TH£ WORLD OF LAN 6UA 6£S

MASTERIN6 RUL.£5 IN £N6I JSH LAN 6UA 6£

(STRUCTURE)

MR ZULU DAU ZEN

PRIMARY C£RTIFICATE: CHARL£S LWAN GA COLLEGE OF

EDUCATION

BED (LAN GUAGES) : ZAMBIAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

 1. CONDITION

FIRST CLAUSE SECOND CLAUSE

\

1.Until I will (pronoun +auxiliary verb)

I
Until she apologizes I will not forgive her
2.Not until '
Will I (au xili ary verb +pronoun)
Not until she apologizes Will I forgive her
3.Unless
Unless she works hard
Not (negative sentence)
She will not pass
I
I
4.Only if Will I (auxiliary verb +pronoun)
I

Only if John pays back an old debt Will I help him

5.lf only I will (pronoun+ auxiliary verb)
If only he pays back an old debt I will help him
6.But for Would + present perfect (would have passed)
But for the puncture I would have got home before dark.
-'
7.lf + present simple Pronoun or noun +will
If you go I will meet you I
8.lf +past tense Pronoun would +simple t ense
If you went You would meet him
9. lf+ past perfect Pronoun +would present perfect tense
If he had gone He wou ld have met him.
10.Under no Would I/will I
Under no circumstances Would I eat monkey meat.
11.Would rather Th an
I would rather starve Than compromise my principle
12.On no account Must he/should he
On no account Should learners allowed access to staffroom
13.Prefer To
I prefer staying alone To being with bad friends.
14.ln case Positive sentence
In· case you find the way You will find us.
15.Provided that You will
Provided that you go to town You will meet your uncle.
16.Only by Did she
Only by her hard work Did she succeed
17.lt was not until That
It was not until his death That we found how rich he was.

1. A: You will catch the bus if you depart early from home.
3
 8 : Only if you depart early from home will you catch the bus.

2. A If we do not invite Damase , she will not come to the party.

B: Unless we invite 0amase to the party, she will not come.

3 A: Unless you come, I shall not go to the party.

8: If only you come, I shall go to the party.

4. A: You will never be punished if you behave well in school.

8: Provide d that you behave well, you will not be punished.

I

5. A: What would you tell the president if you met him?

8: Supposing you met the president, what would you tell him?

6. A: Until he gives me my money , I will not talk to him.

B: Not until he g,v~~ m~ my money, will I talk to him.

7. A: If I did not eat the little food in the morning, I would be starving.

8: But for th e little food I ate in the mornin g, I would have been starving.

8. A: We w ill succeed if we study hard.

8: If we study hard, we will succeed.

9. A: If you went home, you would meet your uncle.

8: You would meet your uncle if you went home.

10 A: I was not going to marry her if I knew she was such a useless lady.

B: Had I known she was such a useless lady, I would have not marrie d her.

11. A: He is not married . That is why he doesn' t look smart.

8: Were he married , he would look smart.

2. TIME

FIRST CLAUSE SECOND CLAUSE

l.As soon as Second activity
As soon as she finishes She will help
4
I
' --- - ·- --
2.No sooner had
1 Than
I
No sooner had she finished Than she helped
3.While, After, Before, When+ verb----ing Positive sentence
/ While sweepi ng in the room She discovered the missing key
I

I
4.Having + past perfect Positive sentenc e
Having broken his leg He left the pitch
5.Hardl y had When
Hardly had he left the classroom When it started raining
6.Scarcely had When
Scarcely had he left the classroom When it started raining
7.Barely had When
Barely had he left the classroom When it started raining
8.lts high time You took
Its high time You took the matter serious ly.
A: Immed iately I finished studying, I went to sleep.

B: As soon as I finished studyin g, I went to sleep.

2. A: Dauzen started missing his father soon after his death.

B: No sooner had his fathe r died than Dauzen start ed missing him .

3. A: He found the missing key as John cleaned the room.

B: While cleanin g the room, John found the missing key.

4 . A : The soccer players went to relax after particip ating in the match.

B: Having particip ated in the march, the soccer players went to relax.
I

5. A: The whole country rejoiced as soon as the gassers were appreh ended.

B: Hardly had the gassers been appreh ended when the whole country rejoice
d.

6. A: As soon as Nelson Mande la reached London , he went to greet Queen Elizabe th .

B: Scarce,ly had Nelson Mande la reache d London when he was greeted by Queen
Elizabe th.

