DEPENDENCY THEORY

★ The origin of the term ‘dependency’ can be traced back to the conjuncture of two
sources: the Latin dependere – and/or the old French dependre – and the Latin suffix
entia.
★ It is an economic theory proposed by the developing Latin American countries.
★ Dependency theory is popularly used in comparative analysis of developing countries in
Asia, Africa and Latin America.
★ Although its origin can be traced back immediately after the end of World War II, the
theory became very popular in Latin America during the 1960s and later found huge
support among several scholars in Asia and Africa.
★ Dependence’ originally refers to a state which originally owes its allegiance directly to a
dominant sovereign power. It implies external reliance of any state on another powerful
state either politically or economically.
★ Dependency was a very important tool of analysis in the 1960s and 1970s.
★ The dependency theory explains the dependence of developing countries on powerful
developed countries.
★ There are various strains of dependency theory because of intellectual disagreements
among the liberal reformers (Prebisch), the Marxists (Andre Gunder Frank) and the
World-system theorists (Wallerstein).
★ The dependency theorists distinguish various states according to the different economic
functions they perform.
● Highly developed and advanced super powers like the United States of America
fall under the centre-centre (CC) category.
● Countries like Canada, the Netherlands and Japan fall under the periphery-centre
(PC) category. These countries have significant economic development and
industrialisation.
● The third category is the centre-periphery (CP) category, which includes
developing countries that are growing fast like Brazil, China, India and South
Africa.
 ● The last category is the periphery-periphery (PP) category which consists of
countries that are economically backward and have a lot of social issues, like
Cambodia, Zambia, El Salvador etc…
★ One of the most prominent thinkers in this field from Africa is Samir Amin.

Introduction
Dependency theory emerged as a response to the prevailing theories of modernization and
development in the mid-20th century, particularly in the context of post-colonial nations in Latin
America, Asia, and Africa. It offers a lens through which to understand the dynamics of
international politics by focusing on the structural inequalities inherent in the global economic
system.
Historical Context and Origins

● Dependency theory arose during the period of decolonization and Cold War geopolitics,
marked by the emergence of newly independent nations seeking to assert their place in
the international arena.
● Influential figures in the development of dependency theory include Latin American
scholars such as Raul Prebisch, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, and Andre Gunder Frank,
who critiqued the prevailing discourse of modernization theory.
● Modernization theory posited that developing countries could achieve economic growth
and societal advancement by emulating the developmental trajectories of Western
industrialized nations.
● However, dependency theorists challenged this narrative by arguing that the global
economic system was characterized by asymmetrical power relations that perpetuated the
underdevelopment of certain countries.

Key Concepts of Dependency Theory

At the heart of dependency theory lie several key concepts that inform its analysis of
international politics:
 1. Dependence: Dependency theorists argue that developing countries are structurally
dependent on developed countries within the global capitalist system. This dependence is
multifaceted and encompasses economic, political, and social dimensions. Economically,
developing countries are reliant on the core nations of the global economy for
technology, capital, and access to markets. Politically, they may be subject to the
influence and interference of powerful states or international institutions. Socially,
dependence can manifest in cultural imperialism and the dissemination of Western norms
and values.
2. Core-Periphery Structure: Dependency theory conceptualizes the world economy as
divided into a core of wealthy, industrialized nations and a periphery of poorer,
underdeveloped nations. The core countries, primarily located in the Global North,
dominate the periphery through mechanisms such as unequal exchange, capital flight, and
exploitation of labor and resources. The periphery, comprising countries in Latin
America, Africa, and Asia, serves as a reservoir of cheap labor and raw materials for the
core.
3. Unequal Exchange: Dependency theorists argue that the international division of labor
perpetuates unequal exchange relations between core and peripheral nations. This
unequal exchange occurs through mechanisms such as terms of trade that favor the core,
exploitation of natural resources, and the imposition of trade barriers and tariffs that limit
the ability of peripheral countries to compete in the global market.
4. Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and International Financial Institutions (IFIs):
Dependency theorists emphasize the role of MNCs and IFIs in perpetuating dependency.
MNCs extract resources, exploit cheap labor, and dominate markets in developing
countries, contributing to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of
multinational corporations. IFIs such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
World Bank impose structural adjustment programs that further entrench economic
dependence and inequality, often exacerbating poverty and social unrest.

Analytical Framework of Dependency Theory

Dependency theory offers a comprehensive framework for analyzing international politics that
integrates economic, political, and social factors. Its analytical approach can be summarized as
follows:

● Historical Specificity: Dependency theory emphasizes the historical context in which

patterns of dependency and underdevelopment emerge. It rejects the notion of a universal
path to development and instead emphasizes the unique historical trajectories of different
countries and regions.
● Structural Analysis: Dependency theory employs a structural analysis to understand the
root causes of underdevelopment. It focuses on the structural constraints imposed by the
global capitalist system, including unequal power relations, historical legacies of
colonialism, and the dynamics of core-periphery relations.
● State-Centric Approach: While acknowledging the importance of non-state actors such as
MNCs and IFIs, dependency theory maintains a state-centric approach to analyzing
international politics. States are seen as central actors that mediate the relationship
between core and peripheral nations, negotiating trade agreements, implementing
development policies, and seeking to assert their sovereignty in the face of external
pressures.
● Dependency as a Relationship of Domination: Dependency theory conceptualizes
dependency not merely as a condition of economic reliance but as a relationship of
domination and subordination. Core nations and dominant actors within the global
capitalist system exercise power and control over peripheral nations, shaping their
economic policies, political institutions, and social structures to serve the interests of the
core.

Critiques and Debates Surrounding Dependency Theory

Dependency theory has faced a range of criticisms and debates since its inception. Some of the
key critiques include:
 1. Economic Reductionism: Critics argue that dependency theory tends to reduce complex
social and political phenomena to economic factors, neglecting the role of culture,
ideology, and agency in shaping development outcomes.
2. Neglect of Agency: Dependency theory has been criticized for portraying developing
countries as passive victims of external forces, neglecting the agency of state and non-
state actors in shaping their own development trajectories. Critics argue that this
perspective overlooks the role of domestic politics, institutions, and social movements in
driving change and challenging dependency.
3. Lack of Predictive Power: Some scholars have questioned the predictive power of
dependency theory, arguing that it fails to account for the diversity of development
experiences among countries in the Global South. Dependency theory's focus on
structural constraints and historical specificity may limit its ability to offer generalizable
insights or policy prescriptions.
4. Overemphasis on External Factors: Dependency theory tends to prioritize external factors
such as global capitalism and imperialism while downplaying the significance of internal
dynamics within developing countries. Critics argue that this perspective overlooks the
role of domestic elites, institutions, and social movements in perpetuating or challenging
dependency.
Despite these criticisms, dependency theory continues to inform scholarly debates and policy
discussions on issues of global inequality, development, and social justice. Its emphasis on the
structural constraints imposed by the global capitalist system and the dynamics of core-periphery
relations remains relevant in understanding contemporary challenges facing the Global South.

