CHAPTER 8

PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS

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8.3 Equivalence Relations

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Relation Induced by a Partition

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The Relation Induced by a Partition (1/3)

A partition of a set A is a finite or infinite collection of

nonempty, mutually disjoint subsets whose union is A. The
diagram of Figure 8.3.1 illustrates a partition of a set A by
subsets A1, A2, … , A6.

A Partition of a Set
Figure 8.3.1

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The Relation Induced by a Partition (2/3)

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Example 8.3.1 – Relation Induced by a Partition

Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and consider the following partition of

A:

{0, 3, 4}, {1}, {2}.

Find the relation R induced by this partition.

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Example 8.3.1 – Solution (1/3)
Since {0, 3, 4} is a subset of the partition,

0 R 3 because both 0 and 3 are in {0, 3, 4}

3 R 0 because both 3 and 0 are in {0, 3, 4}
0 R 4 because both 0 and 4 are in {0, 3, 4}
4 R 0 because both 4 and 0 are in {0, 3, 4}
3 R 4 because both 3 and 4 are in {0, 3, 4}
and
4 R 3 because both 4 and 3 are in {0, 3, 4}.

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Example 8.3.1 – Solution (2/3) continued

Also,
0 R 0 because both 0 and 0 are in {0, 3, 4}

3 R 3 because both 3 and 3 are in {0, 3, 4}

and
4 R 4 because both 4 and 4 are in {0, 3, 4}.

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Example 8.3.1 – Solution (3/3) continued

Since {1} is a subset of the partition,

1 R 1 because both 1 and 1 are in {1},
and since {2} is a subset of the partition,
2 R 2 because both 2 and 2 are in {2}.

Hence
R = {(0, 0), (0, 3), (0, 4), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 3), (3, 4),
(4, 0), (4, 3), (4, 4)}.

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The Relation Induced by a Partition (3/3)

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Definition of an Equivalence
Relation

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Definition of an Equivalence Relation (1/1)

A relation on a set that satisfies the three properties of

reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity is called an
equivalence relation.

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Example 8.3.2 – An Equivalence Relation on a Set of Subsets

Let X be the set of all nonempty subsets of {1, 2, 3}. Then

X = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.

Define a relation R on X as follows: For every A and B in X,

A R B ⇔ the least element of A equals the least

element of B.

Prove that R is an equivalence relation on X.

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Example 8.3.2 – Solution (1/2)
R is reflexive: Suppose A is a nonempty subset of {1, 2,
3}. [We must show that A R A.] It is true to say that the
least element of A equals the least element of A. Thus, by
definition of R, A R A.

R is symmetric: Suppose A and B are nonempty subsets

of {1, 2, 3} and A R B. [We must show that B R A.] Since A
R B, the least element of A equals the least element of B.
But this implies that the least element of B equals the least
element of A, and so, by definition of R, B R A.

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Example 8.3.2 – Solution (2/2) continued

R is transitive: Suppose A, B, and C are nonempty

subsets of {1, 2, 3}, A R B, and B R C. [We must show
that A R C.] Since A R B, the least element of A equals
the least element of B and since B R C, the least element
of B equals the least element of C.

Thus the least element of A equals the least element of

C, and so, by definition of R, A R C.

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Equivalence Classes of an
Equivalence Relation

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Equivalence Classes of an Equivalence Relation (1/5)

Suppose there is an equivalence relation on a certain set. If

a is any particular element of the set, then one can ask,
“What is the subset of all elements that are related to a?”
This subset is called the equivalence class of a.

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Equivalence Classes of an Equivalence Relation (2/5)

The procedural version of this definition is

The notation [a]R may be used to denote the equivalence

class of a for the relation R.

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Example 8.3.5 – Equivalence Classes of a Relation Given as a
Set of Ordered Pairs (1/2)

Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and define a relation R on A as

follows:

R = {(0, 0), (0, 4), (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 3),
(4, 0), (4, 4)}.

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Example 8.3.5 – Equivalence Classes of a Relation Given as a
Set of Ordered Pairs (2/2) continued

The directed graph for R is as shown below. As can be

seen by inspection, R is an equivalence relation on A. Find
the distinct equivalence classes of R.

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Example 8.3.5 – Solution
First find the equivalence class of every element of A.

Note that [0] = [4] and [1] = [3]. Thus the distinct equivalence
classes of the relation are {0, 4}, {1, 3}, and {2}.

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Example 8.3.8 – Equivalence Classes of the Identity Relation

Let A be any set and define a relation R on A as follows:

For every x and y in A,

Then R is an equivalence relation. Describe the distinct

equivalence classes of R.

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Example 8.3.8 – Solution (1/2)
Given any a in A, the class of a is

Now by definition of R, a R x if, and only if, a = x. So

= [a] since the only element of A that equals a is a.

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Example 8.3.8 – Solution (2/2) continued

Hence, given any a in A,

[a] = {a},

and if x ≠ a then {x} ≠ {a}.