7. A: It started raining as soon as we left the classro om.

B: Barely had we left the classro om when it start.e d· rai.ning. .

5
 3. CONTRAST

FIRST CLAUSE - -- . . -\
SECOND CLAUSE I

l.Oe spite being/Despite +noun+being Posit ive or negative clause

Desp ite being poor He man ages to take his child ren to school
2.ln spite of being/having Positive or negative
In spite of being poor He manages to take his child ren to school
3.Dull/sick/Serious as Positive sentence
Dull as Alice is She manages to pass the exam
4.Dull/sick/serious though ·-
Positive clause
Oull thou gh Alice is She manages to pass the exam
5.Ho weve r well/ muc h Negative clause
How ever muc h beau tiful she is Nedd y is not marr ied
6.No matt er how /whe n/wh ere/ who Negative clause
No mat ter how hard she tries She does not succeed.
7.In addi tion to + ing + anot her thing
In addi tion to insu lting her moth er He beat the siste r
8.lns tead of +ing
+diff eren t thing
Inste ad of going to school
She wen t to play
9.Besides being
He is
Besides bei ng a doct or
He is a farm er
10.A part from being
He is
Apa rt from being a doct or
He is a farm er
11.N ot only
But also/as well as/to o
Not only is he dull
He is lazy too
12.As well as being
He is
As well as bein g dull
He is lazy
13.As tall
As
He is as tall
As his fath er
14.N ot so tall
As
He is not as tall
As his fath er
15.The same
As
He is the same
As his fath er
16.Just
Like
He is just
like his fath er
17.N owh ere else exce pt
Did I
Now here else exce pt in Siavonga
Did I enjo y the mos t bea utifu l scen ery
1. A: It was a poor begi nnin g yet he succeede
d in com pleti ng the proje ct.

B: Despite it bein g a poor begi nnin g, he succ

eede d in com pleti ~g the proj ect.

2 . A: Clint on did not rehearse the who le mon

th but danc ed well at t~~ cere mon y.

6
 B In spite of Clinton having not rehearsed the whole month. he danced well at the weddiQ&·

3. A . Dalitso is reserved but managed to talk to the managing director.

B: Reserved as Dalitso is. he managed to talk to the Managing Director.

4 . A : Mayuka plays well yet he is not selected to play for the national soccer team .

B: However well Mayuka plays, he is not selected to play for the national soccer team.

5. A . You can go anywhere Zambia; the police will still trace you .

B:No matter where you go in Zambia, the police will still trace you .

6. A: Apart from insulting my mother, the boy beat up my sister.

B:ln addition to insulting my mother, the boy beat up my sister.

7. A: Jane preferred playing to going to school.

B: Instead of going to school, Jane went to play.

8. A: Mr Dongosolo is both a teacher and an author of books.

B: Besides being a teacher, Mr Dongosolo is an author of books.

9. A: Mr Banda is an herbalist as well as a pastor.

B: Apart from being an herbalist, Mr Banda is a pastor.

4. REASON

FIRST CLAUSE SECOND CLAUSE

He was punished Because he was late
He was punished As he was late
He was punished Since he was late
He was punished On account of being late
He was punished For being late
Seeing that he was late He was punished
Now that he is late John has to hurry
5. COMPARISON
'"
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
. - . . .....
Well bette·r se·st - -- . . . . . ..

little less least

Much/man y more most
Good better ' best .

7
 - -- --

-a
- : I

l
bad worse I worst I

- - - -l

-t
pretty __J prettier p,eWest -
lazy lazier IJ ZICS t I
-j - -- ~
hard harder hardest
1
cl ever ___ ,1 cleverer cleverest
J
Hardworking More hardworking Most hardworking
interesting I More interesting Most interesting
intelligent ~ More intelligent Most intelligent

1. A: You cannot compare patience to Haggai in handwriting.

B: Patience has better handwriting than Haggai.

2. A: Nile River is twice longer than Zambezi River.

B: Of the two rivers, Nile is longer.

3. A: There is no girl who is as intelligent as Mangolwa in 12D class.

B: Mangolwa is the most intelligent girl in 12D class.

5.1 PARALLEL INCREASE (COMPARISON)

FIRST CLAUSE SECOND CLAUSE

The older he grows The wiser he becomes
The harder she studied The more intelligent he became
The more he took medicine The worse he became
1. A: He is becoming wise as he grows old.

