and paint. It is natural, non-toxic, durable
and beautiful. Unlike most paints, it does not contain VOCs (harmful chemicals emitted
during and after use).
6. Water-proof mortar: It is composed of one part cement, two parts sand, and
12kg/m^3 of crushed alum. In addition to this soap water containing about 75 gm of
soft soap/litre of water, is added.

 Procedure Adopted For Plastering :-

PREPARING
PREPARATION
PLASTER MIX APPLYING BASE APPLYING
OF SURFACE
WITH SAND COAT FINAL COAT
AREA
AND MORTAR

 The surface that needs to be plastered needs to be thoroughly cleaned, degreased and
moistened for a few hours.
 One, two or three coatings of plaster can be put however two are usually sufficient.
Three coasts would be used only on wood or metal lathing on a very rough, uneven
back ground.
 The thickness of the first coat should be just sufficient to cover the entire surface. No
single coat should be thicker than 12mm. Lower coats should be thicker than upper
coats.
 Under coats must be allowed to completely dry before adding additional applications.
When applying another coat of plaster, the previous plastered surface should be
scratched or roughened before it is fully hardened to form a mechanical key.
 The method of application of mix influences the adhesion; if thrown on the mix will
stick better than applied by trowel. A trowel is used to polish the surface. After that the
plastered surface needs to cure for roughly seven days.

 PAINTING
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid
surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base
with a brush, but other equipments can be used.

 OBJECTIVES OF PAINTING:-
1. To protect the surface from the effects of weathering
2. To prevent wood from decay and metal from corrosion
3. To provide decorative finish and to obtain a clean, hygienic and healthy living
atmosphere.

 Types Of Paints In Civil Engineering

1) OIL PAINT:- Three layers of paint are used to cover these surfaces: primer, undercoat,
and finishing coat. The longevity of oil paint is negatively impacted by the presence of
moisture while applying the primer. This paint is inexpensive and simple to use.
2) ENAMEL PAINT:- White lead, oil, petroleum spirit, and resinous substance are all
present. Its surface offers excellent resistance to water, acids, and alkalis. Prior to
applying the layer of enamel, it is preferable to apply a coat of titanium white. It may
be utilized for both exterior and interior walls.
3) EMULSION PAINT:- It has binding materials including synthetic resins and
polyvinyl acetate, among others. It is simple to apply and dries in 1 ½ to 2 hours. It is
more resilient and washable with water. Cement paint should be applied to plastered
surfaces first, followed by the emulsion point. Sound surfaces are required for emulsion
paint.
4) CEMENT PAINT:- It is available in powder form. It consists of white cement,
pigment and other additives. It is durable and exhibits excellent decorative appearance.
It should be applied on rough surfaces rather than on smooth surfaces. It is applied in
two coats. First coat is applied on wet surface but free from excess water and allowed
to dry for 24 hours. The second coat is then applied which gives good appearance.
5) BITUMINOUS PAINT:- Asphalt or vegetable bitumen is dissolved in oil or petroleum
to create this sort of paint. It has a black colour. It is utilised for underwater painting of
iron works.
6) SYNTHETIC RUBBER PAINT:- Resins are used to make this paint. It dries rapidly
and is not significantly impacted by the sun or the environment. It holds up well against
chemical attack. Even newly laid concrete can receive this paint. It is reasonably priced
and simple to use.
7) ALUMINIUM PAINT:- Finely ground aluminium with oil or spirit varnish is present.
It is also noticeable in the dark. This paint does a good job of protecting steel and iron
surfaces. It is frequently used to paint water pipelines, oil tanks, and gas tanks.
8) ANTI-CORROSIVE PAINT:- Essentially, it is made up of lead or zinc chrome, finely
crushed sand, a powerful dier, and oil. It is cheap and resists corrosion well. It is black
in colour.