Contemporary Relevance and Future Directions

In an era characterized by neoliberal globalization, the core-periphery structure of the world

economy persists, with developing countries continuing to face economic marginalization and
exploitation. Moreover, recent developments such as the rise of China as a global economic
power, the proliferation of regional trade blocs, and the emergence of new forms of digital
capitalism have sparked renewed interest in dependency theory as a tool for analyzing shifting
patterns of dependency and power in the international system.
Conclusion

Dependency theory offers a valuable perspective for studying international politics by

highlighting the structural inequalities and power imbalances inherent in the global capitalist
system. While it has faced criticisms for its economic determinism and neglect of agency, its
insights into the dynamics of dependence and underdevelopment continue to inform scholarly
debates and policy discussions on issues of global inequality and development. By critically
examining the historical context, key concepts, analytical framework, and contemporary
relevance of dependency theory, we gain a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics
shaping the international system and the challenges facing countries in the Global South.

Dependency Theory
● Dependency Theory seeks to analyze international politics by concerning itself with the
existing unequal relationship among nation-states i.e. between Developed Countries
(Centre or core ) and Underdeveloped Countries (Periphery.)
● Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and
underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of
the former.
● It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich
ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system".
Core country :- nations -great major and advanced power - USA, UK, Germany Canada, France
Peripheral countries:- less developed and weaker- Haithi, Zimbabwe, Somalia, Afghanisthan,
● This theory was officially developed in the late 1960s following World War II, as
scholars searched for the root issue in the lack of development in Latin America.
● The main advocates of Dependency Theory are Andre Gunder Frank, Wallerstein, Dos
Santos, Osvaldo Sunkel, samir amin etc.
● The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development
which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's
underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at
some time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas
 out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by
various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the
world market.
● Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not
merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures
of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a
world market economy.
● Some writers have argued for its continuing relevance as a conceptual orientation to the
global division of wealth.

Dependency theorists can typically be divided into two categories:

1. liberal reformists and neo-Marxists.
● Liberal reformists typically advocate for targeted policy interventions, while the
neo-Marxists believe in a command-centered economy.
● The Dependency theory begins with a study of the colonial impact on the
indigenous socio-economic and political structures, then seeks to analyze the
characteristics of the new socio- economic structure, and finally seeks to trace its
evolution in relation to both the internal changes and developments in the World
capitalist system.
● The central point in the Dependency Theory is that the nature of social
phenomena in the Third World countries is determined by the process of
underdevelopment which characterizes these countries and which is the result of
the expansion of World Capitalism.
● Further, this process of underdevelopment is intimately and inseparably related to
their external dependence.
● In fact, almost all the dependency theorists generally agree that underdevelopment
is caused by external dependence, particularly on capitalist countries.
Dependency theory was crucial for two reasons.
❖ It is forced states of international relations to analyse global inequalities which are the result
of the organisations of the capitalist world economy.
❖ It argued for a moral engagement with the inequalities in the distribution of power and wealth
in world society.

Thus, dependence is the relationship between the dependents and the developed countries. It is a
situation which conditions the ability of the underdeveloped to develop. It is limited by the
expansion of capitalism. Its traditional form was imperialism or colonialism while its
contemporary form happens to be Neo-colonialism, i.e., a state of dependency of the
underdeveloped periphery (the new states) upon the developed (the former imperialist-
colonialists).

Main postulates of dependency theory

● Peripheral countries are dependent on core countries.

● Dependent nations development will remain stagnant while core
nations continue to develop
● Economies of the peripheral country rely on export of raw materials to developed countries
● Developed countries import raw materials from poor countries and sell them the manufactured
goods at very high prices .

Core assumptions
1. International division of labour between countries
Core countries dominate the industry and technology and control capital intensive
industries. Whereas countries in the periphery are dependent upon resource extracting
economies, agriculture and providing cheap labour.
2. Class distinction
Rich elite cooperate with one another to ensure they say stay in power and increase their
wealth. They collaborate with each other to keep the system going.
3. Global capitalism
In this system liberal economic theory dominates. They all serve the interest of the core
countries. In this system MNC s , Banks, like world bank , IMF all serve the core
countries richest people and countries even global media etc. This system provides
 dominance and exploitation. No peripheral country is developed .It is called
underdevelopment.
Limitations of Dependency Theory:
1. Lack of Unity among Dependency Theorists
2. Advocacy of Radicalism and Socialism
3. No Clear Definition of Dependency.
4. Negative Approach.
5. Fail to encompass different factors of Under-development.
6.Limitations of the concept of Surplus Value.
7. Limitations of Centre-Periphery Model.
 NATIONAL INTEREST
● International politics is a struggle for power. Power is a reflection of the national interest
at the international level.
● National interest is one of the most crucial concepts in the study of international politics.
● According to Joseph Frankel "National interest is the key-concept in foreign policy."
● National interest forms the basis on which foreign policy of each nation is formulated.
● Each nation has the right to pursue and jusúfy all its actions on the basis of national
interest.
Definition:
● States seek to protect or achieve in relation to each other to promote or protect their
interest.
● National interest is the desire and aspirations of the states. It is the sum total of a nation’s
goals and ambitions such as economic, political, military and cultural fulfilment of
economic goals, political goals and Military leadership or achievement in international
arena
● Vermon Von Dyke defines it as "that which states seek to protect or achieve in relation to
each other. It mens desires on the part of sovereign states."
● Padelford and Lincoln define it as concepts of national interests are centred on core
values of the society, which include the welfare of the nation, the security of its political
belief national way of life, territorial integrity and its self preservation."

Kinds of National Interests:

According to Morgenthau, there are two kinds of national interests:
(i) Vital or Necessary Interests.
● According to Morgenthau, the vital national interest that a foreign policy seeks to secure
is survival or identity.
● He sub divides this into thrce parts:
(a) Physical identity includes territorial identity,
b) Political identity means politico-economic system, and
 (c) Cultural identity stands for historical values that are upheld by a nation as part of its
cultural heritage.
● A nation always formulates its foreign policy decisions with a view -to secure and
strengthen its security.
(ii) Non-vital or Variable National Interests.
● Each state defines these objectives in a manner which suits its interests in changing
circumstances.
● V. V. Dyke includes in it : prosperity, peace, ideology, justice, prestige, aggrandisement
and power.
According to Thomas W. Robinson there are six kinds of national interests:
1. The Primary interests:
● These are those interests which no nation can compromise.
● It includes the preservation of physical political and cultural entity against
possible encroachments by other States
● A state has to defend these at all costs.
● The primary interests such as self preservation and security are vital and perpetual
interests.
2. Secondary Interests:
● These are less important than the primary interest.
● These are quiet vital for the existence of the state
● This includes protection of citizens abroad and ensuring of diplomatic immunities
for the diplomatic staff.
3. Permanent Interests:
● They refer to relatively constant and long term interests of the state.
● These are subject to very slow changes.
● Ex: the maintenance of freedom of navigation by the UK for the protection of her
overseas colonies and growing trade.
4. Variable Interest:
● Refer to those interest of nations which are vital for national good in a given set of
circumstances.
 ● The variable interests of a state are largely determined by the cross currents of
personalities,public opinion, sectional interests, partisan politics and political &
moral folkways.
5. General Interest:
● Refer to those positive interests that apply to a large number of nations or in several
specified fields such as economic,trade , diplomatic relations etc..
● To maintain international peace, disarmament and arms control are the General Interests
of all nations.

6. Specific Interests:
● These are logical outgrowths of the general interests and these are defined in
terms of time and space.
● To secure the interest of third world countries through the securing of an
International Economic order is a specific interest of developing countries.
In Addition to the above types of national interest, Robinson refers to the following interests
which he describes as “international interests”:
● The Identical Interests: refer to interests which are held in common by a number of states.
● The Complementary Interests: refer to those interests which though not identical, can
form the basis of agreement on some specific issues.
● The Conflicting Interests: they are complementary interests which are not fixed and
undergo a change due to the force of events and diplomacy.

