GENERAL CHEMISTRY – MARJURI JEREMIAS

MEASUREMENTS IN CHEMISTRY
THE IMPORTANCE OF MEASUREMENT
- In science, experiments are performed.
- Numerical values or data are obtained
from these experiments.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
- Put the following units in order from
smallest to largest
✓ Millimeter, centimeter, meter,
kilometer
✓ Milligram, centigram, gram, METRIC CONVETSION FACTORS
kilogram
✓ Picolitre, microliter, liter, kiloliter

TABLE D – SELECTED UNITS

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
- When studying chemistry it is common to
encounter very large or very small
numbers.
- Need a system in which to shorten long
number chains.
o Ex. The number of air molecules
in a liter of air at 20oC and
normal barometric pressure is
25,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
.
o Ex: The distance between two
hydrogen atoms in a diatomic
hydrogen molecule is
0.000,000,000,074 meters.
- in scientific notation, these long chains of
numbers are written in the form of; M x
10n
TABLE C – SELECTED PREFIXES
- SN is simply a number times 10 raised to
an exponent.
- M is a number greater that or equl to 1
and less than 10.
- n is the exponent (the nth power or 10). It
can be either positive or negative and
represent the number of decimal places
moved.
▪ POSITIVE (+) n means a large
number so the decimal moves to
the right by n places
 ▪ NEGATIVE (-) n means small - Repeating a particular measurement will
number so the decimal moves to usually not obtain precisely the same
the left by n places result.
◼ The measures values vary slightly
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION CHEAT SHEET from one another.
- When converting from standard notation
to scientific notation… PRECISION
✓ If the number is one or greater - Refers to the closeness of a set of values
you will have a positive exponent obtained from identical measurements of
and move the decimal to the left. something

ACCURACY
- Refers to the closeness of a single
✓ If the number is less than one measurement to its true value.
you will have a negative
exponent and move the decimal RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
to the right. - The number of digits reported for the
value of a measured quantity.
1. All nonzero numbers and zeros
between are significant.
2. Zeros at the beginning of a number
- # of spaces moved by decimal =
are never significant.
exponent
3. Zeros at the end of a number are
significant only is a decimal is
- When converting from scientific notation
present, and to the right of the
to standard notation…
decimal.
✓ If the exponent is positive, you
will have a large number (>1) and
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS
move the decimal to the right.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
- The answer is given with as many
significant figures in the measurement
✓ If the exponent is negative, you with the least amount of significant
will have a small number (<1) figure.
and move the decimal to the left.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
- The answer is given with as many
significant figures as the measurement
with the least number of decimal places.
- Exponent = # of spaces to be moved by
decimal. PERCENT ERROR
- Sometimes it is important to calculate
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES how far off a measured value has
- If you were measuring this granite block deviated from the true or accepted value.
in inches, what would you determine its - For this we use Percent (%) Error
width to be?
- In measurements there is always some
amount of uncertainty.
- The significant digits in a measurement
consist of all the digits known with
certainty plus one final digit, which is
uncertain or is estimate.
MEASUREMENT - Density is high for solids, comparatively
- Measurements provide much of the less for liquids, and least for gases.
information that informs the hypotheses, - mass of a unit volume of a material
theories, and laws describing the behavior substance.
of matter and energy in both the - The formula for density is d = M/V
macroscopic and microscopic domains of
chemistry. DENSITY
- Every measurement provides three kinds - Volume is the space confined within a
of information: closed three-dimensional space.
1. the size or magnitude of the - It can be a space that a substance holds or
measurement (a number); shape occupies.
2. a standard of comparison for the - Density offers a convenient means of
measurement (a unit); and obtaining the mass of a body from its
3. an indication of the uncertainty of volume or vice versa;
the measurement. - the Mass is equal to the volume
multiplied by the density (M = Vd),
SI UNITS PREFIXES - while the volume is equal to the mass
- The standards for these units are fixed by divided by the density (V = M/d).
international agreement, and they are
called the International System of Units or
SI Units (from the French, Le Système
International d’Unités).
- SI units have been used by the United
States National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) since 1964.
- Units for other properties may be
derived from these seven base units.

BASE UNITS OF THE SI SYSTEM

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
CELSIUS
- originally called centigrade and later
renamed for Swedish astronomer Anders
Celsius
COMMON UNIT PREFIXES - The temperature conversion formula
from Kelvin to Celsius is:
- C = K − 273.15

FAHRENHEIT
- The Fahrenheit temperature scale is
named for German physicist Daniel
Gabriel Fahrenheit
- The Temperature Conversion Formula
from Celsius to Fahrenheit is:
VOLUME & DENSITY - F = C(9⁄5) + 32
VOLUME - The Temperature Conversion Formula
- Density expresses the amount of mass an from Kelvin to Fahrenheit is:
object holds within its volume or how - F = (K – 273.15) × 9⁄5 + 32
closely things are packed within a
described space. KELVIN
 - William Thompson Kelvin was a 19th so that they can easily be used for
century physicist and mathematician who computations and other calculations.
invented a temperature scale that had - A number in scientific notation is of the
absolute zero as its low endpoint. form a × 10n, where a is a number
- The temperature conversion formula between 1 and 9, inclusive and n can be a
from Celsius to Kelvin is: positive or a negative integer.
- K = C + 273.15 - The decimal point of a number is moved
till we get a number from 1 to 9 and value
of n is the number of number is moved till
we get a number from 1 to 9 and value of
n is the number of places the decimal is
moved.
- If we move the decimal point towards the
left, then the exponent will be positive.
- 8,380,000 in scientific notation is written
as 8.38 × 106
- If we move the decimal point towards the
right, then the exponent will be negative.
- 0.00061 in scientific notation is written as
6.1 × 10-4

