Leadership & Management

Question and answers

Management theory
Discuss the contributions of scientific school of management to the study of work and its
relevance to the management of organizations today
Scientific school of management
- It refers to the use of science to solve organizational problems
- It was developed by Fredrick Taylor
- He came up with four principles
 That a science of each element of work needs to be developed through work study
 Scientific selection, training and development of staff
 Specialisation, such that managers should do what they can do best and employees
should carry out the tasks they can do best
 The manager needs to cooperate with the employees so as to ensure that work is
being done as described.
This thought looked at human beings as economic objects who were only interested in
material gains.
Contributions and Relevance
 It introduced the concept of specialization which in turn promotes efficiency
 The differential piece rate system introduced is still applicable today
 The aspect of cooperation was also introduced which is necessary even in
organizations today.
Its application is relevant in a rigid/static business environment such as a factory where a best
way of doing a job can be identified.

PLANNING FUNCTION

Definition of Planning: It is the process of determining in advance what should be done

and how it should be done. It is the foundation of management and involves setting
objectives and developing methods of achieving these objectives. Basically, it is a decision-
making process by which an organization decides what it wants to achieve, how it intends
to achieve it and in what manner.

a) The relationship between corporate strategic plans and operational plans:

Given the variety of areas that organizations plan for, plans fall into different categories;

Strategic plans are broad plans developed by top managers to guide the general direction of
the firm. They follow from the major goals of the firm and indicate what business the firm
is in or what business it intends to be in. Strategic plans therefore indicate how or where the
firm will position itself within the environment.

Characteristics of strategic plans include:

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 • They are long term compared to all other plans.
• They provide a basis for more detailed plan and for day-to-day managerial functions.
• They are made by top-level management.
• They deal with fundamentals of basic problems by providing answers to questions such
as ‘what is our business?’ ‘What business ought we be in?’ and ‘who are our current and
potential customers?’
• They help to integrate and unify the actions of the organization over time.
• They provide guidance and boundaries for operational plans.

Operational plans are unlike strategic plans in that they are made at low levels of
management and they focus mainly on current operations and efficiency. Such plans
provide details of how the strategic plans will be accomplished.

Operational plans can be divided into two main types:

(i) Standing plans that are standardized approaches for dealing with recurrent and
predictable situations e.g. policies, rules and regulations.
(ii) Single use plans, which are developed to achieve specific purposes and are dissolved
once these have been achieved e.g. projects, programs and budgets.

Below are the main differences between strategic and operational plans
• Operational plans mainly focus on operational problems while strategic focuses on
longer-term survival and development.
• Operational plans face present resources environmental constraints while strategic is
concerned with future resources environmental constraint.
• Operational plans deal with information relating to present business while strategic
deals with future opportunities.
• For operational plans, rewards are mainly current efficiency and stability but for
strategic plan, they are the development of future potential.
• Organization in operational planning is bureaucratic but it is very flexible and
entrepreneurial in strategic.
• Leadership for operational plans, problem solving is reactive, relying on past experience
and analysis but it is very flexible for strategic plans. Operational plans are low risk but
strategic plans are very high risk.

Constraints to effective planning

• Environmental barriers

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 The environment in which most organizations operate is complex and dynamic.
Environmental factors e.g. technology, politics and economic situations keep on changing.
These changes affect the organizations’ plans, some of which may become obsolete even
before they are executed. Working on a day-to-day basis may be more economical
• Poor goal setting
The first step in planning is goal setting. If they are unrealistically set - unattainable or too
low - they will hinder effective planning.
• Resistance to change
By its very nature planning involves change. For various reasons, many members of an
organization usually resist change; they tend to prefer the status quo as it is. This usually
makes them resist planning that will cause change.
• Time and expense
Lack of time and financial resources do limit planning.
• Attitudes of managers towards planning
Some have a negative mental attitude towards planning. They may believe that the future
cannot be predicted accurately and all planning is inaccurate.
• Pressure from stakeholders
Powerful people may exert pressure to ensure that the plans serve their own interest.
Planners may go for the ‘pet projects’ of powerful people and not make an objective analysis
of the alternatives available.
• Competence of the planner
It is vital that he be equipped with the necessary skills to make focused plans that are likely
to succeed.
• Lack of participation
Unless everyone in the organization is involved in planning, it is not likely to succeed.
Strategic plans must be communicated to middle level managers who should play a role in
making the operational and tactical plans.
Overcoming constraints to effective planning
• Planning must start at the top. The initiative and support of top management is
essential for effective planning.
• Allow for wider participation in the formulation and execution of plans.
• Planning should be definite, time specific and focused.
• Goals, premises and policies must be properly communicated to all in the organization.
• Long range planning must be integrated with short range planning.
• Planning must include awareness and acceptance of change.
• An open system involving continuous monitoring of the environment should be
adopted.
• Plans should be flexible - allow for change so as to adapt the changing environment.
• Train managers on the art of planning.
• Develop accurate forecasts and be objective.
• Review plans regularly to ensure that the premise still hold and allow for changes as
appropriate.

