UNIT 2 COGNITIVE CHANGES (EARLY

ADULTHOOD, MIDDLE AGE, OLD

AGE)
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Early Adulthood
2.2.1 Cognitive Changes
2.3 Middle Adulthood
2.3.1 Cognitive Changes
2.4 Old Age
2.4.1 Cognitive Changes
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Unit End Questions
2.7 Suggested Readings
2.8 Answers to the Self Assessment Questions

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Young adulthood is a time when most of us finish school, find a career we enjoy, and
create a family of our own. The cognitive stages during the early adulthood can be
discussed as a period of realistic and pragmatic thinking; reflective and relativistic thinking.
According to Piaget, he thought that young adults were quantitatively advanced in their
thinking (they have more knowledge), however, they are qualitatively similar. He also
believed that adults increase their knowledge in a specific area.
In this unit we will be dealing with all the three stages of adulthood and examine the
physical, cognitive and other changes that come about. Particularly the focus will be on
cognitive development.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
z define and describe the period of early adulthood;
z describe the cognitive changes during early adulthood;
z explain the characteristics of middle adulthood;
z delineate the cognitive changes during middle adulthood;
z define and describe the period of old age; and
z analyse the cognitive changes during old age.

2.2 EARLY ADULTHOOD

Young adulthood is a time when most of us finish school, find a career we enjoy, and
create a family of our own. Physically, it is a time where we are our healthiest and will
reach our peak performance. Cognitively, it is a time to grow up and make life decisions. 17
Adulthood and Ageing Socioemotionally, it is a time to take on roles of independence, lifestyles, marriage, and
family.
According to Erik Erikson’s eight stages of development, this is a time of intimacy vs.
isolation. One either gets involved in an intimate relationship or isolates oneself. According
to the literature, many areas of development are paramount during early adulthood.
The cognitive stages during the early adulthood can be discussed as a period of realistic
and pragmatic thinking; reflective and relativistic thinking. According to Piaget, he thought
that young adults were quantitatively advanced in their thinking (they have more
knowledge), however, they are qualitatively similar. He also believed that adults increase
their knowledge in a specific area.
Between the ages of 35-60, we find vast changes in many areas of our lives. The most
obvious changes related to our lifestyle include: physical development and health, career
and finances, marraige, and leisure activities. For many, midlife is a time when they start
to think about “how much time they have left”. Individuals begin to reexamine their
lives, their relationships, their work, and even to question the meaning of it all. This
process has been referred to as a mid-life crisis. Clearly, middle adulthood is a time
change and development.
Middle adulthood is the period in which an individual changes in their cognitive
functioning as concerned to their intelligence: crystallized and fluid; information processing
and memory; expertise; career, work and leisure; religion, health and coping; and meaning
in life.
While the adult years are generally a time of vitality and good health, their are health
concerns. The main health problems of middle adulthood are cardiovascular disease,
cancer, and menopause. Another major problem that effects health and behaviour is
stress. Overall this is a time of major change and development physically and mentally.
During the middle adult years there is a noticeable change in how adults view their
careers. By this time most individuals have settled into their careers and between the
ages of 40-45 have ceased to advance up the career ladder. In general, job satisfaction
and commitment tend to be high and continue to increase into our sixties.
It is also at this time that adults adjust their idealistic hopes to realistic possibilities. This
adjustment to attainable goals is dependent on how much time is left before retirement,
with retirement planning being a major area of financial concern. These reassesments
may lead to stress and sadness over unaccomplished goals, which for a small few may
lead to a midlife career change.
Crystallized intelligence improves through middle age and on. The ability to remember
and use information acquired over a lifetime is increased, and also depends on education
and culture of the individual. An individual is able to use stored information’s and process
automatically in their daily lives.
Many psychologists believe that fluid intelligence was primarily genetic and that
crystallized intelligence was primarily learned. This nature-nurture distinction is probably
invalid, in part because the acquisition of crystallized intelligence is affected by the
quality of fluid intelligence.
Another financial adjustment that tends to take place for many midadults is the planning
for college and setting aside the necessary funds for their children. In response to these
growing financial needs and greater free time, due to their children getting older, many
women enter or reenter the workforce. In short, this tends to be a time of career and
18 financial readjustment and planning for both men and women.
Leisure holds an important place in helping adults to deal with life experiences. Not Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
only does leisure enhance ones well-being it is also a buffer to the stresses of life. Old Age)

Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old,
which are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance,
child bearing and careers. It is the first stage of adulthood in which the body physically
changes and is one of the hardest times in our lives after teenage years. One has to deal
with so much in this time and it seems to be real time of self search as well as preparation.
During this time in our life we find ourselves with a new sense of independence and for
the first time in life we really feel free. However, along with that comes a lot of added
personal responsibility to both ourselves and others and we really begin to learn more
about ourselves as well as others through social interaction.
Young adulthood is a time when most of us finish school, find a career we enjoy, and
create a family of our own. Physically, it is a time where we are our healthiest and will
reach our peak performance. Cognitively, it is a time to grow up and make life decisions.

2.2.1 Cognitive Changes

The cognitive stages during the early adulthood can be discussed as a period of realistic
and pragmatic thinking; reflective and relativistic thinking. According to Piaget, he thought
that young adults were quantitatively advanced in their thinking (they have more
knowledge), however, they are qualitatively similar. He also believed that adults increase
their knowledge in a specific area.
Realistic and Pragmatic Thinking
Realistic thinking means looking at all aspects of a situation (the positive, the negative,
and the neutral) before making conclusions. In other words, realistic thinking means
looking at yourself, others, and the world in a balanced and fair way.
Some experts argue that the idealism of Piaget’s formal operational stage declines in
young adulthood, replaced by more realistic, pragmatic thinking. Schaie argues that
adults use information differently than adolescents.
According to K.Warner Schaie, adults progress beyond adolescents only in their use
of intellect. We typically switch from actually acquiring knowledge to applying that
knowledge in our everyday lives. To support his theory of development, he included
the following two stages to describe the cognitive changes in adults:
z Achieving Stage
Involves applying ones intelligence to situations that have profound consequences on
achieving long term goals, such as those involving careers. This stage of development
includes mastering the cognitive skills needed to monitor one’s own behaviour. Young
adults in this stage will also acquire a considerable amount of independence.
z Responsibility Stage
This stage of development begins in early adulthood and extends into middle adulthood.
This is the time when a family is established and attention is given to the needs of a
spouse and children. Young adults incur social responsibilities, deal with starting a career,
and must take on some level of responsibility for others at work and in the community.
According to Labouvie-Vief, there are many changes that take place in the thinking of
young adults, including a new integration of thought. Young adults rely less on logical
analysis when solving problems. Idealised logic is replaced with commitment, and youth 19
Adulthood and Ageing focus their energy on finding their niche in the work place and society. During young
adulthood, logical skills don’t decline because cognitive abilities are strong.
Reflective and Relativistic Thinking
William Perry said that adolescents often engage in dualistic, absolute thinking, whereas
adults are more likely to engage in reflective, relativistic thinking. The term dualistic
thinking is used to describe an adolescents view of the world. Everything is seen in the
polar terms or opposites. Examples for this are right/wrong or good/bad.
As youth mature, dualistic thinking is replaced by multiple thinking. They gradually
become aware of the diversity of opinion in other people and realise that authority may
not have all the answers. Young adults begin to create their own style of thinking, and
believe that others are entitled to the opinion they hold and that one opinion is good as
anyone’s else’s. This leads to the next form of thinking, relative subordinate thinking.
Here, personal opinions begin to be challenged by others, and a logical evaluation of
knowledge is actively pursued. This leads to the final form of thinking, which is full
relativism. In this stage of thinking, young adults completely understand that truth is
relative, and knowledge is constructed and not given, contextual and not absolute.
Post formal thought is qualitatively different than Piaget’s formal operational thought. It
involves understanding that the correct answer to a problem requires reflective thinking,
may vary from one situation to another, and that the search for truth is often an ongoing,
never-ending process. Along with this is the belief that solutions to problems need to be
realistic and that emotion and subjective factors can influence thinking.