INSTRUMENTS OR METHODS FOR PROMOTING NATIONAL INTEREST:

National interest is the key note of international politics. The states try to realise their national
interest through various instruments or methods. The most important among them are:
a. Adopting Policy of Status Quo:
● The foreign policy of a nation following status quo policy always aims at the
preservation of the power status that exists at a particular time. Status quo can be
a useful principle of foreign policy, at times it can help a nation to justify and
maintain its policies and power position in international relations.
b. Policy of Imperialism and colonialism:
 ● Imperialism is a sort of relationship in which one area and its people are
subordinate to another area and its Government. Imperialism is the result of
power conflicts among nations.
● Colonialism means roughly the same relationship of mastery and subordination
● The policy of imperialism and colonialism has been pursued with a view to
attaining economic gains, national prestige, national defence.
c. Diplomacy:
● Diplomacy is the important instrument for promotion of national interests.
● In the words of Morgenthau, “Diplomacy is the promotion of the national
interests by peaceful means.”
● Diplomacy can be described as the core of international relations because the
process of establishment of relations between any two nations begins effectively
by the establishment of diplomatic relations.
● Diplomacy is a factor of national interest, national power and foreign policy.
● It is one of the means of exercising power over other nations.
● It is an important and valuable instrument of national interest.
d. Economic Instruments:
● When a nation uses economic means for securing the objectives of national
policy, such means are referred to as economic instruments of national policy.
● Economic instruments are the means or devices used by a nation to increase or
maintain its power in international relations. Their ultimate purpose is to promote
the political power of the nation, the power to favourably influence the decisions,
policies and behaviour of other nations.
● Economic instruments aim at raising the living standards, promoting exports,
expanding employment, advancing technology and industry of a nation.
e. Propaganda:
● In contemporary times propaganda has become an Important instrument of
national interest.
● It is increasingly being used by states for promoting their goals of national
interests through a Systematic attempt, involving the use of means of mass media
 and other communication services for influencing the minds and actions of other
peoples.
● The strengthened role of public opinion in international Relations, the increased
popularity of democratic systems in managing domestic as well as foreign affairs
and the revolutionary developments in the means of communication, have all
given a new and increased importance to propaganda as an instrument.
f. War:
● War is an instrument of national policy through which a nation Seeks to impose
its interests and wishes upon the other nation or nations by using its military
power.
● It is a coercive means for the settlement of disputes and for fulfilling the goals of
national interest.
g. Alliances and Treaties:
● Alliance means a provision of mutual military assistance between two or more
sovereign states.
● Alliances are instruments of foreign policy to promote national interest and to
maintain balance of power within a multi-state system.
● For example capitalist countries made many alliances NATO, SEATO, CENTO
against communist bloc and communist countries made WARSAW PACT against
capitalist bloc.
★ Due to economic need Europe made the European Common Market and
European Economic Community.
h. Coercive Means:
● The role of power in international relations is recognised fact.
● International Law recognises coercive means of war as the methods frequently
used by states fulfilling their desired goals and objectives.
● Intervention, Non-intercourse, Embargoes, boycotts, reprisals, retortion,
retaliation, severange of relations and pacific blocades are the popular coercive
means.
 DISARMAMENT AND ARMS CONTROL
● Disarmament connotes the idea of the limitation or control or reduction of armament. In
other words, it refers to the reduction of war material and personnel according to the
international agreement. It is the notion of reduction of military manpower, military
budgets and other purely military factors.
● Arms Control is a generic term to include any kind of cooperation with respect to
armaments that could curtail the arms race, reduce the possibility of war or limit its scope
and violence. It is a restraint process exercised internationally upon armaments policy.
Arms control, therefore, means all international agreements and measures to regulate the
use of arms that may be permitted and to enforce the observance of prohibited action
such as possession of certain weapons.
MEANING:
● Disarmament refers to the act of eliminating or abolishing weapons (particularly
offensive arms) either unilaterally or reciprocally. It may refer either to reducing the
number of arms or to eliminating entire categories of weapons.
● Arms control refers to mutually agreed upon restraints or controls (usually between
states) on the development, production, stockpiling, proliferation, deployment and use of
troops, small arms, conventional weapons and weapons of mass destruction. Arms
control includes agreements that increase the transparency of military capabilities and
activities, with the intention of reducing the risk of misinterpretation or miscalculation.
DISARMAMENT AND UNO:
● Disarmament, the reduction or elimination of military forces and weapons, has been a
central concern for the international community since the inception of the United Nations
(UN). In a world marked by ongoing conflicts, the proliferation of weapons of mass
destruction (WMDs), and the threat of nuclear war, disarmament efforts play a crucial
role in maintaining international peace and security.
● Since the birth of the United Nations, the goals of multilateral disarmament and arms
limitation have been central to the Organization’s efforts to maintain international peace
and security. The UN has given the highest priority to reducing and eventually
 eliminating nuclear weapons, destroying chemical weapons, and strengthening the
prohibition of biological weapons – all of which pose the direct threats to humankind.
● Through global efforts, several multilateral treaties and instruments have been established
with the aim of regulating, restricting, or eliminating certain weapons. These include the
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-
Ban Treaty, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, the Biological and
Chemical Weapons Convention, the Anti-Personnel Landmine Convention, the
Convention on Cluster Munitions, the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons and
the Arms Trade Treaty.
Key Disarmament Treaties and Agreements
Over the years, several significant disarmament treaties and agreements have been negotiated
under the auspices of the UN. These include:

● Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous
weapons on earth. One can destroy a whole city, potentially killing millions, and
jeopardising the natural environment and lives of future generations through its long-term
catastrophic effects. The dangers from such weapons arise from their very existence. The
NPT, which entered into force in 1970, is a landmark international treaty aimed at
preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting nuclear disarmament. It has 191
member states, making it one of the most widely adhered-to arms control agreements.
● Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT): Adopted by the UN General
Assembly in 1996, the CTBT prohibits all nuclear explosions for both civilian and
military purposes. Although the treaty has been signed by 185 countries and ratified by
170, it has not yet entered into force as key states, including the United States, China, and
North Korea, have not ratified it.
● Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC): The CWC, which entered into force in 1997,
prohibits the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer, and
use of chemical weapons. It has 193 member states and is considered a major
achievement in the field of disarmament. The Convention aims to eliminate an entire
category of weapons of mass destruction by prohibiting the development, production,
stockpiling, transfer and use of chemical weapons; to prevent their re-emergence; to
 ensure the elimination of existing stocks of such weapons; and, in so doing, to make the
world safe from the threat of chemical warfare.
● Biological Weapons Convention (BWC): The BWC, which entered into force in 1975,
prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons. It currently
has 183 member states. The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) effectively prohibits
the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological and
toxin weapons. It was the first multilateral disarmament treaty banning an entire category
of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).
● Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW): Adopted by the UN General
Assembly in 2017, the TPNW prohibits the development, testing, production, stockpiling,
stationing, transfer, use, and threat of use of nuclear weapons. While it has been signed
by 86 countries and ratified by 54, it has not yet entered into force.
● Anti-Personnel Landmine Convention: Every day, people die or lose limbs from stepping
on a landmine (anti-personnel and anti-vehicle mines). Mostly in countries at peace – and
the majority of victims are civilians. The Anti-personnel Landmine Convention, adopted
in 1997, addresses this scourge. It bans the stockpiling, transfer and use of anti-personnel
landmines, requires countries to clear them on their territory, while prescribing States in a
position to do so to assist affected countries.More than 160 countries have joined this
treaty. Its positive impact includes a marked reduction of casualties, an increased number
of mine-free States, destroyed stockpiles and improved assistance to victims.
● Convention on Cluster Munitions: A cluster munition consists of a hollow shell that is
dropped from the air or fired from the ground. It breaks open in mid-air and releases
smaller bombs, or submunitions, that can number in the hundreds and saturate areas as
wide as several football fields. This means that everyone in those areas, including
civilians, run the risk of being harmed or even killed. The smaller explosive submunitions
also sometimes fail to detonate immediately, leaving them capable of killing or maiming
at random even long after a conflict has ended.
The Convention on Cluster Munitions prohibits under any circumstances the use,
development, production, acquisition, stockpiling and transfer of cluster munitions, as
well as the assistance or encouragement of anyone to engage in prohibited activities. The
Convention provides a comprehensive international response to the suffering caused by
 the use of cluster munitions and their remnants, to prevent the proliferation and future use
of these weapons. According to the UN-partnered Cluster Munition Monitor (CMC),
there was a dramatic increase in the number of civilians killed by cluster munitions
during 2022. The late report issued by the civil society group indicates that 1,172 people
were killed or injured in 2022, which is the highest number since regular reporting started
in 2010.
● Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons and the Arms Trade Treaty: Conventional
arms are weapons other than weapons of mass destruction. They are the most commonly
known and widely used armaments in conflict and crime settings and encompass a wide
range of equipment, including battle tanks, armoured combat vehicles, large-calibre
artillery systems, combat aircraft and uncrewed combat aerial vehicles (UCAV), attack
helicopters, warships, missile and missile launchers, landmines, cluster munitions, small
arms, and lights weapons and ammunition. The Convention on Certain Conventional
Weapons (CCW) is a key instrument of international humanitarian law and, with its five
Protocols, seeks to ban or restrict the use of specific types of weapons (non-detectable
fragments; mines, booby-traps and other devices; incendiary weapons; blinding laser
weapons and explosive remnants of war) that have indiscriminate effects on civilians or
cause unnecessary suffering for combatants.

Challenges and Obstacles

● Despite the existence of various disarmament treaties and agreements, achieving
meaningful progress in disarmament remains a significant challenge. Several factors
contribute to this:

1. Security Dilemma: States often cite security concerns as justification for maintaining or
even increasing their military capabilities. The security dilemma, whereby one state's
efforts to increase its security are perceived as a threat by other states, can lead to an arms
race and hinder disarmament efforts.
2. Lack of Trust: A fundamental obstacle to disarmament is the lack of trust between states.
Historical conflicts and ongoing rivalries have created deep-seated mistrust, making it
difficult for states to agree on meaningful disarmament measures.
 3. Verification and Compliance: Ensuring compliance with disarmament agreements and
verifying the dismantlement of weapons stockpiles are significant challenges. Without
effective verification mechanisms, states may be reluctant to fully implement
disarmament agreements.
4. Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: The continued proliferation of weapons of
mass destruction, including nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, poses a grave
threat to international peace and security. Efforts to prevent the spread of these weapons
must be a priority for the international community.
5. Geopolitical Tensions: Geopolitical tensions and rivalries between major powers can
undermine disarmament efforts. Competing interests and strategic considerations often
take precedence over disarmament goals, making it difficult to achieve consensus on
meaningful measures.
Current Disarmament Efforts

Despite these challenges, the UN continues to play a central role in promoting disarmament and
arms control. The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) serves as the focal point within
the UN system for disarmament activities, providing substantive and organizational support to
various disarmament bodies and processes.

The UNODA works to promote disarmament education and awareness-raising activities,

facilitate disarmament negotiations and agreements, and provide technical assistance to states in
implementing disarmament measures. It also conducts research and analysis on disarmament
issues and promotes the peaceful uses of outer space.

In recent years, there have been some positive developments in disarmament efforts:

● Nuclear Arms Reductions: The United States and Russia, which possess the world's
largest nuclear arsenals, have negotiated a series of arms control agreements aimed at
reducing their nuclear stockpiles. While progress has been made, further reductions are
needed to significantly reduce the risk of nuclear conflict.
 ● Iran Nuclear Deal: The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), negotiated
between Iran and the P5+1 group of countries (the United States, Russia, China, France,
the United Kingdom, and Germany) in 2015, aimed to limit Iran's nuclear program in
exchange for sanctions relief. Although the JCPOA has faced challenges, it represents a
significant diplomatic achievement in non-proliferation.
● North Korea: Efforts to denuclearize North Korea have faced numerous setbacks, but
diplomatic efforts, including summits between North Korean leader Kim Jong-un and
world leaders, have helped reduce tensions on the Korean Peninsula. However, achieving
complete denuclearization remains a long-term challenge.
● Humanitarian Impacts of Nuclear Weapons: The humanitarian consequences of nuclear
weapons use have received increased attention in recent years, leading to growing calls
for the abolition of nuclear weapons. The TPNW, which was negotiated and adopted by
non-nuclear-armed states, reflects this growing awareness of the catastrophic
humanitarian consequences of nuclear war.

FEATURES OF DISARMAMENT:
Disarmament refers to the reduction or elimination of military forces and weapons. Here are
some of the key features of disarmament:

● Reduction or elimination of weapons: Disarmament involves reducing the number of

weapons, military equipment, and forces possessed by a country or a group of countries.
● Verification and monitoring: It requires mechanisms for verifying and monitoring the
reduction or elimination of weapons to ensure compliance with disarmament agreements.
● International cooperation: Disarmament often requires international cooperation and
agreements between countries to achieve its goals.
● Peace and security: The primary objective of disarmament is to enhance international
peace and security by reducing the likelihood of armed conflict.
● Arms control: Disarmament is often part of broader arms control efforts aimed at
preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and conventional arms.
● Trust-building: Disarmament can contribute to building trust and confidence between
countries, reducing tensions, and preventing arms races.
 ● Multilateral negotiations: Disarmament agreements are usually negotiated through
multilateral forums such as the United Nations, where countries come together to discuss
and agree on arms reduction measures.
● Gradual process: Disarmament is often a gradual process that may take place over an
extended period, involving phased reductions and confidence-building measures.
● Civil society involvement: Civil society, including non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and advocacy groups, often plays a significant role in promoting and monitoring
disarmament efforts.
● Humanitarian considerations: Disarmament efforts may also take into account
humanitarian considerations, such as the impact of weapons on civilian populations and
the environment.
These features collectively aim to reduce the risk of armed conflict, promote international
stability, and create a more secure and peaceful world.