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 PERFOMANCE MEASURES
Steps in the implementation of a performance measurement system in an organization
Performance is an important part of any measurement-based management system. Before
you start, your organization should establish a core team to carry the performance
measurement system design process forward. Though the system is never finished, it
should take only a year or so to get something in place.

1. Understand and map business structures and processes.

This forces those setting out to design a performance measurement system to think through
and reacquaint themselves with the organization, its competitive position, the environment
it exists in and its business processes.
2. Develop business performance priorities.
The performance measurement system should support the stakeholders' requirements from
the organization's strategy through to its business processes.

3. Understand the current performance measurement system.

Every organization has some kind of measurement system in place.

4. Develop performance indicators.

The most important element of a performance measurement system is the set of
performance indicators you will use to measure your organization's performance and
business processes.

5. Decide how to collect the required data.

. This issue must initially be ad-dressed during the development of the performance
indicators so you avoid selecting those that can never actually be measured..
6. Design reporting and performance data presentation formats.
In this step, you decide how the performance data will be presented to the users; how the
users should apply the performance data for management, monitoring and improvement;
and who will have access to performance data.
7. Test and adjust the performance measurement system.
Your first pass at the performance measurement system will probably not be completely
right--there are bound to be performance indicators that do not work as intended,
conflicting indicators, undesirable behavior and problems with data availability
8. Implement the performance measurement system.
Now it's time to put your system to use. This is when the system is officially in place and all
can start using it.

DECISION MAKING

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 a) Identify and explain the steps of a decision-making process in an organisation.

decision making process.

1. Find and define the problem and its process:

In defining a problem, it is important to consider not just the problem itself, but the
underlying courses
2. Generate alternative solutions:
A problem can be addressed in several ways. It is best to generate as many ways of
solving the problem as possible
3. Gather enough information about the alternative solutions:
Managers need to gather as much information as possible about the various alternatives
generated before picking or dropping any one of them. This assists in realistic appraisal
of each alternative.
4. Analyse or evaluate the alternatives:
Equipped with enough information, managers are now in a position to critically and
realistically evaluate each alternative. They consider the pros and cons of each
alternative before picking/dropping any of the alternatives.
The following tools may be useful in the evaluation/analysis:
• Cost-benefit analysis: - Options whose benefits exceed associated costs are considered in
priority.
• Marginal analysis: products with higher marginal contributions considered in priority.
• Decision trees: Expected values of the various possibilities/outcomes considered.
5. Decide/select the preferred solution:
This entails selecting the alternative offering the highest promise of attaining the
objectives.
6. Implement the preferred solution:
Once the choice has been made, the alternative is converted into action and
implemented.
7. Evaluation of outcomes:
Evaluate the results to find out if the decision is successful in the light of changes in the
business environment.
b) Describe the decision support systems available to managers when making decisions.
The Decision Support Systems available to managers when making decisions
include:
• Linear Programming models
• Queueing models
• Simulation models
• Transhipment /Transportation models
• Assignment models

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 b) What benefits may accrue to an organisation from instituting decision support
systems?

c) BENEFITS OF DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS (DSSs)

1. Cost saving:
DSS eliminates costs associated with wrong decisions.
2. Facilitates communication:
Data collection and analysis is done with higher user participation and hence facilitates
greater communication among managers.
3. New insights and learning:
The users are exposed into new insights through sensitivity analysis and therefore an
agency for training inexperienced managers.
4. Decision support systems have the ability to quickly and objectively different strategies
under different situations.
5.Ability to support solution of complex problems
6. DSS results into objective decisions which are more consistent than complex decisions
made through trial and error.
7.Improved managerial effectiveness
Managers will therefore perform tasks with less time and effort.
8.Graphical displays
The DSS provides graphical display of information needed by managers and therefore helps
managers view, analyze and understand data.