8 : The older he grows, the wiser he becomes.

2. A : Kelvin became intelligent as he continued studying hard.

B: The harder Kelvin studied the more intelligent

I
he became.
•

3. A: The condition was worsening as he continued taking medicine.

8 : The more he took medicine the worse the condition became.

8
I
6. RESULT
I - - --
FIRST CLAUE SECOND CLAUSE
I.Too (dull,emh ;irr;issi ng, hot etc ) --

'
To (p ass , look at, stu~v c~ c)
She is too dull To pass
2.So(dull,emba rr assing,hot) -- - -
That(he cannot pass, look at, study etc)
So dull he is That he cannot pass
--
3.Such a (dull person) That
He is such a dull person That he cannot pass
4.Little do/did That
Little did he know That he was going to have an accident
S.As a result He did not
As the result of failing an exam He did not get employed

1. A: You will feel embarrassed that you will try looking away.

8: You will feel too embarrassed to look at it.

2. A: The bus wa s moving very fast. The driver lost control.

B: The. bus wa s moving so fast that the driver lost control.

3. A: The topic w as interesting and all liked it.

8: It was such an interesting topic that all liked it .

7. SUBJECT- VERB AGREEMENT

FIRST CLAUSE CONTAININ G A SUBJECT VERB

I.Mr Zulu as well as his wife is coming
2.Mr Zulu together with his wife is coming
3.Mr Zulu in conjunction with his wife is coming
4.Ms Mwale backed by her donors is donating
S.Neither Dalitso nor the girls are here.
6.Neither the girls nor Dalitso is here
7.Neither of them Is here
8.Each,eith er,one, everyone,n obody,som eone ls/was/enjoys/look s
9.sever_al, few,both,m a_ny,otbers of us are/were/e njoy/look
10.None of the pupils is
11.Neither peter nor john has come
12.Either Mary nor Jane Plans to report
13.A swarm of bees is here
9
 1_4 r 1~ e, mon ey,measu rem ents, weigh.-.:
- - - -- -- -1
t ,_v_
ol_u_m_e_ _ __ -t-S_i n__,g=-u_la_r_v_e_rb_ .,
15 _Title of art work, name of organ1zat1on or country Singular verb _ _ _ __ ___ j
1~ The news,measles,economics or genetics is/was (singul ar verb) \
1 7 She does not come
1 One of the pupils has died . {Have. has)

2 Neither the Head nor the senior teachers are in school. (is, are)

3 Neither the senior teache rs nor th e Head is in school. (are, i s)

4. None of the particip ants is here. {Are, is)

5. A team of players has arrived . (Have, has)

6. Few of us are around . (Is, are)

7. Two thousan d kwacha is the cost of the book. (are, is)

8. United States of America is a big nation. (are, is)

9 The preside nt ,ogethe r with his ministe rs is coming. (is, are)

8. DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH

SOME RULES TO FOLLOW

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

!.Comm and direct sentences lnfinitiv e(to) +verb
" Bring the bucket of water, 'she told his son She told his son to bring the bucket of water.
2.0irec t sentences with questio n verbs Mainta in the questio n verb
"When did she come? 'Mary asked John. Mary asked John when she came.
3.Direc t sentences withou t questio n verb Use if of whethe r in reporte d speech
"Will you come with us tomorr ow?' John John asked Mary if she would go with them
asked Mary. the followin g day.

{I) TENSE CHANGES

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Presen t tense Past tense
"They are coming this mornin g, 'she said.
She said that they were coming that mornin g.
Presen t continu ou·s - . Past continu ous . ·- , - ·

Jane said, 'I am· revising for exams now."

Jane said that she was revising for exams
then .
Pre!ien t perfect simple Past perfect simp.le

10
 (ii) PRONOUN CHANG ES
-
We You, they -·-----~
-
You(singular} l,she,he,,it/me,h,m .her.,t -
You(plural} We, th ey/us. t~em _ _ -
- - -- -
He, she I - -- .
- --- ...
they You or we
me Hi rn,her,you,,t
us You, them

"We have been work ing since morning, 'john

said.
John said that they had been working that 7
morning
Past simple Past perfect tense
"He became dull towards the end, 'the The teacher told the parents that he had
teacher told the parents. become dull towards the end .
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, 'I was teaching before marrying." She said that she had been teaching before
marrying.
Past perfect Past perfect (no change)
He said, 'Th e lesson had alrea dy uegun wlten He ~aid that the lesson had already begun
she arrived." when she arrived.
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
He said, 'I have been teaching History for ten He said that he had been teaching History for
years." ten years.