 Procedure Of Applying Paint

1. Priming the Surface: For certain surfaces (POP Punning zone and drywall), one layer
of primer is to be applied before the putty and painting. Due to the preliminary’s cement
quality, it makes the ideal surface for putty.
2. Coat of Putty: Wall Putty is a compound blend of certain components, for example,
white concrete, chalk, and so forth 2-3 layers of putty give a smooth base to the roof
and walls for painting.
3. Sanding the Uneven Surface:We utilize fine-grit sandpaper, as 150-grit or 180-grit,
and go over the walls daintily in a roundabout movement to expel the free and little
particles. At the point when the coarseness of one area gets secured with dust, we
change to an unused segment and proceed, after this, we wipe down the walls with a
dry material to expel any residue..
4. One Coat of Primer:Primer makes a smooth base for the last paint shading and it’s
likewise savvy to prime before painting. It prevents stains from seeping through. It
additionally improves paint attachment, bringing about diminished rankles and
stripping.
5. 2-3 Coats of Paint:We start painting the roof and walls later. We move rapidly starting
with one area and then onto the next to ensure the paint along the edge doesn’t dry
before we paint the adjoining segment. This causes us to dodge the laps marks. We need
to wait for the primary layer of paint to dry totally. We paint second and individual
coats with similar considerations and methods.

########################
 IRRIGATION AND WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

<Introduction, Types of Irrigation, different types of hydraulic structures, dam and weirs,
types of dam, purpose, and functions>

 IRRIGATION
 The process of supplying water artificially to the crops in an adequate amount for
cultivation is known as Irrigation. Crops require water for their production at frequent
intervals but in a controlled manner.

 ASPECTS OF IRRIGATION

1. Engineering Aspects 2. Agricultural Aspects

i. Storage, diversion, lifting i. Water depth maintenance in
ii. Conveyance of water to crop field
field ii. Uniform periodic water
iii. Water application in Field distribution in field
iv. Drainage and relieving iii. Irrigation with respect to
water logging soil capacity
v. Water power generation iv. Reclamation of waste and
alkaline land
 ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION
i. Increase in food production.
ii. Optimum benefits (max crop yield with minimum use of water)
iii. Elimination of mixed cropping
iv. General prosperity
v. Hydro power generation (Canal falls used for power generation)
vi. Domestic water supply
vii. Communication facilities (Irrigation channel with embankment and inspection
roads)
viii. Inland navigation
ix. Afforestation (Trees along river bank)
 DISADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION
i. Pollution of ground water through seepage of nitrates, causing anaemia.
ii. Colder and damper climate, causing malaria.
iii. Water logging due to over irrigation
iv. Complex and expensive

 TYPES OF IRRIGATION
DIRECT
IRRIGATION
PERRENIAL
IRRIGATION
STORAGE
IRRIGATION
FLOW
IRRIGATION FLOODING
SURFACE METHOD
IRRIGATION
LIFT
IRRIGATION FLOOD FURROW
IRRIGATION METHOD
NATURAL
METHOD CONTOUR
SUBSURAFCE METHOD
IRRIGATION
IRRIGATION
ARTIFICIAL
METHOD

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
MODERN
METHODS
DRIP
IRRIGATION

A. Surface irrigation consists of a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is

distributed over the soil surface by gravity flow. The irrigation water is introduced
into level or graded furrows[[Furrow is a long, narrow irrigation trench made in the
ground used for an optimal supply of water. Furrows can be level and are very similar
to long narrow basins. However, a minimum grade of 0.05% is recommended so that
effective drainage can occur following irrigation or excessive rainfall]] or basins,
using siphons, gated pipe, or turnout structures, and is allowed to advance across
the field. Surface irrigation is best suited to flat land slopes, and medium to fine
textured soil types which promote the lateral spread of water down the furrow row or
across the basin.
 Fig. Surface Irrigation

 Surface Irrigation is further classified into two major types:

1. Flow irrigation: Here water is supplied from higher altitude to lower altitude
by the action of gravity. It can be further divided into two types:
 Perennial Irrigation: Here constant and continuous water supply is
available to crops throughout the crop period. It can be achieved in two ways:
i. Direct irrigation: When water is directed into canal by constructing weir or barrage
across the river. E.g.: Ganga canal system.
ii. Storage irrigation: When water is stored in dams with reservoir across the river,
and supplied through off taking channels during low flow. E.g.: Ram Ganga Dam.
 Flood irrigation: It is otherwise known as inundation irrigation. Soil is kept
submerged and thoroughly flooded with water.
2. Lift irrigation: Here water is lifted up by mechanical or manual means such as
pumps etc.
 Surface irrigation can be achieved by the following methods:
i. Flooding method :
It is most common form of irrigation where water is applied and distributed over the soil
surface by gravity. Three major types of flooding irrigation are level basin, furrow, and
border strip.
 Fig. Flooding method

ii. Furrow method:

Its’s probably one of the oldest methods of irrigating fields, where farmers flow water down
small trenches running through their crops. Humans' first invention after learning how to grow
plants from seeds was probably a bucket.