TYPES OR KINDS OF DISARMAMENT:

Disarmament may be distinguished as general and local and also as quantitative and qualitative.
1. General disarmament: means a kind of disarmament in which all the concerned nations
participate such as the Washington Treaty of 1922 for the limitation of naval armaments.
This treaty was signed by the major naval powers of the world.
Local disarmament: implies that only a limited number of nations are involved. This type
was exemplified in the Rush Bagot Agreement of 1817, in which Great Britain and the
United States limited the naval armament on great lakes to three vessels for each power.
2. Quantitative and Qualitative Disarmament: QuantitativeDisarmament refers to an overall
reduction of armaments of most or all types. This was the goal of most nations
represented at the World Conference in 1932. Qualitative disarmament aims at the
reduction or abolition of only certain special kinds of armaments as was discussed by the
Atomic Energy Commission of the United Nations.

A. “Nations prefer arms control rather than disarmament”. Explain

Why Nations Prefer Arms Control:
Nations often prioritize arms control over disarmament for several reasons.
 ● Firstly, arms control allows states to manage security risks without compromising
their military capabilities or strategic interests. By negotiating agreements to limit
the proliferation of specific weapons systems or establish confidence-building
measures, states can reduce the likelihood of conflict while retaining the
flexibility to respond to emerging threats.
● Secondly, arms control provides a framework for diplomatic engagement and
conflict resolution, enabling nations to build trust and foster cooperation through
dialogue and negotiation.
● Thirdly, arms control offers practical solutions to pressing security challenges,
such as the prevention of nuclear proliferation or the regulation of conventional
arms transfers, which may be more achievable in the short term than ambitious
disarmament initiatives.
Define disarmament. Bring out the problems of disarmament/Analyse the problems of
disarmament
Discuss various kinds of disarmament and examine the need for disarmament
 FOREIGN POLICY

● Is an important key to the rational explanation of international behaviours.

● It is the basis of all international relations.
● It is not possible to understand inter-state relations without understanding their foreign
policies.
● Every nation has the right and responsibility to secure the aims, objectives and aspirations
of its national interests in international relations.
● As no nation is completely self-sufficient and self-reliant, no nation can live without
maintaining inter-state relations.
● Interdependence has been an indispensable fact of international relations.
● It is a fact that the behaviour of each nation has an effect on the behaviour of other
nations.
● Every nation, keeping in view of its national interest, makes an effort to take utmost
advantage of the actions of other nations. Therefore, every nation has to formulate and
adopt a foreign policy to secure and serve the interest of its people and also to achieve the
goals of her national interest in international relations and international politics.
● In this globalised world it is not possible for any state to live in isolation and without
maintaining inter-state relations. Therefore, to maintain such relations with other states of
the world, a state has to formulate a foreign policy.
● foreign policy is a course of action and inputs that a nation makes in order to influence
behaviour of other states and to pursue its goals of national interest. It is a set of
principles, decisions and means which a nation adopts to secure its goals in international
relations.
● George Modelski, defines it as “the system of activities evolved by communities for
changing the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the
international environment. Foreign Policy must throw light on the ways states
attempt to change, and succeed in changing the behaviour of other states.”
● In the words of Padelford and Lincoln, “A State’s Foreign Policy is the totality of its
dealings with the external environment. Foreign Policy is the overall result of the
 process by which a state translates its broadly conceived goals and interests into specific
courses of action in order to achieve its objectives and preserve its interests.”
● The foreign policy of nation includes–
★ a set of principle, policies and decisions adopted and followed by a nation
globally,
★ objectives and goals of national interest which are to be achieved,
★ for conducting international relations broad principles and decisions,
★ assessment of achievements and losses of the nation in terms of its goals of
national interest,
★ means or nature of action to be taken to achieve the goals or objectives of national
interest and
★ policies, decisions and action- programmes for maintaining continuity or change
in international relations.

● The objectives of nation’s foreign policy are:

★ Maintaining the integrity of the State.
★ Promoting economic interest
★ Providing for national security
★ Protecting national prestige and developing national power
★ Maintaining world order

NATURE of FOREIGN POLICY:

● The nature of foreign policy in international politics is multifaceted and dynamic,
reflecting the complex interactions between states, non-state actors, and global trends.
● Foreign policy encompasses a state's strategies, objectives, and actions in its interactions
with other states and international actors.
● Foreign policy primarily revolves around the interests and objectives of nation-states,
which seek to safeguard their sovereignty, security, and prosperity in the international
arena.
● Foreign policy is not static; it evolves in response to changing geopolitical dynamics,
shifting alliances, emerging threats, and domestic considerations.
 ● Foreign policy encompasses a wide range of activities, including diplomacy, trade,
defence, development assistance, and cultural exchanges, reflecting the diverse interests
and priorities of states.
● Foreign policy is a set of general principles adopted and followed by a nation. It is the
means that are to be used for achieving the objectives
● Foreign policy is the guidelines or broad policy and principles for conducting relations
with other nations.
● It is the assessment of the gains and failures of the nations in respect of its goals of
national interest
● It is attempts to maintain continuity or change in relations as the case may be