Discuss the barriers to effective decision making in an organization and suggest ways in
which management can overcome such barriers. (11 marks)
Decision making is the process of choosing one alternative from a set of rational alternatives.
The barriers/constraints to decision making include;
(i) Multiple criteria
Typically, a decision today must satisfy a number of often conflicting criteria representing
the interest of different groups. Identifying the interest group and trading off their
conflicting interest is a major challenge for today’s decision maker.
(ii) Intangibles
Factors such as customer goodwill, employee morale, increased bureaucracy, and aesthetic
appeal, although difficult to measure, often determine decision alternatives.
(iii)Risk and uncertainty
Along with every decision alternative goes the chance that it will fail to satisfy the relevant
criteria
(iv) Time
(v) Inter-disciplinary input

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 Decision complexity is greatly incurred when technical specialists such as lawyers,
advocates, tax advisors, engineers etc are consulted before making a decision.
(vi) Lack of resources
Lack of resources such as adequate information constraints/limits to decisions only to the
available information.
Solutions
- A clear policy for decision making should be enumerated. This will guide the way
in which decisions are made. The policy should embrace codes of ethics,
organization mission and goal. This reduces the problem of multiple criteria.
- Clear deadlines. The deadlines to decision making should be clearly communicated
and they should also be reasonable to provide time for effective decision being
made.
- Decisions makers should try and incorporate the intangible factors which they also
need to clearly understand
- Finances should be availed to provide resources for decision making. Such include
the investment in the internet and an updated library.
- The possibility of a risk can be dealt with either by ensuring that adequate
information for decision making is available and that all stakeholders are consulted.

b) Explain the three levels of strategy and the characteristics of strategic management
decisions at each level.
- CORPORATE STRATEGY
- BUSINESS STRATEGY
- FUNCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Characteristics of Strategic Management Decisions at each Level

The characteristics of strategic management decisions vary with the level of strategy activity
considered
Decisions at the corporate level
- are more value oriented, more conceptual, and less concrete that decisions at other levels
- characterized by greater risk, cost and profit potential
- include the choice of business, dividend policies, and priorities for growth
Decisions at the functional level
- implement the overall strategy formulated at the corporate and business levels
- involve action-oriented operational issues and are relatively short range, low risk but
more concrete and quantifiable
- include decisions on Basic vs. Applied Research and Development, high vs. Low
inventory levels, general-purpose vs. specific purpose production equipment.

Decisions at the business level

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 - Help bridge decisions at the corporate and functional level
- Are less costly, risky and potentially profitable than corporate level decisions, but more
costly, risky and potentially profitable than functional level decisions.
- Include decisions on plant location, marketing segmentation and geographic coverage,
and distribution channels.

- What is meant by the term culture?

- How does an organization’s culture manifest itself?
- How can organizational cultures be differentiated from each other?

CORPORATE CULTURE
Corporate culture is the system of shared values, beliefs and habits within an organization
that interacts with formal structure to produce behavioural norms
Organization culture is composed of such factors as friendliness, supportiveness and risk
taking.
Culture has an impact on the employees’ degree of satisfaction with the job, as well as the
level and quality of their performance.
• Ways through which culture can manifest itself includes:
o Extent of the formalization of the structure.
o Decision making by committees or individuals.
o Communication.
o Degree of freedom given to subordinates.
o Kind of people employed.
o Symbols and legends in the organization.
o Management style.
o Commitment to quality.
o Attitude to technology.
Organizations can have any one of four different cultures as follows:
• The power culture - power and culture stem from a central source, often the owner of
the company. There are not many rules and procedures.
• The role or bureaucratic culture - there is a formal structure and well-established rules
and procedures.
• The task or matrix culture - the main aim of such an organization is to get the ob done.
Individuals are valued for their contribution to team effort.
• The existential or person culture - the organization is formed to serve the interests of a
person or the individuals within it.