(ii) MODAL VERB CHANGES

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Will Would
can could
shall should

11
I
---- -
I ' H im , her, ,t
them
- - - - - - - - - i, -· .. -
Me or you
-- - - -- -- -
Us, you
my You, their
I our
·- -- -
H1s,her ,, r s
- - -- - -- -;---
Your, their
My, your
their Our,y o ur
I - -- -- - - - - - -- - - -- - - - --

(II) ADVERBIAL CHANGES.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Now then ---
here there
this that
these those
ago before
today That day
tonight That night
last night Previous night
yesterday Day before/preci ous day
tomorrow Following day/next day
last week Previous week
Next mont h Followi ng month
1. A:"lt shall be well with you this year, 'the pastor told the church

B: The pastor told the church that it should be well with them that year.

2. A:"I will punish you if you do not pass the exam tomorrow, 'Zulu told the class.

B: Zulu told the class that he would pun ish it if it didn't pass the exam the next day.

3. A:"Come here now, 'the teacher ordered Charity.

B: The teacher ordered Charity to go trere then.

4. A:" They went on with the rally against the police advice, 'the MP told DC.

8: The MP told the DC that th_ey had gone on with the rally against the police advice .

5. A:"Go behind me Satan now, 'Joshua ordered Waiyaki.

B: Joshua ordered Waiyaki to go behind him then.

12
 9 . PHRASAL VERBS
- -··- --- - -~
l _PHRASAL VERB .- -
MEANINGS
-- .. --
I Make up for comp ensate 'I
/ Take after resemble
I Put off - ·- -I
Postpone
Fell out
>- - - Break in relat ionship
Took off leave
~ Called off cancelled
~ Look down upon despise
Go over revise
Make fun of To ridicule
Do away with discard
Back down withdraw
Check in To register
Get back at To revenge
Held up delayed
Put up with tolerate
Turn up Arrived
Account for explain
Succeed in manage l

1. John forgot to put out the candle and burnt the whole house. (off, out, on)

2. Maltidah remained studying to make up for the lost time. (at, for, with)

3. After two weeks of their relationship, ldah and James fell out. (down, off, out}

4 . Mr Phiri goes over the previous work before starting the new topic. (on, over, out)

5. The team backed off after losing the first game. (out, down, off)

6. The employees check in every morning before they start working. (on, out, in)

7. Tyson vowed to get back at Myweather_after losing the first bout. (on, at, for)

8. Peter decided to do away with old friends . (from, of, with)

9. The thief took off when he heard the gun s_~ot. (away, o_n, off)

10.Taonga takes after her father in English fluency . (with, at, after)

13
I 10. PREPOSITIONS
- - -
MAIN WORD PREP MEANING - I
- -
-
Bargain for Negotiate terms of condition - - ~
. --- 'l
Absorb in Take in or engross the attention of ..
Devo,d
-- -
of E.ntirely lacking or free from ·--- - j

Glare at Stare in anger -- - - l

Ignorant of Lacking in knowledge -- - ·-
--,I
Bestow on Confer an honour.gift or a right - ·;
-
Insist on Persist in doing something -- - - '
translate into Change the form of something --
Subject to Cause or force to undergo
reconcile with Make peace with someone ·-
obliged to Owe gratitude to someone
comply with To abide by
concurred with Agree with
refrain from Desist from
entice with Win favour - -
confronted with Faced with
consist of Comprise - -- --- --
concentrate on Having focus on something
associated with Befriend with
familiar with To be accustomed to
Pride in Proud in something
I .The union bargained for improved condition of service. (at, for with)

2. He was absorbed in the news that he could not see it coming. (With, in, at)

3. The story he has told is devoid of any truth. (At, of, with)

4. The father glared at his daughter after her failure in exam . (With, at, for)

5. I am ignorant of the good word in the clean book. (in,at,of)

6. The honorary Degree was bestowed on chiluba. (To, on, at)

7. The school head insisted on pupils coming early to school. (In, on, at)

8 : The book w·as translated into French . (to,into,with)

. .

_9. The wqrkers were subjected to harsh condition of work. (With; at, to)
10. The husband reconciled with his wife. (And, at, with)

14
• ,
I 11. INVERSION

l NORMAL: The snake hit the stone as 1t wigged in the green grass.