2.3 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Middle age is the period of age beyond young adulthood but before the onset of old
age. Various attempts have been made to define this age, which is around the third
quarter of the average life span of human beings.
In middle adulthood, an important challenge is to develop a genuine concern for the
welfare of future generations and to contribute to the world through family and work.
This period is aged between 40-60 years of life.
From the period of twenties and thirties, the individual arrives at middle age in the
forties and fifties. Middle age is characterised by competence, maturity, responsibility
and stability. This is the time when one wants to enjoy the success of job, satisfaction
derived from the family and social life. People look forward to the success of their
children. Attention gets more focused on health, the fate of children, ageing parents, the
use of leisure time and plans of old age.
Middle aged adults often show visible signs of ageing such as loss of skin elasticity and
graying of hair. Physical fitness usually wanes, with a 5-10kg accumulation of body fat,
reduction in aerobic performance and a decrease in maximal heart rate. Strength and
flexibility also decrease throughout middle age. However, people age at different rates
and there can be significant differences between individuals of the same age.
Midlife is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution to society. It
is found that the best works of scientists, writers and artists are produced during the
late forties and early fifties.
The changes that occur from adolescence to young adulthood may be stressful at times,
but between the ages of 19 and 30 we are at our prime physically, and our cognitive
skills are becoming finalised. Sure, sometimes it seems like we’re dealing with a million
20 things all at once and that one of any number of things could change the rest of our lives,
but that’s the best part about it. Young adulthood is when (most of us) decide exactly Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
what it is that we want to do with the rest of our lives whether it’s raise a family, start a Old Age)
career, or both.