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
a) The manager is frequently faced with the task of introducing change in the organization.
What are the reasons for innovation and change in the organization? (10 marks)
Technology

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 Technological innovations are a powerful force causing organizational change. Today firms
have to adapt to very dramatic changes in communication and information technology, for
example the internet.
Competition
Change can be introduced by competitors and their actions. When a competitor introduces
a new product or aggressively cuts down prices, a company may need to follow suit to hold
its position in the market place.
People
When the demographic profile of the population shifts e.g. to younger workers.
Organizations may need to change and satisfy their wants of higher salaries, flashy perks
and less loyalty.
Environment
No firm operates in a vacuum. It is hence greatly affected by changes in the external
environment as well as those within its own internal environment. Such changes may
include political forces, economic forces and socio-cultural factors. Inflation or political
instability for example, will force a firm to adjust its operations in certain areas.
Communications
Unlike the traditional paper-based communication, most companies have adopted
electronic mail systems, mobile telephones and video conferencing, as these are innovations
available to them today.
Research and Development
A lot of money is invested in these areas by companies so as to better their products and be
able to satisfy customers and keep up with market trends. In order to respond to the
development of potential new products and services devised by ‘research and
development’, change becomes inevitable.

b) How can management overcome barriers to effective implementation of innovation

and change in an organization. (10 marks

• Provide information in advance. The idea of change must be ‘sold’ early and carefully.
Allow people to contribute to change before decisions are made.
• Encourage participation by all. A culture of “pride” should be encouraged within the
organization, in which achievements are highlighted and experienced innovators serve
as consultants to the other parts of the organization.
• Simple form, lean staff: Unnecessary layers of hierarchy should be reduced i.e. aim for
flatter structures.
• Make only necessary changes.
• As a pre-requisite to change, top management must be personally committed to
supporting innovation and must learn to think integratively.
• Attempt to maintain useful customs and informal relationships.
• Build trust and improve lateral communication.
• Guarantee against loss.

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 • Provide counselling.
• Allow for negotiation.
• Access to power sources such as management committees should be enlarged to
improve support for innovatory experimental proposals

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict is an inevitable feature of organisations but is rarely recognised or understood.
Required:
(a) Define what is meant by conflict within an organisation. (3 marks)
(b) Describe causes of conflict (7 marks)
(c) Briefly describe characteristics of conflict which may be observed in the workplace.
(10 marks
Solutions
(a) Conflict can be defined as a process that begins when one individual perceives that
another individual has had, or will have, a negative effect on something that the other
individual cares about.
Thus, conflict is about perception. Put another way, conflict may be regarded as
behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some other person’s goals or
objectives. Management and supervisors must understand that conflict exists in all
organisations.

(b) Causes of conflict:

- departmentalisation and specialisation
- the nature of the work involved
- formal objectives diverge from the objectives actually being pursued by
- management or individual departments
- individual roles are unclear
- departmental and individual boundaries are unclear
- contractual relationships are unclear
- individuals undertaking simultaneous roles
- concealed objectives by management
- differences in perception as to an individual’s position in the organisation
- differences as to the perception of an individual’s effort and output
- differences in individuals’ perceived authority and importance

(c) Characteristics of conflict are:

- poor communication, remembering that communication may be vertical and horizontal
- departmental, team and individual rivalries
- departmental, team and individual jealousies
- inter-departmental disputes
- inter-personal disputes and arguments
- widespread arbitration and personnel department involvement

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 - inflexibility to change
- low morale
- frustration
- individuals’ unwillingness to share information
- distorted information
- rigid application of, and adherence to, rules and procedures
- encouragement and use of the informal communication network
- concealed objectives; an individual or department may feel undervalued and follow
other, self-serving objectives
- territorial defence

MARKETING
“When a company introduces a new product, it faces the challenges of setting its price for
the first time.”
Discuss this statement using the two pricing strategies. (12 marks)