Fig. Furrow method

iii. Contour method:
Helps evenly distribute the water in the soil between the furrows as the water runs slowly
and adequately. As the irrigation water runs off quite slowly but deeply into the furrows, it
makes the absorption of water in the soil much better.

Fig. Contour method

 B. Subsurface irrigation consists of methods whereby irrigation water is applied below
the soil surface. The specific type of irrigation method varies depending on the depth
of the water table. When the water table is well below the surface, drip or trickle
irrigation emission devices can be buried below the soil surface (usually within the
plant root zone).
 This method can be further classified as:

i. Natural sub-surface irrigation:

Leakage water from sources of water such as streams, lakes, ponds, canals, etc. goes
underground and during the passage to the subsoil, it may irrigate crop by capillarity.

ii. Artificial sub-surface irrigation:

In this method, water is applied beneath the land surface through a network of buried
perforated or open jointed pipes. As water is passed under pressure in these pipes, it comes
out through open joints. The depth of pipes should not be less than 40 cm so that these do
not cause any interference to the cultivation. Evaporation losses are reduced. The method
is expensive because of the high cost of pipes and the installation. The water used should be
of good quality so the perforation does not get clogged.

Fig. Subsurface Irrigation

C. Modern Irrigation methods:

A. Sprinkler irrigation is a method of irrigation in which water is sprayed, or
sprinkled through the air in rain like drops. The spray and sprinkling devices
can be permanently set in place (solid set), temporarily set and then moved after
a given amount of water has been applied (portable set or intermittent
 mechanical move), or they can be mounted on booms and pipelines that
continuously travel across the land surface (wheel roll, linear move, center
pivot).

Fig. Sprinkler Irrigation

B. Drip/trickle irrigation systems are methods of micro-irrigation wherein water

is applied through emitters to the soil surface as drops or small streams. The
discharge rate of the emitters is low so this irrigation method can be used on all
soil types.
(Trickle irrigation involves the slow release of water to each plant through
small plastic tubes. This technique is adapted both to field and to greenhouse
conditions)

Fig. Drip Irrigation

 TYPES OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
 Hydraulic structures play an important role in drainage, irrigation, and hydraulic
projects. If hydraulic structures fail, it may cause serious damages of wealth,
properties, and environment as well as losses of life and injury to economy.
 Hydraulic structures can be classified, based on their functions as below:
1. Flow control structures:
They are used to regulate the flow and pass excess flow. They might be gates,
spillways, valves,or outlets.
2. Flow measurement structures:
They are used to measure discharge. They are weirs, orifices, flumes etc.
3. Division structures:
They are used to divert the main course of water flow. They are coffer dams, weirs,
canal headworks, intake works.
4. Conveyance structures:
They are used to guide the flow from one place to another. They areopen channels,
pressure conduit, pipes, canals and sewers.
5. Collection structures:
They are used to collect water for disposal. They are Drain inlets, infiltration galleries,
wells.
6. Energy dissipation structures:
They are used to prevent erosion and structural damage. They are stilling basins,
surge dams, check dams.
7. River training and water stabilizing structures:
They are used to maintain river channel and water transportation. Levees, cut-offs,
locks, piers, culverts
8. Sediment and quality control structures:
They are used to control or remove sediments and other pollutants. They are racks,
screens, traps, sedimentation tanks, filters, sluiceways.
9. Hydraulic machines:
They are used to convert energy from one form to another. They are turbines, pumps,
ramps
10. Storage structures:
They are used for the purpose of storage of water. These may be dams or tanks.
11. Shore protection structures:
 They are used to protect banks. These are dikes, groins, jetties, revetments.

 DAM & WEIRS

 Dam: A dam is a barrier that restricts or stops the flow of water; helps suppress
floods, as well as providing irrigation, industrial, and aquaculture uses. A dam holds
water for later use, irrigation, navigation, hydroelectricity, flood control, fishing,
and recreation.

Fig. Schematic representation of Dam

Fig. Weir

 Weir: A weir is a small barrier built across a stream or river to raise the water level
slightly on the upstream side; essentially a small-scale dam. Weirs allow water to pool
behind them, while allowing water to flow steadily over top of the weir.
 Additionally, the term weir can be used to refer to the crest of a spillway on a
large embankment dam.