2.3.1 Cognitive Changes

Middle adulthood is the period in which an individual changes in their cognitive
functioning as concerned to their intelligence: crystallized and fluid; information processing
and memory; expertise; career, work and leisure; religion, health and coping; and meaning
in life.
Intelligence
Cognitive development is multidirectional. It gains in some area and losses in others.
Cross sectional measures of intelligence show decreases with age. There may be cohort
effect of better or more schooling. Longitudinal measures show increase, at least until
the age of 50s. It may be inflated due to practice effects and attrition. Cognitive abilities
are more likely to increase than decrease, with exception of arithmetic skills, which
begin to shift slightly downwards by age 40.
Fluid intelligence refers to our ability to see relationships, use abstract reasoning, and
analyse information. Crystallized intelligence refers to our ability to use knowledge,
experience, vocabulary, and verbal memory (Horn & Hofer, 1992). Fluid intelligence
declines with age, but crystallized intelligence continues to grow as we learn more during
middle age.
z Fluid Intelligence
Fluid intelligence is the flexible reasoning and is made up of the basic mental abilities
such as inductive reasoning, abstract thinking and speed of thinking required for
understanding any subject. It is fast and abstract reasoning, in adults, there is a decline
with age. It includes nonverbal abilities and nonverbal puzzle solving, novel logic
problems; allows best works at age 20s and 30s by mathematicians, scientists and
poets.
Fluid intelligence peaks during the early adulthood and then declines ability to apply
mental powers to new problems, perceiving relationships, forming concepts and drawing
inferences. It declines probably due to changes in brain. These differences might be due
to cohort effects related to educational differences rather than to age.
z Crystallized Intelligence
Crystallized intelligence is the verbal reasoning that holds across the lifespan which
reflects accumulated knowledge and vocabulary. It allows best works at age of 40s,
50s, and older by historians, philosophers, prose writers. It refers to the accumulation
of facts, information and knowledge that comes with education and experience within a
particular culture.
Crystallized intelligence improves through middle age and on. The ability to remember
and use information acquired over a lifetime is increased, and also depends on education
and culture of the individual. An individual is able to use stored information’s and process
automatically in their daily lives.
Many psychologists believe that fluid intelligence was primarily genetic and that
crystallized intelligence was primarily learned. This nature-nurture distinction is probably
invalid, in part because the acquisition of crystallized intelligence is affected by the
quality of fluid intelligence. 21
Adulthood and Ageing Fluid intelligence declines during adulthood, although this decline is temporarily masked
by an increase in crystallized intelligence.
IQ tests may lack ecological validity as the reaction time slows down with age and
results may be due to physical changes and not cognitive changes.
Robert Sternberg proposed that intelligence is composed of three distinct parts:
z Analytic / Academic
It consists of mental processes that foster efficient learning, remembering and thinking.
Multiple choice tests, with one and only one right answer reward analytic intelligence.
They tend to have an extensive, highly organised knowledge of a particular domain and
increase in work satisfaction. There is a greater commitment towards the job. They
have greatest physical and psychological well-being. The current middle-aged worker
faces more challenges, and increased career challenges lead to career changes. The
midlife career changes can be self-motivated or imposed by others.
z Creative
Creativity is another important adult skill related to intelligence. Like intelligence, though,
it is hard to agree what it is. We know that some kinds of creativity, like writing, peaks
during middle adulthood. Creativity and practical intelligence often combine to create
people we call experts in their fields, whether repairing cars, farming, writing, or designing
a spacecraft.
It involves the capacity to be flexible and innovative when dealing with new situations.
Expertise increases in the middle adulthood years. They tend to use the accumulated
experience of their life situations to solve problems. There is more creativity and flexibility
in their domain than novices.
They prefer to make their own decisions and plans. They prefer their own judgment to
that of others and don’t tend to back down in the face of criticism or disagreement.
They are most resourceful when faced with unique circumstances or problems. They
show an imaginative use of many different words. They show more flexibility in their
approach to problems, are eager to try new avenues, and are not bound to rules or
accepted ideas of the way things work. They show originality and do not often come up
with off the shelf solutions.
z Practical
It enables the person to adapt his/her abilities to contextual demands. They tend to
have a pleasant time after work. They have more time and money to pursue activities
and interests. There is decreased rate of heart disease and death due to vacations and
leisure. During this time they are preparing themselves for retirement.
Information Processing and Memory
During the middle adulthood the speed of information processing, reaction time, and
memory declines. The use of effective memory strategies can decrease the decline.
Religion, Health, Coping and Meaning in Life
Religion and spirituality is an important dimension of life during this stage. A significant
increase in religiosity and spirituality is seen during middle age. There is an individual
difference in religious interest, as the females show a stronger interest in religion than
males do. Positive association of religious participation and longevity is noticed. Religion
22 promotes physical and psychological health and positive functions of religious coping.
According to Victor Frankl, the examining of the finiteness of our existence leads to Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
exploration of meaning in life. Many middle-aged individuals increasingly examine life’s Old Age)
meaning.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Answer the following statements with True or False:
i) Young Adults is the time of freedom and when they find a sense of
independence. ( )
ii) Piaget thought that young adults are not quantitatively advanced in their
thinking. ( )
iii) William Perry gave views about realistic thinking. ( )
iv) As youth mature, dualistic thinking is replaced by multiple thinking.
( )
v) Crystallized intelligence is in peak during middle adulthood. ( )
2) Fill in the blanks:
i) Creativity involves the capacity to be ____________ and innovative when
dealing with new situations.
ii) ________________________ refers to our ability to see relationships,
use abstract reasoning and analyse information.
iii) _____________________ means looking at all aspects of situations before
making conclusions.
iv) Cognitive development is ________________________.
v) Religion and _____________________ is an important dimension of life
during middle adulthood.