(b) Explain the environmental factors that a marketing manager should consider before
entering the international market

a) Challenges in setting prices the first time

When a company introduces a new product, it is faced with the challenge of setting a price.
The main areas of concern are whether the price the price is affordable, whether it meets the
costs incurred to produce it, the market share that the price will help the product gain etc
The challenges in setting initial prices are: -
(i) Cost coverage
Whether the price will cover all the direct and indirect unit costs is always an issue.
(ii) Clientele targeted
Whether the price is affordable for the clientele targeted is always a question to the
marketers.
Pricing strategies for New Products are two i.e. Market penetration and Market Skimming
Market penetration pricing
This involves setting a low initial price to enter the market quickly and deeply, attract a
large number of buyers and win a large market share. Benefits are
 It will discourage new entrants to the market
 Shorten the introductory stage of the product’s life cycle
 Production costs will fall as sales volume increases allowing for further price reductions
if needed.

Market Skimming Pricing

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This refers to setting initially high prices and spending heavily on advertising and promotion to
obtain sales. As the product moves ages the price will be lowered. The aim is to gain high unit
profits early in the product’s life cycle. Skimming is a profit maximization strategy.

b) i) Social-cultural environment
The social institutions and beliefs, values, customs, lifestyles and desires of the market.
ii) Technological factors
Techniques, skills, tools and equipment, products and raw material.
iii) Competition
iv) Economic environment
Stage in the business cycle of economy, inflationary trends, monetary ad physical
policies, balance of payments.
v) Political-legal environment
Laws and regulations, political stability, political climate (hostile) judicial system etc

In order to enhance the chances of a new product succeeding, the company should follow a
systematic new product development process.
Highlight the major stages in new product development. (8 marks)

(b) Describe the marketing strategies a firm should adopt in the different stages of a
product’s life cycle.
Products tend to go through five stages:
New product development stage
 *Very expensive
 *No sales revenue
 *Losses

Market introduction stage

 *Cost high
 *sales volume low
 *Losses
 *High prices

Growth stage
 *Costs reduced due to economies of scale
 *sales volume increases significantly
 *Profitability
 *Prices to maximize market share
Mature stage
 *Costs are very low
 *sales volume peaks

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  *Prices tend to drop due to the proliferation of competing products
 *Very profitable

Decline stage
 *sales decline
 *Prices drop (lower prices may lead to lower value perception)
 *Profits decline
 The management of the product life cycle

Consumer markets refer to all the individuals and household who buy or acquire goods and
services for personal consumption
Consumer markets -refers to all the individuals and household who buy or aquire goods and
services for personal consumption
Market segmentation

Dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers who have different needs, characteristics, or
behaviors, and who might require separate products or marketing program

i. Geographic segmentation - These calls for dividing the market into different geographical
units such as nations, states, counties, cities, or neighbourhoods.
ii. Demographic segmentation - This consists of dividing the market into groups on the
basis of demographic variables such as age, sex, family size, family life cycle, income,
occupation, education, religion, race and nationality.
iii. Psychographic segmentation - The buyers are divided into different groups on the basis
of social class, life style, or personality characteristics. People within the same
demographic group can exhibit very different psychographic profiles.
iv. Behaviour segmentation - The buyers are divided into groups on the basis of their
knowledge, attitude, use or response to a product. Many marketers believe that behaviour
variables are the best starting point for constructing market segments.
Write explanatory notes on the marketing concepts listed below:
a) The production concepts
b) The product concepts
c) The selling concepts
d) The marketing concepts
e) The societal concept
a) The Production Concept:
This concept holds that consumers will favour or go for products that are widely
available and low in cost. Management should select products that are
economical to produce and set up a marketing department to distribute these
goods (wide distribution coverage).

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 b) The product concept:
Suppliers know best what the customer needs in terms of quality. Product
quality must therefore be upheld in order to attract and maintain the existing
customers

c) The selling concept:

The sales orientation approach believes that people will not buy until they are persuaded
to buy. Marketing focus should therefore be on publicity and advertising.
d) The marketing concept:
This concept tends to challenge the selling concept. The organizations need to
focus on the needs of its customers to meet the highest level of customer
satisfaction. In this situation, production responds to the demands of marketing
and not vice versa.
e) Societal concept
This concept calls upon marketers to balance three considerations in setting
marketing policies, namely, Company profits Consumers wants satisfaction,
public interest/society welfare

State and describe the stages in new product development.