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
- A concept of reporting the proper number
ENERGY
of digits in a measurement or a
SPECIFIC HEAT
calculation is called significant figures.
- Specific heat is the amount of heat energy
- Significant figures (sometimes called
required to raise the temperature of a
significant digits) represent the limits of
body per unit of mass.
what values of a measurement or a
- Specific heat is also known as specific
calculation we are sure of.
heat capacity or mass specific heat.
- The convention for a measurement is that
- In SI units, specific heat (symbol: c) is the
the quantity reported should be all known
amount of heat in joules required to raise
values and the first estimated value.
1 gram of a substance 1 Kelvin.
- Usually, specific heat is reported in joules
RULES:
(J).
1. Any nonzero digit is significant.
2. Any zeros between nonzero digits (i.e.,
CALORIMETRY
embedded zeros) are significant.
- Calorimetry is the process of measuring
3. Zeros at the end of a number without a
the amount of heat released or absorbed
decimal point (i.e., trailing zeros) are not
during a chemical reaction.
significant; they serve only to put the
- By knowing the change in heat, it can be
significant digits in the correct positions.
determined whether or not a reaction is
4. However, zeros at the end of any
exothermic (releases heat) or
number with a decimal point are
endothermic (absorbs heat)
significant.
- Calorimetry also plays a large part of
5. Zeros at the beginning of a decimal
everyday life, controlling the metabolic
number (i.e., leading zeros) are not
rates in humans and consequently
significant; again, they serve only to put
maintaining such functions like body
the significant digits in the correct
temperature.
positions.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
EXACT NUMBERS
- Scientific notation is a standard form of
- Chemistry requires the use of exact
writing very small and very big numbers
measurements and substances.
 - In order for the ideal substances and the true result from the trusted
amounts to be created, exact numbers reference.
must be utilized in every step of the - This quotient is multiplied by 100% to get
process. the degree to which your result differs
- An exact number is the number that most from the true result.
accurately designates the amount of a - Here is a formula:
particular item.

PROPERTIES
- Exact numbers have an infinite number of
significant digits. Significant digits are the
numbers of a value that are not zero. - If the percent difference is positive then
These are the only digits in the number your result is bigger than the true
that affect the accuracy of a number. As measurement by the percentage you
exact numbers have an infinite value of calculated.
significant digits, they are the most - If the percent difference is negative then
accurate numbers in existence. your result is smaller than the true
- Exact numbers cannot be simplified at all. measurement.
Numbers and measurements based upon - Precision measures how close
exact numbers technically can be measurements are to each other.
simplified by being rounded to a specified - Accuracy measures how close a result is
decimal place. However, if this is done, to the truth.
they lose their accuracy.
- Exact numbers are known absolutely.
There is no question that they are
accurate. Exact numbers include whole
numbers, fractions, and designated values
that have infinite numbers of decimal
places, such as Avogadro's number,
Euler's number, and Pi.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

- The best quality scientific observations
are both accurate and precise.
ACCURACY
- refers to how close a measurement is to
the true or accepted value.
- Precision refers to how close
measurements of the same item are to
each other.
PRECISION
- is independent of accuracy.
- That means it is possible to be very
precise but not very accurate, and it is
also possible to be accurate without being
precise. FACTOR-LABEL METHOD
- The factor-label method, also called
DETERMINING ACCURACY & PRECISION dimensional analysis or unit conversions,
- You can use a percent difference to is used to convert from one unit of
measure just how accurate a result is. measurement to another unit.
- The difference between your
experimental result and the true result
from the trusted reference is divided by
 - This method works because numbers can
be multiplied by one without changing
their value.
- It is called the factor-label method
because it uses factors that are
equivalent.

MATTER
PROPERTIES OF MATTER:
➢ CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- Air
- Acid
- Base
- Water
- Other chemicals
➢ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Intensive Physical Property
- Color
- Melting point
- Boiling point
- Density
Extensive Physical Property
- Mass
- Volume
- Length
- Shape

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
- The Law of Conservation of Energy states
that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed.
- But if energy can't be made, then where
do we find the energy to run a race?
- And if energy can't be destroyed, then
why does a handheld game system run
out of energy and need new batteries?
- The answer is that energy is undergoing
transformations all around us.
- Energy transformations are when one
type of energy turns into another type of
energy-like when electrical energy from a
power outlet creates thermal energy to
make our toast, or when chemical energy
in gasoline allows our car to make
mechanical energy and achieve
movement.