INVERSION: Wiggling in the green grass, the snake hit the stone.

2. NORMAL: The girl returned from school w ith pregnancy to his father's dismay

INVERSION : To his father's dismay, the girl returned from school with pregnancy

3 NORMAL: M y certificates have gone.

INVERSION: Gone are my certificates.

4 . NORMAL: The birds flew up in the sky.

INVERSION: Up the skies, the birds flew .

5 . NORMAL: The students had hardly got out of class when the rain started .

INVERSION: Hardly had the students got out of the class when the rain started

12. ADVERBS
I

TYPE EXAMPLES
Adverb of manner Slowly,quietly,carefully,patiently,
Adverb of frequency Seldom,rarely,occasionally ,often, hardly ,sometimes
Adverb of degree Quite,slightly,almost, too, fairly, very
Adverb of time Now,then,to day,this morning, next
Adverb of place Here, there, in the hall, in town. West of Lusaka,
within
Adverb of reason Because,since,why,
1.Never before Has/have
Never before Has my wife fed me this well
1. A: Kasompe does not ohen come to school.

B: Seldom does Kasompe come to school.

2. A : It is rare to see Chishimba on punishment .

8: Only occ~sionally is Chishimba seen on punishmen t.

3. A: Mike rarely answers questions in class.

B: Hardly does Mike answer questions in class.

15
Pi

'
I 4. A: My husband comes home drunk almost every day.

B: Seldom does my husband come without being drunk.

I 5. A: Charity almost died from the road .accident . (Use not in B sentence)

8: Charity did not die from the road accident.

13. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
Modifies the noun or the pronoun Modifies a verb, an adjective or
another adverb
She is slow swimmer She swims slowly
It is a hard traintng He trains hard
It is a late start It started late.
·-
He is a frequent visitor He visits frequently

---- - - - - -
Order:opin ion,size,sh ape,colour ,age,mate rial,nation ality Order :ad verb, verb/ adjective/ adverb
,noun or vice versa

1.He bought an expensive large yellow vase.(opinion,size,colour,material)

2.He put the chapatti on a big plastic plate.(size,material,noun)

14. ARTICLES

A • It is an indefinite article which refers to one of the general group

• It is used before words beginning with a consonant sound which are
pronounced
• A child from your class .
• A teacher at your school helped me .
An • An is used before a noun beginning with a silent consonan t or with
vowel
• George took an orange .
• Martha read for an hour
The • It is a definite a_rticle which refers to somethin g in particular . - I

. . .. The child has come. (Jane from lOc)"

- - -- ·~ .. . .
~

• The salesman is here.(MrP hiri)

16
 15. QUESTION TAGS
- -
1. Positive statements c;,r sentences are usually • He comes here often, doesn't he?
followed by negative tags except for • You came yesterday, didn't you?
commands .
2. Negative statements are always followed by • He is not coming tomorrow, is he?
positive tags. • He does not come here often, does
he?
3.After statements containing subjects like • Somebody told you, didn't they?
anyone,somebody,no one,nobody,none and • No one was there, were they?
neither, we use they in the _tag,
4. Words such as nothing, no one, scarcely, • Nothing happened, did it?
hardly and seldom have negative meanings • You. seldom go to town, do you?
and are therefore followed by a positive
question tag. -

5. The command positive statements will have • Let's go now, shall we?
positive question tags. • Open the window, will you?

16. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

A verb in the active voice has the subject A verb in the passive voice has some action
performing an action. performed onto the subject
1. Mary climbed Mt Kenya last June. 1. Mt Kenya .was climbed by Mary last June.
- . .. - -
2. The children appreciated the show. 2.The show was appreciated by the children
17. QUANTIFIERS

These are words showing a certain amount or measure of something.

l.Few • It has a negative meaning and is used for countable nouns
• There are few pupils this morning.( meaning learning cannot take
place}
2.A few • It has a positive meaning and is used for countable nouns.
• It indicates that there is some.
• There is a few pupils in class.(meaning there are some pupils and
learning can take place)
3.Little - • It has a negative meaning and used for non~countable nouns
• There is little water in the jar.(not enough to prepare something)
4.A little .... . ·· · ·• -- It has a negative meaning and used for non-countable nouns.
·. • _. !h~re_~is a little water in the b_ucke~.(th~_r_
e_is somethi.n g to use to
prepare} ' · · --,

