D.C.
Circuits
Direct and alternating current
A direct current (DC) is a flow of charges around a circuit in the same direction all the time.
Batteries supply DC and most appliances need DC to function.
Alternating current (AC) is a flow of charges around a circuit that reverses its direction at
regular intervals, usually many times a second.
Household electrical power is supplied in the form of AC which usually needs to be
rectified to DC before use.
Electric Circuits and symbols
An electric circuit is a collection of electrical devices, called circuit elements connected by
conductors in a closed path (i.e., in a complete loop).
Circuit elements include, source of electrical energy (e.g. battery), sink of electrical energy (e.g.
light bulb), and switch to complete or break the circuit. Conductors (e.g., copper wires) are then
used to connect them together.
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Electrical Symbols
Circuit diagrams are essential part of the study of current electricity and are often drawn
symbolically. In circuit diagrams, various circuit elements are represented by standard electric
symbols.
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Circuit Diagrams
A simple circuit, with a cell (if a series of cells is
used, it is called a battery) and a resistor or bulb.
Circuit diagram showing the measurement of current in the circuit and potential difference across
a circuit element (e.g. the resistor).
An ammeter is used to measure the current flowing in the circuit and must be inserted in
series with the circuit element as shown.
A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit and must be
connected in parallel to the circuit element as shown.
Note that:
An ideal ammeter has zero resistance so that when inserted into a circuit, it does not
reduce the current that was previously flowing.
An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that it takes no current. A finite resistance
causes it to take current from the circuit, and to lower the potential difference between the
points to which it is connected.
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Variable resistor can be used as a rheostat to control current or as a potential divider to
control voltages.
The fuse is a short piece of thin wire which overheats and melts to break the circuit if
current of more than its rated value flows through it. A fuse is connected in series to
protect devices in the circuit.
Resistance of a thermistor (thermally sensistive resistor) decreases rapidly as its
surrounding temperature rises.
Resistance of light dependent resistor (LDR) decreases with increasing surrounding
light intensity.
A light emitting diode (LED) allows current to flow in only one direction. When current
is allowed to pass, it shines brightly with only a small voltage across it. LED is used as
on/off indicator in many electronic devices such as televisions, computers.
A earth connector is a conductor that connects directly to earth.
Series And Parallel Circuits
Series Circuits
Series circuits has the same current through each circuit components BUT different potential
difference across each circuit components.
Same Current
In a series circuit, the flow of charges has only one path to follow. The flow of charge
passes through each component in turn.
Therefore, in a series circuit, the current at every point is the same.
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Adding a new component to the series circuit reduces the current flow throughout
because of the added resistance of the new component.
Different potential difference
Potential difference (p.d.) between two points in a circuit is caused by the energy
dissipation in the circuit elements connected between those two points. Energy is a scalar
quantity. It can be added to get the total energy dissipation in a circuit.
In a series circuit, the sum of the potential difference across the sinks (i.e. the bulbs) is
equal to the sum of the e.m.f.s across the sources (i.e. the battery).
In a series circuit, the sum of the potential difference across the bulbs is equal to the
potential difference across the battery.
In a series circuit, the highest potential difference occurs across a component with the
largest resistance. (Disregarding the potential difference across the battery)
The potential difference between the ends of any of the pieces of connecting wire is
effectively zero because there is almost no loss of potential energy.
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Parallel Circuits
Parallel circuits has the different current through each branch (same current through the circuit
components within the branch) BUT same potential difference across each branch. (different
potential difference across the circuit components within the branch)
Different currents
Instead of wiring components in series, they can be connected in parallel. Parallel
connection offers different paths for the flow of charges, but the total flow of charges
from the source remains unchanged.
Therefore, in a parallel circuit, the current from the source is the sum of the currents in
the separate branches.
In the parallel circuit shown, if one lamp is removed, the others still light up. This is why
most household lighting circuits are connected in parallel.
In a parallel circuit, the largest current will pass through the branch with the smallest
effective resistance.
At a junction in a circuit, the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current
leaving the junction. This is the conservation of charge.
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Same potential difference
In a parallel circuit, two or more components
are connected between two points of the circuit.
The potential difference across a component is
the potential difference between the two points
and is equal to the potential difference of any
other component connected in between.
Therefore, the potential difference across
separate branches of a parallel circuit is the same.
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