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

A particular nation’s foreign policy is influenced by various factors. Foreign policy is the
product of a number of factors. But according to circumstances the determinants vary in terms of
their importance. Therefore, to lay down any general rule regarding the relative importance of
each factor or determinant or a scale of priorities which the policy-makers take into account
during the time of policy formulation is very difficult or it is impossible. In general, the basic
determinants of foreign policy can be broadly classified into three categories:
(i) Internal factors,
(ii) External factors and
(iii) policy making factors.
All these factors and its sub-divided factors are discussed in detail below:
Internal Determinants: The significant internal or domestic determinants of foreign policy are
discussed below:
1. Geography: It is considered to be the most stable determinant which influences foreign
policy of a nation. Geography includes the location, size, topography, state boundaries,
climate, hydrography, population, natural resources, etc. of a nation. Geography has a
very significant contribution while formulating foreign policy. Size is the total landmass
that a state has. It influences the psychological and operational environment within which
policy makers and the public respond. Again, the large size of a state cannot be
considered an independent determinant, as a state's power is increased by large area if it
 has the capacity to accommodate a large population and contains varied supply of natural
resources. The geostrategic location of the state i.e. position of a state in relation to other
land bodies, and to other states is more important than the size of the state during foreign
policy formulation.
Climatic conditions of a state is another geographical feature that plays a crucial role in
the determination of the state’s foreign policy. Topography includes wind, rainfall,
temperature, soil, mountains, rivers, valleys, etc. which also influences foreign policy
decisions. Natural resources of a state also greatly affects foreign policy decisions.
Possession of natural resources increases bargaining capacity of a state internationally
and helps in foreign policy choices. But it must be stated that the effect of geography is of
intricate nature and has lost much of its importance due to the recent development of
science and technology.
2. History and Culture: History of a nation also has its influence on foreign policy making.
In fact, the political tradition of a nation is rooted in its history and culture. The basic
foreign policy objectives are guided considerably by the historical and cultural traditions
of the state. In the realm of external relations, a nation follows a course of action which is
greatly influenced by the style and culture which the nation adopts from history. For
example, many developing countries including India have strongly taken a stance for
anti-imperialism, anti-colonialism and anti-racism due to the bitter experiences of
colonialism, imperialism and racialism.
3. National Capacity: This is another strong determinant of foreign policy of a nation. It
includes military strength, economic development and technological progress of the
nation. The economic position of a nation in terms of GNP which enables a nation to
understand its ability to utilise its natural and human resources, also helps a nation in
foreign policy choices in turn. The highly developed countries in terms of economy and
technology and military have the advantage in gaining desired objectives in their relations
with economically and technologically weaker countries. Developing countries due to
their dependence on the developed countries for capital, technology and military research
and development loses the power to formulate an independent foreign policy. For
example, economic power of USA has brought positive leverage while economic decline
 has brought negative factor in case former Soviet Union. Moreover, it is necessary for a
foreign policy to compromise with its national capacity in order to succeed.
4. Public Opinion: It is another important internal factor which is not possible for the
government of a state to ignore or go against it for long. In a democratic state specially,
the government cannot dare to ignore the importance of public opinion in both domestic
and foreign policies. Due to the great achievements like information technology, mass
media, internet, telecommunications, public opinion has gained more importance in the
world at present. Public opinion in case of foreign policy sets limitations on choices of
policies and constraints in policy executions too. For example, American government
was compelled to withdraw from Vietnam after 1968 under the pressure of public
opinion. But in totalitarian or authoritarian states, public opinion hardly plays a role in
policy making.
5. Ideology: Ideology means a set of beliefs or interrelated ideas of a group of people about
power distribution in the society, history, proper functioning of government, economies
and particular way of life. While conducting foreign policy of states, ideology often plays
a crucial role. To achieve national interest and justification of policies, many times
ideological principles are used by states or groups of states. Sometimes ideology plays
the role of a source of international conflict too. For example, the Cold War between the
USA and Soviet Union occurred due to ideological differences.
6. Social and Political Structures: The formulation of foreign policy of a state is influenced
to a great extent by the nature of the political system and the ruling elite. For example,
foreign policy of a democratic state would be different from the foreign policy of an
authoritarian state. Again when there is a sudden change in the government of a state, it
leads to changes in the course of foreign policy of the state too.
For instance, in India with the changes of government from Congress led UPA to BJP led
NDA government there have been changes in foreign policy stances.
Like political structure, social factors are equally important factors for the formulation of
foreign policy. A peaceful strong society provides for a stronger foreign policy than a
society with tensions and with unequal distribution of wealth. Cooperation is also
essential for a foreign policy of a state.
 7. National interest: It is the key determining factor of foreign policy of any state. It is of
supreme importance while formulating foreign policy. Behaviour of states in the
international field is guided by national interest to a great extent.
External Factors: External environment is also very necessary while formulating foreign policy
of a state. International laws, treaties, agreements, pacts, international and regional organisations
considerably influences and also constrains the making of foreign policies of states.
1. International Organization: These include international law, the U.N.O., and its activities,
UNESCO, I.L.O, W.H.O., I.M.F., etc. The nations cannot completely ignore international
law, treaties and contracts so that their violations may not put the policies in danger.
2. World public Opinion: World public Opinion provides dynamism to the external
environment. It is always changing. It is very difficult to know it unless it becomes very
clear and organized. Like a flicker of light, it rarely influences the foreign policy.
3. Reactions of other States: The states cannot always neglect the viewpoint of other states
while making their foreign policies. Moreover, every state has some friendly nations or
allies. Their reaction about a particular policy has to be given special attention. States
usually never attempt to pursue those interests which are totally Opposed to the
fundamental interests of other states. Its police ignore the reaction of other states and it
has little chance to succeed.

Apart from these, one of the most important determinants is the role of policy makers.
● Role of Policy-makers: Another major determining factor of foreign policy is the attitude
of the decision and policy makers. Foreign policy is based significantly on the leadership
qualities as it determines the strength and direction of foreign policy of a state. Foreign
policy is very strongly related to the psychological traits, the personality and
predisposition of the leaders. In the formulation of foreign policy, there is a major role
played by the ruling elite and the decision makers act in accordance with their perception
of reality. The policy makers take due note of the relevant values and relevant sectors of
the environment, they determine the objectives of the foreign policy. The decision makers
interpret the national interest and also perceive the external environment while
formulating foreign policy. The impact of the views and personalities of the ruling elites
on foreign policy formulation is quite natural. Foreign policy is however not the result of
 the role played by a few leaders only, it also involves the interplay of other various
determinants and pressures of bureaucracy.

FOREIGN POLICY AND NATIONAL INTEREST

● National Interest is the key concept of foreign policy
● The national interest influences the formulation of the foreign policy of a country.
● National interest is the keynote of international politics
● The relationship between foreign policy and national interest is complex and interrelated.
National interest refers to the goals and objectives that a nation seeks to achieve, while
foreign policy is the strategy and actions taken by a country to pursue its national interest
in the international arena.
● National interest shapes foreign policy by guiding decision-making processes and
determining the priorities and actions of a state . However, the concept of national
interest is not static and can vary between states and over time . The interplay between
power, morality, and public interests also influences the formulation and pursuit of
national interests .
● The case of Russia's foreign policy towards Ukraine highlights the complexity of
defining national interests, which can be influenced by both power considerations and
political identity .
● In order to have an effective foreign policy, it is crucial for a nation to have a well-
defined and robust national interest that aligns with its foreign policy objective.
● Foreign policy is guided by the national interest. Governments formulate foreign policies
based on their assessment of what serves the best interests of their country. This involves
analyzing domestic needs and external threats, as well as opportunities for cooperation
and partnership.
● Foreign policy seeks to pursue and protect the national interest in the international arena.
Governments use diplomacy, negotiation, alliances, trade agreements, and sometimes
military force to advance their interests and achieve their objectives.
● Foreign policy is dynamic and must adapt to changing global conditions and evolving
national priorities. Governments continuously reassess their national interests in response
 to shifting geopolitical landscapes, economic trends, technological developments, and
security threats.
● Effective foreign policy seeks to reconcile national interests with broader values and
ideals, such as democracy, human rights, and international law. While pursuing self-
interest, countries may also seek to project a positive image and influence global norms
and standards.
● According to Reynolds foreign policy of a state can be based on national interest if the
interests of the various nations are homogenous, and it cannot be based on it when the
interests of the various nations are of heterogeneous character. As each state shall try to
resist the imposition of the alien values, this is inevitably likely to lead to a war.
● There is a need to compromise the national interests with the interest of other nations.

Overall, national interest provides the foundation and rationale for foreign policy, guiding
governments in their interactions with the international community and shaping the course of
global affairs.
Foreign Policy and National Interest
National interest is the central concept in foreign policy. All states are establishing and revising
their relations with other states according to their national interest. It is aptly stated by Lord
Palmerston. "We have no eternal allies and we have no eternal enemies. Our interests are eternal
and those interests it is our duty to follow". Majority of the political scientists and statesmen
attach considerable significance to the concept of national interest.
Foreign Policy is Based on National Interests
 The national interests influence the formulation of foreign policy of a
country .The states generally do not publically admit that their foreign policies are
based on their self-interest. However, responsible people have admitted this fact.
For example American Secretary of State Hughes admitted in the 1920's that "Foreign policies
are not abstractions but the results of practical concepts of national interest."
 In his article "Another Great Debate The National Interest of United States"
Morgenthau asserts that the foreign policy "seeks the defense of the national
interest by peaceful means" and to defend the national interest restrictively and
rationally defined "against the national interests of other nations which may or
may not be thus defined."
 Foreign Policy is drawn up to foster the national interest of defense and economic
development. National interest is considered to be the goal and foreign policy
is considered to be the means to achieve it. Goals of nations change with
changes in conditions and time. Accordingly, national interest also changes.