2.4 OLD AGE

Late adulthood (old age) is generally considered to begin at about age 65. Erik Erikson
suggests that at this time it is important to find meaning and satisfaction in life rather than
to become bitter and disillusioned, that is, to resolve the conflict of integrity vs. despair.
Despite the problems associated with longevity, studies of people in their 70s have
shown that growing old is not necessarily synonymous with substantial mental or physical
deterioration. Many older people are happy and engaged in a variety of activities.
Gerontology, an interdisciplinary field that studies the process of ageing and the ageing
population, involves psychology, biology, sociology, and other fields.
Late Adulthood is the period in an individual’s life beginning at ages sixty or seventy and
ending at death. This life period, like any other, is one of continuing change and adjustment
both in the physical and the psychosocial realms.
Theories of successful ageing include the following:
The disengagement theory states that as people age, their withdrawal from society is
normal and desirable as it relieves them of responsibilities and roles that have become
difficult. This process also opens up opportunities for younger people; society benefits
as more-energetic young people fill the vacated positions.
The activity theory contends that activity is necessary to maintain a “life of quality,” 23
Adulthood and Ageing that is, that one must “use it or lose it” no matter what one’s age and that people who
remain active in all respects—physically, mentally, and socially—adjust better to the
ageing process. Proponents of this theory believe that activities of earlier years should
be maintained as long as possible.
Ageism may be defined as the prejudice or discrimination that occurs on the basis of
age. Although it can be used against people of all ages, older people are most frequently
its target and it may often result in forced retirement. Stereotyping of the elderly is also
an aspect of ageism, as seen in such a statement as “He drives like a little old lady.”

2.4.1 Cognitive Changes

Cognitive development is a general loss cognitively as people move closer to the end of
life. The study of cognitive changes in the older population is complex. Response speeds
(neural and motor) have been reported to decline; some researchers believe that age-
related decrease in working memory is the crucial factor underlying poorer performance
by the elderly on cognitive tasks.
Selective optimisation with compensation is one means of making best use of their
cognitive skills. They narrow their goals, select personally valued activities so as to
optimise or maximise returns from their energy. They find means to compensate for
losses.
Factors related to Cognitive change – mentally active people are likely to maintain their
cognitive abilities into advanced old age. Retirement can bring about changes in cognitive
abilities depending on how those years are used. Terminal decline is a steady, marked
decrease in cognitive functioning prior to death.
Memory
The older adults are taking in information more slowly, and they use strategies less,
can’t inhibit irrelevant information and retrieve important information from long-term
memory. So memory failure increases. Slower processing speed means there will be
less retained from current activities. They also forget context, which helps us recall
information. Recognition memory does not decline as much as free recall.
z Deliberate vs. automatic memory
Implicit memory is memory without conscious awareness. This memory is more
intact than deliberate memory, trying to recall information.
z Associative memory
Associative memory deficit is a problem creating and retrieving links between
pieces of information. This is more common for elders.
z Remote memory is very long-term recall. It is not any clearer than recent recall for
seniors, even though the myth is that seniors remember the past better than recent
events.
z Autobiographical memory is memory for your own personally experienced events.
Seniors best recall their adolescent and early adulthood experiences better than
later life experiences. There was a lot of novelty in those times, as well as life
choices being made- spouses, jobs, educational choices. These experiences were
more emotionally charged, so they are remembered better. They become part of
a person’s life story, and are remembered often.
z Prospective memory is remembering to do planned activities in the future. There is
more forgetfulness and absentmindedness as people age. They tend to do better
24 on event-based memory tasks than time-based tasks.
Language processing Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
The two aspects of language processing diminish in older age: finding the right words Old Age)