The following are the reasons why new products are developed:
a) New products may help business organizations meet the pressure of competition. The probability of
consumers choosing a give company’s product increases if the company has more brands available.
b) A new product may utilize excess production and marketing capacity. If a new product can be
profitably introduced to utilize excess capacity, then organizations should do it.
c) New products can be used to sustain a company’s growth. This is because products have a life cycle.
New products should therefore be introduced as old ones will decline over time.
d) Sometimes new customer needs may only be satisfied by new products. Human needs change over
time as a result of changes in the environment.

Stages in new product development

1. Idea Generation
A pool of ideas generated in the hope that it will be developed into a successful product.
The firms’ sales persons and dealers are also a source of good ideas because of their closeness to the
market and the fact that they interact with actual and potential customers on a daily basis.

2. Idea screening
The generation stage may yield thousands of ideas some of which may not be worthwhile. Others may be
so viable that they need further review. Idea screening is the first phase of idea evaluation and planning.

3. Business Analysis
The new product developer here is concerned with projecting future sales, profits, rates of return of the
proposed new product and with determining whether these are in line with the company objectives.

4. Product development
It is at this stage that the firm tries to find out if the product is technically feasible. Brand name and
packaging problems are also resolved here.

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5. Test marketing
This entails introducing the product in a small scale and in pre-selected environment to determine how
customers react to it. If the reaction is positive, then the new product developer can commercialize.

6. Commercialization
The new product should now be introduced to the whole market. To successfully accomplish this,
investing in new production equipment and facilities and developing a new marketing program may be
necessary.

b) Factors that contribute to the success of new product development

 Teamwork:
New product development is most effective when there is teamwork among research and
development, engineering, manufacturing, purchasing, marketing and finance departments from the
very beginning. The product idea must be researched from the marketing point of view, and a
specific cross-functional team must guide the project throughout its development.
 The company should have a unique and superior product.
For example, higher quality, new features, higher value in use and so forth. Products with a high
product advantage have an excellent success rate.
 There should be a well-defined product concept prior to development:
- The company must carefully define and assess the target market. The new product’s market size
must not be overestimated.
- Product requirements must also be correctly estimated so that development costs do not become
higher than expected.
 There should be quality in executing all the stages of the new product development.
Quality personnel are needed to ensure that the best action is taken at each stage. Such personnel
must be objective so as not to push through ‘pet ideas’ despite negative research findings.
 Another factor is a good understanding of customer needs.
 The new product should have a fast development time so that it is introduced ahead of
competition.
Many competitors are likely to get the same idea at the same time and victory goes to the swiftest.
 Top management support is another key success factor.

A distribution channel is a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a

product or service available for use or consumption by the consumer or business user.

Why are marketing intermediaries used?

Most producers use intermediaries to bring their products to the market and in so doing forge a
distribution channel.

 Intermediaries make goods available to target markets more efficiently - through their contacts,
experience, specialization and scale of operation, they offer more than the firm can achieve on its
own.
 They also provide economies of scale and reduce the number of contacts; this reduces the amount of
work that must be done by both producers and consumers.
 They also transform the assortment of products made by producers into assortments wanted by
customer thus playing a very important role of matching supply and demand.
 Many producers lack financial resources to carry out direct marketing

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 In some cases, direct marketing is not feasible to producers because if they establish retail shops, they
have to sell a lot of products as well.

THE FUNCTIONS OF CHANNEL INTERMEDIARIES

Members of the marketing channel perform the following functions:
 Information: gathering and distributing marketing research information about factors and forces in
the marketing environment needed for planning and aiding exchange e.g. potential customers and
competitors.
 Promotion: developing and spreading persuasive communications about an offer
 Contact: finding and communicating with prospective buyers.
 Matching: shaping and fitting the offer to buyers’ needs including activities as manufacturing,
grading, assembling and packaging.
 Negotiation: the attempt to reach final agreement on the price and other terms so that transfer of
ownership can be affected.
 Ordering: involves communicating the intentions to buy to the manufacturer.
 Financing: the acquisition and allocation of funds required to finance inventories at different levels
of the marketing channel.
 Risk taking: the assumption of risks connected with carrying out the channel work.
 Physical distribution: transporting and storing goods.
 Title: the actual transfer of ownership from one organization or person to another.

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