17
 18. CQNJUCTIONS OR TRANSITl9~AL WORDS

ADDITI ONAL
: LINKER S
ICONTR AST
LINKERS
--
SPARTIAL
LINKERS
CHRON OLOGIC AL
LINKERS
IMPORT ANCE
LINKERS
-
; In additio n yet above first first
I
Further more
- -
Howc•; er Beyond Second Second
/ Besides But Anothe r Then More importa nt
: Anothe r Conversely Nonetheless Next Most importa nt
Moreov er Nevertheless Below Immed iately The least
Similarly Although Right As soon as The largest
1
In the same vein Despite besides Finally anothe r
In spite of Suddenly
CAUSE-EFFECT As At last
Consequently Though Meanw hile
As result Whereas during
Thus Otherw ise
Therefo re Instead
For this reason Even so
so Even though
-

19. INTENSIFIERS

These are words which strengt hen or give emphasis to other words
WORD MEANI NG
Fairly • A little or modera te.it suggests more positive attitud e than rather
Rather • A little or modera te. It suggests a negativ e attitud e
Quite • Comple tely little or less than .it weaken s the adverb that follows
very • To high degree
too • More than what is necessary
hardly • Almost not
Barely • Almost not
Nearly • Almost

20. TRANSPORT

MODE OF TRANSPORT BOARD ING A VEHICLE ALIGH TINNG

Car Get into Get out of
Taxi Get into Get out of . ..
Lorry Get into
.. Get out of
Train Get into Get out of
Bus Get on/get onto .. . ..
Get off or out of ·
plane Get on/get onto Get off
Bicycle Get on/on·t o· Get off
18
 21. TENSES
- -- - - - - - --
TYPE FUNCTION EXAMPLES
Simple present • To show habitual
actions( activities
•
•
He wakes up early every day
The sun rises in the East.
--7
I
happening everyday) --- !
Simple past • Describe an action • He lost his pen
performed and • They left their luggage
completed in the past
Present perfect • Oescribe actions • She has left just left
which have just been • She has gone to school
completed
Past perfect • Describes an already • The teacher had left before it started
completed action raining
sometime in the past • The children had arrived home
before the rain fell.
Present perfect • It describes an action • I have been sleeping since morning
continuous that had started in • She has been working since last night
the past and is
continuing in the
present
Past perfect • It shows actions that • We had been waiting for hours
continuous began in the past and before the plane landed
continued at some • I had been learning in this school for
point in the past three years before I transferred.
Future perfect • It describes actions • By May next year, will have been at
continuous that will take place this job for five years.
and completed at or • In three years'time,I will have
before a certain time graduated with master's degree.
in the future

22. NOUNS

COLLECTIVE NOUN THINGS INVOLVED

Herd Of cattle - -

Swarm Of bees
Bouquet . .
(jf flowers
Flock Of sheep
'
Mob Of demonstrators
19
 Block
Pack
Pr ide
-
·-_=--iOf
--
flats
Of dogs
-- ----
Of lions
-·-

Shoal
- --·-··- - Of fish
p iece Of chalk
Piece furniture - -- - - - -- --- -
p_-~i~ ~~~ - ·--_-_-_-_-_-_-_--~1-__0___f~t_r_o_u-se- rs -__
I J

23. RELATIVE CLAUSES

-,

, RELATIVE RULE EXAMPLE

I NOUN
' The girl who wins the race will
' Who/that Used when the subject are people •
I get the prize
I
I
I • The boy that w ins the race will
get the prize
I Which/that Used when the subject are things
-
• The car that killed the cow
was badly damaged
:
I

I • The car which killed the cow is

I

damaged damaged.
jWhom/who Used when the objects are the people • The boy whom we caught
stealing has been expelled
0 The boy who we caught
stealing has been expelled
, Which/that Used when the objects are the things • The car which we bought
yesterday is stolen.
• The cake that we baked was
' very nice

24. VOCABULARY

WORD MEANING WORD MEANING

Authentic genuine castigate ridicule
attire dress erratic irregular
exceeds surpass candid frank
sophisticated complex affluent wealthy
disclose revealed verbatim Word by word
infringe violated tentative provisional
adjacent next anathema gossip
... enrolled enlist dec~mp_.. -1.-- ..
-- .
leave
vigor strength solace comfort
-·
surveillance Close watch heinous , serious
1
amiable Pleasant to talk to superficial shallow
20
 - - - -- - - --- -- - 1 appr_op;;-m - , suitable
mobility ------