and planning what to say and how to say it. Their speech will have more pronouns,
unclear references, they will speak more slowly, pause more often, and have trouble
finding the right words. There will be more hesitations, false starts, sentence fragments,
word repetitions as they age. They tend to simplify their grammatical structures, so they
can better retrieve the words they want.
Problem solving
The problem solving declines in late adulthood so married people tend to collabourate
more in problem-solving. They will be better at solving problems they think are under
their control. They will make more rapid decisions in areas of health, as that is an area
they feel they have learned a lot about.
Wisdom includes practical knowledge, ability to reflect on and apply that knowledge,
emotional maturity, listening skills, and creativity in a way that helps others. This does
increase with age. It occurs as people deal with more difficulties in life and find various
means to adapt to change. Those with wisdom tend to have better education and are
physically healthier. It requires insight into the human condition and often follows that
people with this ability are found in high positions in business and politics and religion.
z Knowledge about fundamental concerns of life: human nature, social relationships,
emotions.
z Effective strategies for applying that knowledge to making life decisions, handling
conflict, giving advice.
z A view of people that considers multiple demands of their life contexts.
z Concern with ultimate human values, the common good, respect for individual
differences in values.
z Awareness and management of the uncertainties of life – many problems have no
perfect solution.
Intellectual changes in late adulthood do not always result in reduction of ability.
While fluid intelligence (the ability to see and to use patterns and relationships to
solve problems) does decline in later years, crystallized intelligence (the ability to
use accumulated information to solve problems and make decisions) has been shown
to rise slightly over the entire life span. K. Warner Schaie and Sherry Willis reported
that a decline in cognitive performance could be reversed in 40% to 60% of elderly
people who were given remedial training.
Retirement
Retirement at age 65 is the conventional choice for many people, although some
work until much later. People have been found to be happier in retirement if they are not
forced to retire before they are ready and if they have enough income to maintain an
adequate living standard. Chronic health problems such as arthritis, rheumatism, and
hypertension increasingly interfere with the quality of life of most individuals as they age.
Widowhood
Women tend to marry men older than they are and, on average, live 5 to 7 years longer
than men. One study found ten times as many widows as widowers. Widowhood is
particularly stressful if the death of the spouse occurs early in life; close support of
friends, particularly other widows, can be very helpful. 25
Adulthood and Ageing Death and dying
Death and dying has been studied extensively by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, who suggested
that terminally ill patients display the following five basic reactions.
z Denial, an attempt to deny the reality and to isolate oneself from the event, is
frequently the first reaction.
z Anger frequently follows, as the person envies the living and asks, “Why should I
be the one to die?”
z Bargaining may occur; the person pleads to God or others for more time.
z As the end nears, recognition that death is inevitable and that separation from
family will occur leads to feelings of exhaustion, futility, and deep depression.
z Acceptance often follows if death is not sudden, and the person finds peace with
the inevitable.
People who are dying are sometimes placed in a hospice, a hospital for the terminally
ill that attempts to maintain a good quality of life for the patient and the family during the
final days. In a predictable pattern after a loved one’s death, initial shock is followed by
grief, followed by apathy and depression, which may continue for weeks. Support
groups and counseling can help in successfully working through this process.
Cognitive interventions
Lifelong learning
z Types of programs include Elderhostel, which encourages older adults to live on
college campuses and take courses from experts, as well as travel the world.
Many universities offer classes at low or no cost for seniors.
z Benefits of continuing education include learning new information, understanding
new ideas, making new friends, and developing a broader perspective on the
world. This may serve to shake up their stereotypes and value diversity in a new
way.
Self Assessment Questions
3) Fill in blanks:
i) The study of the process of ageing and the ageing population is called
__________________.
ii) Ageism is defined as the ___________________ that occur on the basis
of age.
iii) ________________________ is the memory without conscious
awareness.
iv) ________________ memory is very long term recall.
v) ________________ memory is remembering to do plannedc activities in
the future.