 FUNCTIONS OF DAM
 Most of the dams are multipurpose. Almost all dams have at least some flood
mitigation effect in addition to their primary purpose. Flood control dams may
have some of their storage capacity kept empty to store excess water inflow
under flood conditions.
1. Water Supply
 Water stored in reservoirs of the dam is used to provide adequate amounts of
quality freshwater to residential, industrial facilities and mining sites.
 Dams can be used to regulate the flow of water in rivers. This is to say that water
can be released from the reservoir to support wildlife and ecosystems downstream
during a drought and water can be released for agricultural uses during the same
drought.

2. Irrigation
 In many countries, cropland irrigation is done using water stored behind dams.
 Example: Burrinjuck Dam, an irrigation dam of Australia, which was built as the main
headwater storage for the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area in New South Wales.

3. Electrical Generation

 To generate electricity in hydroelectric power stations

 Hydropower is considered clean because it does not contribute to global warming, air
pollution, acid rain, or ozone depletion.
4. Flood Control
 For centuries, people have built dams to help control devastating floods. It helps to
prevent the loss of life and property.
 Flood control dams impound floodwaters and then either release them under control to
the river below the dam or store or divert the water for other uses.
5. Water Storage
 Dams create reservoirs that supply water for uses, including industrial, municipal, and
agricultural.
 Water captured during the wet season can be stored for use during the dry season.
6. Mine Tailings
 It allows the mining and processing of coal and other vital minerals while protecting
the environment.
 Mount Polley is a mine tailing dump of British Columbia, Canada.
7. Debris Control
 Dams provide enhanced environmental protection, such as the retention of hazardous
materials and detrimental sedimentation.
8. Navigation
 Dams and locks provide for a stable system of inland river transportation throughout
the heartland of the Nation.
 Bonneville Dam of Washington, USA is a river navigation dam.
9. Recreation
 Dams provide prime recreational facilities throughout the United States. Boating,
skiing, camping, picnic areas and boat launch facilities are all supported by dams.
 Scrivener Dam is a recreation dam of Canberra, Australia.
 TYPES OF DAM:

 Based on the FUNCTIONS of dam, it can be classified as follows:

1 Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season
when there is a large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring
runoff for later use in dry summers. Storage dams may also provide a water
supply, or improved habitat for fish and wildlife. They may store water for
hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a flood control project. Storage
dams are the most common type of dams and in general the dam means a storage
dam unless qualified otherwise.
2 Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting
water of the river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide
sufficient pressure for pushing water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance
systems. Such shorter dams are used for irrigation, and for diversion from a
stream to a distant storage reservoir. A diversion dam is usually of low height
and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of
storage weir which also diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes, the
terms weirs and diversion dams are used synonymously.

3 Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A

detention dam retards the flow in the river on its downstream during floods
by storing some flood water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced to some
extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later released gradually at a
controlled rate according to the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of
the detention dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is protected against
flood.
4 Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand,
gravel, and drift wood flowing in the river with water. The water after passing
over a debris dam is relatively clear.

5 Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to

exclude water so that the construction can be done in dry. A cofferdam is thus
a temporary dam constructed for facilitating construction. A coffer dam is
usually constructed on the upstream of the main dam to divert water into a
diversion tunnel (or channel) during the construction of the dam. When the flow
in the river during construction of the dam is not much, the site is usually
enclosed by the coffer dam and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the
downstream of the dam is also required.
  Based on HYDRAULIC DESIGN, dams can be classified as:
1. OVERFLOW & NON-OVERFLOW DAM
Overflow dams: An overflow dam is designed to act as an overflow structure. The
surplus water which cannot be retained in the reservoir is permitted to pass over the
crest of the overflow dam which acts as a spillway. The overflow dam is made of a
material that does not erode by the action of overflowing water. Generally, cement
concrete is used in overflow dams and spillways. Most of the gravity dams have
overflow sections for some length and the rest of the length as a non-overflow dam.
However, sometimes the entire length of the dam of low height is designed as an
overflow dam. The overflow dam is also called the spillway section.