Usually, foreign policy is used to foster defense ties and economic development of the nation in
the following ways:
1. Defense: Defense ties are strengthened between
nations by signing friendship treaties with other
nation-states. For instance, India has signed a
friendship treaty with Russia, hence Russia provided
help to India in the war of 1971 . Various military
exercises are also held between various countries in
 order to co-operate and co-ordinate in case of any
external aggression or war in the future. Developed
countries also provide military aid to the least
developed countries in order to secure them. Like,
there are various instances where the USA has
intervened in foreign to combat terrorism and for the
safety and security of their own nation. Developing
countries procure advanced military equipment from
a developed nation to safeguard the territorial
integrity of the nation. In this way, foreign policy is
used as a means to maintain the safety and security of
the nation.
2. Economic development: International trade also
plays a big role in the economic development of
nations. Like in the case of China, exports of
manufactured goods globally have led to the growth
and development of China. Various trade deals, free
trade agreements are signed between nations to take
advantage of relative resource endowment. Good
relations with a particular nation also bring foreign
direct investment from that nation, which is a big
contributor to economic development nowadays. For
instance, good relations between India and Japan
have led Japan to invest in bullet train projects in
India. Foreign policy also affects migration patterns,
as many Indians are working in countries like the
UAE, Australia, USA, etc., who bring much needed
foreign currency to India. In this way, foreign policy
also affects the growth and development of the
nation. So, from the above explanation, it can be
concluded that foreign policy can be used as a means
 to achieve national goals. In short, the national
interest is the predominant factor in the
formulation of a country's foreign policy .

Foreign Policy is not Based on National Interests Alone

Prof . Reynolds holds that it is not always possible to base the foreign policy of a state on its
national interests alone. He argues that the foreign policy of a state can be based on national
interest only if the interests of the various nations are homogeneous. It shall indeed be a costly
proposition to pursue a policy based on national interests, when the interests of the various
nations are of a heterogeneous character This is likely to lead to a war As Reynolds puts it "Since
self-extending heterogeneous values of unlimited range must almost certainly lead to major
armed conflict, national interests must require their limitations National interests cannot,
therefore, always in all circumstances be identified with the values of the community; and when
to this is added disagreement about the basic general purposes for which humans exist the
difficulty of giving any generally applicable empirical content to the nations of national interest
becomes apparent."
 NON-ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT
● Non Alignment Movement (NAM) was the movement of third world countries which

emerged after World War II .

● Non - alignment is a policy of keeping out of alliance in general and military pacts in
particular.
● The foreign policy followed by independent nations without joining the military alliances
of western states arranged by the USA or the military alliances of communist states under
the USSR is known as the policy of NON-ALIGNMENT. The group of these nations is
also called the ‘Third World Group’.
● NON-ALIGNMENT means efforts to retain independence of thought, judgement and
action under conditions of cold war which generated military alliances and agreements of
all sorts. Its purpose is to enlarge the areas of peace and Cooperation.
● The policy of NON-ALIGNMENT is based on the principles of detachment from military
blocs and faith in the solution of international disputes through mutual cooperation

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR PROMOTING NON-ALIGNMENT

1. NATIONALISM
2. ANTI COLONIALISM
3. UNDERDEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC AID
4. RACIAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS
5. NEED OF PEACE FOR DEVELOPMENT
6. STRONG LEADERSHIP
7. PRESENCE OF U.N.
 Globalisation and the New World Order
‘Order’ indicates a condition in which everything is in its correct place. It also refers to respect
for and enforcement of rules. Day-to-day activities would be normal and peaceful if order exists.
In the world affairs, order brings a certain method in the way one country conducts its affairs
with other states. The method can be noticed in the form of a set of rules and principles, which
are commonly accepted and respected by governments. These rules and principles include
equality of all countries, that one country should not interfere in the internal affairs of another
state, that force should not be used or even threatened in the bilateral relations, that prisoners of
wars and refugees should be treated humanely, etc. For assisting countries to make and
implement these rules, they often establish common institutions like the United Nations. They
are meant to assist in sorting out differences and problems between countries through dialogue
and diplomacy.

The phrase ‘world order’ may sound strange in the light of opposite realities. Though the states
are supposedly equal in a formal sense, there are gross inequalities among them. And some of
these inequalities have been recognised in the form of veto power conferred on five permanent
members in the UN Security Council. Countries often compete for resources and influence, they
suspect each other’s intentions and ambitions, and they quarrel about borders, trade and several
other issues. In fact, right now a dozen wars are going on in counties of Asia, Africa and Europe
causing death to millions and destruction of valuable property.

Moreover, problems arise not just between states but also within those states. Many states are
fighting civil wars. Civil war is a prolonged situation of brutal war between state military and
certain groups of people wanting to remove a government from seat of power or form their own
separate state. Sri Lanka is a good example of countries fighting a civil war. Linked to this aspect
is the spread of terrorism, which causes fear among common people through indiscriminate
violence and inhumane killings. Besides, additional commercial and social pressure groups have
emerged to make heavy demands on state policies. Multinational Corporations (MNCs) in
America and Europe have become powerful enough to dictate the economic policies of many
poor states, whereas the influence of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) on official policies
is growing very fast.
Exchange of diplomats, rules regarding wars, postal communication, air and sea traffic, treatment
of foreigners, exchange of currencies are part of international order. These and other aspects of
international affairs are regulated through customs and traditions, and also by rules laid down in
various international agreements and treaties. It is also common that states having differences
seek the help of another country or an international agency for reaching a compromise. The talks
currently in progress between India and Pakistan mirror these features of the existing world
order. That a world war has not taken place after 1945 speaks about thepositive side of the world
order.

Multi-ethnic states with differences in size and capabilities have traditionally constituted the bulk
of world order. The few powerful countries have played significant role in shaping the world
order by setting certain rules and principles to guide relations among countries. Peace and
development have become the most important goals of the world order for the past century. But
these goals have been ill served by the Cold War and the emergence of the bipolar world for
nearly half a century during 1945 – 1990. During this period, however, the European Union and
the Nonaligned Movement gained some influence and tried to make the world multipolar. The
end of the Cold War and the emergence of the United States as the most powerful country made
the world unipolar. This shift in the world order has only added problems especially in the
context of political instability in different parts of the world.

Let us recognise that world order cannot be idealistic ignoring the realities completely. Political
and other conditions continuously influence the nature of the world order at any time. The world
order in turn evolves gradually in response to these developments by making necessary
adjustments. The order does not completely break up to give place to a new order; it only makes
changes as per the actual trends in the world. These changes may be good or bad, minor or
major. In other words, major developments like the end of the Cold War necessitate change in
the existing order, not change of the existing order.
GLOBALISATION
No doubt, the twenty first century world is in the thick of globalisation which is chiefly
economic in focus, although there are striking cultural and political dimensions also. The end
of the Cold War and near universal adoption of privatisation and economic liberalisation as the
only route to growth and development served as the right setting for significant changes in the
conduct of economic or business transactions during the 1990s. There were other developments,
which contributed to the deepening of globalisation. Advances in information and
communication technology that are associated with use of computer and internet have heralded
the “electronic age”. Along with the existing financial institutions of the world like the
International Monetary Fund and the World Bank whose power and reach now have become
global, an equally powerful new organization dedicated to promotion of free trade has come into
being. It is the World Trade Organisation. The whole world has become a single market allowing
foreign investments and free flow of goods across national boundaries. In the new climate,
multinational corporations have gained global respect and access.