2.5 . PURPOSE

1 EXPRESSION MEANING
1
1 To have • I went to a hotel to have a drink - --·-
2.in order to • I went to town in order to have a drink --
3.so as to • 1 went to town so as to have a drink -- - -
4.for • I went to town for a drink -- -
5.so that • I went to town so that I could have a drink --
6.in order that • I went to town in order that I could have a drink ----- ,
I
7.with a view • To discussing I
I
8.what does it look • How does it look? I
I
I
like? .J

26. DETERMINERS

~ORD
Much
MEANING
It is used with uncountable
EXAMPLE
1. There isn't much soup .
~
nouns to mean large amount. 2. Is there much salt left? I
Many It is used with plural 1. Many people are poor. I
countable nouns to mean a 2. Did she bring many things I
I
number of with her?
A lot of, lots of, plenty of They mean the same as much 1. Peter has a lot of friends.
2. Rita has lots of money. J
27. PARTICIPLES
l.A: Tom was sent to fetch Mary when the family heard she was sick.

B: Hearing that Mary was ill, the family sent Tom to fetch her.

2 .A : As the dog ran out onto the road, a passing lorry knocked it down and killed it.

B: Running out onto the road, the dog was knocked down and killed by a passing

Lorry.

3.A: The members of the church praise the pastor because he is helpful.

8: Being very helpful, the new pastor is praised by the members of the church.

4.A: I left my gates open all day because I was expecting an important visitor.

21
 8 : Expecting an important visitor, I left the gate open all day.

5.A: The man saw a snake that was wriggling through a hole in the tree .

8 : Wiggling through a hole in the tree, a snake was seen by the man

28. TROUBLE SOME PAIRS OF WORDS

► Live • To live is to reside in a • I live in Lusaka.

place permanen tly
► stay • To stay is to be in a • I stayed at the hotel while in
place· for a wh ile Mansa.
► Take • We use take when • He took the children to school.
someone goes with
someone or something
to another place
► _.F.etcb • We use fetch when
someone goes to
collect someone or • He was asked to fetch the children
something which he from school.
brings back.

► At that • It is used to refe r to a • The bell w ent at 14.00 hours. At

time point i.n time. that time I was in the dormitory .

► By that • It used to refer to the • The bell went at 14.00 hours. By

time or by period up to a certain that time I had been resting.
then point
► Accept • It is used to show that • He has accepted the invitation .
somebody has taken
or received something
which has been
offered or given to
him.

► agree • '
We use agree to say • He agreed t~ come .
yes.to an idea, an
opinion or suggestion.

22
 · - -· ... - ·--.
I
,. Borrow We use borrow when • I have borrowed Mary's pen. I
I
I • I

I
we get someth ing I
I
I
from a person for a
period of time with the I
I
I
intention of returning
it
I
,. Lend • We use lend when we
give something to a
person for a period of • M ary has lent her pen to John.
time.
,.""- Forget • She has forgotten her bag.
• leave something
unintentio nally or
failure to recall
something

► left leaving something • She has decided to leave her bag.

intentiona lly
► How • How means in what • How do you get to Monze?
way • Show me how to do it .

,. What--- • What-- like is used

like when describing the • He told us what it was like to fly in
general appearance or a plane.
condition of • What does she look like?
something.

► Always • It means at all times • She always dresses smartly

► Ever • It means at any time • I don't remembe r ever writing to
and mostly used in her.
questions and
negatives

► Put on • To put on is to clothe • The boxer put on the gloves

oneself in before he ~ntered the ring

► Wear • To wear is to be • The boxer was wearing the gloves

dressed in in the ring.

29. LEXIS
PAIR OF WORDS MEANINGS
-•
• Principle The guiding rule of conduc't
23
 -- - - - -- -- - · - -
• -1 •
•
principal
. I
The head of an instit u_~ion - - -
Course I • The period of study
• Coarse I • Something which is n~ t _!i~e. -- - - . .. .
l
• late r • Aft erwards
• latter I I
• Second of the two
I -
- -
• Bald • not covered by hair
• Bold • to be courageous I

• complement • something extra making an item complete I

• compliment • to pra ise someone . .
• Foul • offensive to the senses '
•
I
foal
• a young hoarse .
• lay • to put something in pos ition gently(laid) I
• lie • rema in in a specific position(lay(p) lain(pp) I

THE BEGINER IS NOT THE OWNER BUT THE FINISHER!

24