Consequently, all the classes of all the elements of A are

distinct, and the distinct equivalence classes of R are all
the single-element subsets of A.

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Equivalence Classes of an Equivalence Relation (3/5)

The first lemma says that if two elements of A are related

by an equivalence relation R, then their equivalence
classes are the same.

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Equivalence Classes of an Equivalence Relation (4/5)

The second lemma says that any two equivalence classes

of an equivalence relation are either mutually disjoint or
identical.

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Equivalence Classes of an Equivalence Relation (5/5)

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Congruence Modulo n

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Example 8.3.10 – Equivalence Classes of Congruence Modulo 3

Let R be the relation of congruence modulo 3 on the set Z

of all integers. That is, for all integers m and n,

Describe the distinct equivalence classes of R.

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Example 8.3.10 – Solution (1/4)
For each integer a,

Therefore,

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Example 8.3.10 – Solution (2/4) continued

In particular,

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Example 8.3.10 – Solution (3/4) continued

Now since 3 R 0, then by Lemma 8.3.2,

[3] = [0].
More generally, by the same reasoning,
[0] = [3] = [−3] = [6] = [−6] = … , and so on.
Similarly,
[1] = [4] = [−2] = [7] = [−5] = … , and so on.
And
[2] = [5] = [−1] = [8] = [−4] = … , and so on.

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Example 8.3.10 – Solution (4/4) continued

Notice that every integer is in class [0], [1], or [2]. Hence

the distinct equivalence classes are

In words, the three classes of congruence modulo 3 are (1)

the set of all integers that are divisible by 3, (2) the set of all
integers that leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 3, and
(3) the set of all integers that leave a remainder of 2 when
divided by 3.

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Congruence Modulo n (1/2)

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Congruence Modulo n (2/2)
The following notation is used frequently when referring to
congruence relations. It was introduced by Carl Friedrich
Gauss in the first chapter of his book Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae. This work, which was published when Gauss
was only 24, laid the foundation for modern number theory.

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Example 8.3.11 – Evaluating Congruences

Determine which of the following congruences are true and

which are false.

a. 12 ≡ 7 (mod 5) b. 6 ≡ −8 (mod 4) c. 3 ≡ 3 (mod 7)

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Example 8.3.11 – Solution
a. True. 12 − 7 = 5 = 5 · 1. Hence and so
12 ≡ 7 (mod 5).

b. False. 6 − (−8) = 14, and because 14 ≠ 4 · k for any

integer k. Consequently, 6 ≢ −8 (mod 4).

c. True. 3 − 3 = 0 = 7 · 0. Hence and so 3 ≡ 3

(mod 7).

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A Definition for Rational Numbers

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A Definition for Rational Numbers (1/2)
For a moment, forget what you know about fractional
arithmetic and look at the numbers

as symbols. Considered as symbolic expressions, these

appear quite different. In fact, if they were written as
ordered pairs (1, 3) and (2, 6) they would be different.

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A Definition for Rational Numbers (2/2)
The fact that we regard them as “the same” is a specific
instance of our general agreement to regard any two
numbers

as equal provided the cross products are equal; in other

words, if, and only if, ad = bc.

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Example 8.3.12 – Rational Numbers Are Really Equivalence Classes (1/2)

Let A be the set of all ordered pairs of integers for which

the second element of the pair is nonzero. Symbolically:

A = Z × (Z − {0}).

Define a relation R on A as follows: For all pairs (a, b) and

(c, d) in A,

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Example 8.3.12 – Rational Numbers Are Really Equivalence Classes
(2/2) continued

The fact is that R is an equivalence relation.

a. Prove that R is transitive.

b. Describe the distinct equivalence classes of R.

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Example 8.3.12 – Solution (1/4)
a. By definition of R,

(1) ad = bc and (2) cf = de.

Since the second elements of all ordered pairs in A are

nonzero, b ≠ 0, d ≠ 0, and f ≠ 0. Multiply both sides of
equation (1) by f and both sides of equation (2) by b to
obtain
(1′) adf = bcf and (2′) bcf = bde.

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Example 8.3.12 – Solution (2/4) continued

Because both equal bcf,

adf = bde,
and, since d ≠ 0, it follows from the cancellation law for
multiplication that
af = be.

Hence, by definition of R, (a, b) R (e, f).

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Example 8.3.12 – Solution (3/4) continued

b. There is one equivalence class for each distinct rational

number. Each equivalence class consists of all ordered
pairs (a, b) that, if written as fractions a ⁄ b, would equal
each other.

The reason is that the condition for two rational

numbers to be equal is the same as the condition for
two ordered pairs to be related.

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Example 8.3.12 – Solution (4/4) continued

For instance, the class of (1, 2) is

[(1, 2)] = {(1, 2), (−1, −2), (2, 4), (−2, −4), (3, 6),
(−3, −6), ... }

since and so forth.

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