Fig. Overflow dam

Non-overflow dams: A non-overflow dam is designed such that there is no flow over
it. Because there is no overflow, a non-overflow dam can be built of any material, such
as concrete, masonry, earth, rock fill, and timber. As already mentioned, the non-
overflow dam is usually provided in part of the total length of the dam. However,
sometimes the non-overflow dam is provided for the entire length, and a separate
spillway is provided in the flanks or in a saddle away from the dam.
 Fig. Non-overflow dam

2. RIGID & NON-RIGID DAM:

Rigid dams: A rigid dam is quite stiff. It is constructed of stiff materials such as concrete,
masonry, steel and timber. These dams deflect and deform very little when subjected to
water pressure and other forces.
Non-rigid dams: A non-rigid dam is relatively less stiff compared to a rigid dam. The
dams constructed of earth and rock fill are non-rigid dams. There are relatively large
settlements and deformations in a non-rigid dam.

 Based on MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION dams can be classified as below:

A. Older Dams
 Earth dam: An earth dam is made of earth (usually local soils), it
resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the
soil. Although the weight of the dam also helps in resisting the forces,
the structural behaviour of an earth dam is entirely different from that of
a gravity dam.
 Gravity/Solid Masonry Dam: resists the water pressure and other
forces due to its weight (or gravitational forces). Thus, the stability of a
gravity dam depends upon its weight. The gravity dams are usually made
of cement concrete. In the past, the gravity dams were made of stone
 masonry, but now the masonry dams are rarely constructed, except for
very small heights.
 Rock fill Dam: It is made up of loose rocks and boulders piled on river
beds. RCC slab is used in upstream side to make water tight. The side
slopes of rock fill are usually kept equal to the angle of repose of rock,
which is usually taken as 1.4:1 (or 1.3:1).

B. Modern Dams
1. Arch Dam: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream
side.
 Main Features of Arch Dam:
 An arch dam transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to
the abutments by arch action.
 An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong
abutments which are capable of resisting the thrust produced by the arch
action.
 The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity
dam but the section is comparatively thinner.
2. Steel Dams:
 These are used for major works.
 These are used as temporay coffer dams for construction of permanent dams.
 These are usually reinforced with timber or concrete.
3. Hollow masonry/Gravity dam: The design is the same as that of a solid masonry
gravity dam. It contains 35-40% less concrete or masonry.
4. Timber Dam: These are suitable for agricultural areas. These dams have a short life
span of less than 30 years as they deteriorate due to rotting.
 FACTORS AFFECTING DAM SITE SELECTION
The selection of the site for a dam is
1. Catchment Area
The catchment area should be able to contribute an adequate supply of water to the
reservoir of the dam
2. Foundation Soil
Sound foundation soil should be available at the site to carry a heavy load. For earth dams,
any type of foundation is suitable. however, for gravity or concrete or masonry dams, sound
rocks at the surface or within a reasonable depth, are essential. Foundation is important for
The selection of the site for a dam.
3. Ecology
The balance of ecology (means nature environment) should not be disturbed.
4. River Cross-Section at the site
The river cross-section at the site should have a narrow gorge (valley) to allow largely
should be minimum for the intended storage of water.
5. Height of the Dam
The dam cost is proportional to the square of the dam height. Therefore, the height
should be minimum for the intended storage of water.
6. Storage Capacity
The dam should provide adequate storage capacity for the reservoir
7. Costs
The dam should have minimum construction and maintenance costs.
8. Reservoir Silting
The site should be such that reservoir silting is minimum
9. Spillway
A suitable location for the spillway should be available in the near vicinity
10. Submergence
The value of the land submerged by the proposed dam should be as low as possible. It
should be less than the benefits expected from the dam. The rehabilitation of the people
displaced due to submergence is a problem to be tackled in the case of large dams.
11. Bed-Level
The bed level of the dam should preferably be on a higher level than that of the river
basin to facilitate drainage.
12. Watertight
The reservoir should be water-tight. Otherwise, the stored water may escape through its
bed and banks.
13. Topography
The topography of the site should be such that the length of the dam should be as small
as possible. Also, for a given height, the storage capacity should be as high as possible.
Therefore, the river valley at the site should be as narrow as possible for maximum storage
capacity.
  ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DAM

 Advantages of Dams
1. Water can be stored and used for irrigation using dams.
2. Water can be distributed to the nearest places for drinking purposes.
3. Water stored in dams can be used for generating electricity.
4. During floods, dams can be used for storing or diverting water.
5. Dams also provide recreational areas like boating, parks, etc.
 Disadvantages of dams
1. When making dams much biodiversity near the dams are affected.
2. A huge amount of money is needed for construction as well as for the maintenance of the
dams.
3. Many inhabitants near the dam construction are displaced.

########################