2.5 LET US SUM UP

Young adulthood is a time when most of us finish school, find a career we enjoy, and
26 create a family of our own. Physically, it is a time where we are our healthiest and will
reach our peak performance. Cognitively, it is a time to grow up and make life decisions. Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
Socioemotionally, it is a time to take on roles of independence, lifestyles, marriage, and Old Age)
family.
Erik Erikson, a prominent theorist in the field of emotional development, assigns specific
goals to different periods of life. Those in early adulthood are said to be struggling with
intimacy as opposed to isolation. This refers to the desire for a stable long-term
relationship. Those who have achieved intimacy are thought to host a range of positive
attributes, such as confidence and acceptance. Alternatively, those in isolation are more
likely to fear loneliness and abandonment. Intimacy requires an individual to sacrifice
some of his independence for another person. After successfully traversing the struggle
of isolation and intimacy, an individual will deal with generativity, which is the desire to
improve society for future generations.
Between the ages of 35-60, we find vast changes in many areas of our lives. The most
obvious changes related to our lifestyle include: physical development and health, career
and finances, marraige, and leisure activities. For many, midlife is a time when they start
to think about “how much time they have left”. Individuals begin to reexamine their
lives, their relationships, their work, and even to question the meaning of it all. This
process has been referred to as a mid-life crisis. Clearly, middle adulthood is a time
change and development.
One of the major aspects of middle adulthood are the physical and biological changes
that occur in the body. Two of the most noticeable changes are seeing and hearing.
Each of these begin to decline in the middle years. One of the physical changes that
occur is in height. Most individuals get a little shorter through the years. Also, hair is
graying, skin is wrinkling, bodies are sagging, and teeth are yellowing. Some adults
strive to make themselves look younger by having plastic surgery, dying their hair, wearing
wigs, joining exercise programs, or taking heavy vitamin doses.
While the adult years are generally a time of vitality and good health, their are health
concerns. The main health problems of middle adulthood are cardiovascular disease,
cancer, and menopause. Another major problem that effects health and behaviour is
stress. Overall this is a time of major change and development physically and mentally.
It is also at this time that adults adjust their idealistic hopes to realistic possibilities. This
adjustment to attainable goals is dependent on how much time is left before retirement,
with retirement planning being a major area of financial concern. These reassessments
may lead to stress and sadness over unaccomplished goals, which for a small few may
lead to a midlife career change.
Another financial adjustment that tends to take place for many mid adults is the planning
for college and setting aside the necessary funds for their children. In response to these
growing financial needs and greater free time, due to their children getting older, many
women enter or reenter the workforce. In short, this tends to be a time of career and
financial readjustment and planning for both men and women.
Adults demonstrate much variation in their intimate lifestyles. Nearly all of us are married
at least some time during our adult lives. Many marriages either improve or deteriorate
during middle age. If a couple form a relationship appropriate to this new period of life,
their marriage will likely grow stronger. But if they cannot adapt to the new conditions
of their lives, their marriage may develop problems. Regardless, intimacy, marriage,
and family concerns are a priority during middle adulthood. Some specific issues include
the empty nest syndrome, late parenting, divorce, sexuality, remarriage, and grand
parenting. 27
Adulthood and Ageing Late adulthood (old age) is generally considered to begin at about age 65. Erik Erikson
suggests that at this time it is important to find meaning and satisfaction in life rather than
to become bitter and disillusioned, that is, to resolve the conflict of integrity vs. despair.
Late Adulthood is the period in an individual’s life beginning at ages sixty or seventy and
ending at death. This life period, like any other, is one of continuing change and adjustment
both in the physical and the psychosocial realms.
Cognitive development is a general loss cognitively as people move closer to the end of
life. The study of cognitive changes in the older population is complex. Response speeds
(neural and motor) have been reported to decline; some researchers believe that age-
related decrease in working memory is the crucial factor underlying poorer performance
by the elderly on cognitive tasks.
Retirement at age 65 is the conventional choice for many people, although some
work until much later. People have been found to be happier in retirement if they are not
forced to retire before they are ready and if they have enough income to maintain an
adequate living standard. Chronic health problems such as arthritis, rheumatism, and
hypertension increasingly interfere with the quality of life of most individuals as they age.

2.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss critically the cognitive changes in ealry adulthood.
2) What are the important cognitive changes that come about in middle adulthood?
3) How does old age affect cognitive development?
4) Compare age differences in implicit and explicit memory.
5) How does each part of information procesing system such as the sensory register,
short term and long term memory knowledge base etc.?

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

P.J. Whitehouse and G.C.Gilmore (eds) (1989). Memory, Ageing and Dementia.
New York, Springer
S.L.Willis and J.D.Reid (Eds) (1999). Life In the Middle . San Diego, CA, Academic
Press.
Lachman, M.E.(Ed). (2001). Handbook of Midlife Development. New York, Wiley.

2.8 ANSWERS TO THE SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1) i) True
ii) False
iii) False
iv) True
v) True
2) i) Flexible
28 ii) Fluid intelligence
 iii) Realistic Thinking Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
iv) Multidimensional Old Age)

v) Spirituality
3) i) Gerontology
ii) Prejudice
iii) Implicit memory
iv) Remote
v) Prospective

29