Globalisation is a process of integrating the world into one market to enable easy movement of
capital, goods, information and even workers across borders with no barriers. Private firms can
invest and disinvest at will, locate production centres at a profit yielding or cost reducing
anywhere in the world, hire employees of foreign origin on cheaper rates, assign work to far
away people with the desired skills and experience, and flood markets in the developing
countries with consumer and other goods for sale at rates competitive to local products, and
safely take back profits. All this is happening with the help of technology access to which is
not yet universal or equal. The globalisation process as manifested in the activities of
multinational corporations, media giants and non-governmental organisations hasconsiderably
undermined the sovereign prerogatives of the state structures in the Third World. Territorial
borders identified with nation states have become less effective to check ill effects of
globalisation.

The bulk of the world community – the developing countries - has become part of globalisation
with great hope. Let us look at India’s experience. With strengths like well developed and highly
competitive computer software industry, the availability of technical and skilled work force and
its potential as a very large middle class market, India has hopes to benefit in the era of
globalisation. Since 1991, India changed the orientation of its economic policy by injecting
pronounced features of privatization, liberalisation of rules for foreign investment, and
disinvestment of public sector companies. Customers are flooded with an amazing choice of
goods in the market – from motor cars to food products. India’s exports have gone up especially
in service sector, investments have come into the country, and our foreign exchange reserves are
extremely comfortable. Overall, India during globalisation has emerged as one of the fastest
growing economies in the world.

Though India is open to beneficial aspects of globalisation, it is concerned over the adverse
effects. American companies, currency, TV channels and weapons have taken over the world.
Many local companies are being shut down causing unemployment to millions even in the
advanced countries. Withdrawal of Governmental support through subsidies in fertilizers,
electricity and other essential needs has added to the misery of rural and farming sections. The
income gaps between the rich and the poor both among and within countries have sharply
widened. Nearly one half of the world population (concentrated mostly in sub- Saharan Africa
and south Asia) are in terrible poverty. While official aid from the rich donor countries has not
grown, the debt burden of the developing countries has increased to worrying levels. The
economic globalisation, which has swept the world like a hurricane, has only induced income
inequalities between peoples and countries.

Introduction

Globalization has transformed the landscape of international politics, leading to the emergence of
new world orders. This essay explores the intricate relationship between globalization and the
evolving world orders in international politics. It delves into the various dimensions of
globalization, its impacts on state behavior, and the emergence of new power structures and
alliances in the global arena.
Defining Globalization

Globalization refers to the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among

countries through the exchange of goods, services, information, ideas, and people on a global
scale. It is driven by advancements in technology, transportation, communication, and trade
liberalization. Globalization has led to the integration of national economies into the world
economy, blurring the boundaries between states and creating a globalized system of
governance.

Dimensions of Globalization

 Economic Globalization: Economic globalization involves the increasing flow of goods,

services, capital, and investments across national borders. It is characterized by the
expansion of multinational corporations, the rise of global supply chains, and the
liberalization of trade and investment policies. Economic globalization has led to the
emergence of a global market, where goods and services are traded freely, and economic
interdependence among states has deepened.
 Political Globalization: Political globalization refers to the increasing interconnectivity
and cooperation among states in addressing global challenges. It involves the formation
of international institutions, treaties, and agreements to manage issues such as climate
change, terrorism, human rights, and trade. Political globalization has led to the rise of
multilateralism and the establishment of international organizations such as the United
Nations, World Trade Organization, and International Monetary Fund.
 Cultural Globalization: Cultural globalization involves the spread of ideas, values, norms,
and cultural practices across national borders. It is driven by advancements in
communication technologies, such as the internet, social media, and mass media. Cultural
globalization has led to the homogenization of cultures, the diffusion of Western values
and consumer culture, and the emergence of a global popular culture.
 Social Globalization: Social globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and
mobility of people across national borders. It involves the movement of labor, migration,
 and the exchange of ideas and information through social networks. Social globalization
has led to increased cultural diversity, demographic shifts, and the formation of
transnational communities and identities.
Impacts of Globalization on International Politics

 Shift in Power Dynamics: Globalization has led to a shift in power dynamics in

international politics, with emerging powers such as China, India, and Brazil gaining
influence on the global stage. These rising powers have benefited from economic
globalization, as their economies have grown rapidly, and they have become major
players in global trade and investment.
 Challenges to State Sovereignty: Globalization has challenged the traditional notion of
state sovereignty, as states are increasingly interconnected and interdependent. Issues
such as terrorism, climate change, pandemics, and economic crises require collective
action and cooperation among states, undermining the ability of states to act
independently.
 Rise of Non-State Actors: Globalization has empowered non-state actors such as
multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and terrorist groups
to play a greater role in international politics. These actors operate across national borders
and have the ability to influence state behavior and shape global governance.
 Integration vs. Fragmentation: Globalization has led to both greater integration and
fragmentation in the international system. While economic globalization has led to
greater economic interdependence and integration, political and cultural globalization
have also led to increased fragmentation and polarization, as states and societies grapple
with competing values and identities.

Emerging World Orders in International Politics

 Multipolar World Order: Globalization has led to the emergence of a multipolar world
order, characterized by the presence of multiple centers of power and influence. The
United States, China, Russia, the European Union, and emerging powers such as India
and Brazil compete for influence and dominance in the global arena. This multipolar
 world order is characterized by power diffusion, competition, and cooperation among
major powers.
 Regionalization and Regional Powers: Globalization has also led to the emergence of
regional powers and regional blocs that play a significant role in shaping global politics.
Regional powers such as China in East Asia, India in South Asia, Brazil in Latin
America, and the European Union in Europe have become influential actors in their
respective regions and beyond. Regional blocs such as the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN), the African Union (AU), and the Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC) have also gained prominence in regional and global affairs.
 Networked World Order: Globalization has facilitated the formation of networks and
alliances among states, non-state actors, and international organizations to address global
challenges and pursue common interests. These networks operate across national borders
and involve cooperation and coordination among multiple actors. Examples include
international alliances against terrorism, climate change, and nuclear proliferation.
 Challenges to the Liberal World Order: Globalization has also posed challenges to the
liberal world order, characterized by democracy, free markets, human rights, and the rule
of law. The rise of authoritarianism, populism, nationalism, and protectionism in various
parts of the world has undermined the principles of liberal democracy and led to
increased tensions and conflicts in the international system.

Conclusion
In conclusion, globalization has transformed the landscape of international politics, leading to the
emergence of new world orders characterized by shifting power dynamics, regionalization,
networked governance, and challenges to the liberal world order. As states and societies become
increasingly interconnected and interdependent, the need for collective action, cooperation, and
multilateralism has become more imperative than ever. In this globalized world, the ability of
states to address global challenges and pursue common interests will depend on their ability to
adapt to the changing dynamics of international politics and navigate the complexities of the
emerging world orders.
 ASEAN

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional grouping that promotes
economic, political, and security cooperation among its ten members: Brunei, Cambodia,
Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
ASEAN countries have a total population of 650 million people and a combined gross domestic
product (GDP) of $2.8 trillion. The group has played a central role in Asian economic
integration, spearheading negotiations among Asia-Pacific nations to form one of the world’s
largest free trade blocs and signing six free trade agreements with other regional economies.
ASEAN formed during the Cold War to promote stability and cooperation in a politically
turbulent region.
The most recent addition to ASEAN is Cambodia, which joined in 1999. Since its conception
with five countries in 1967, ASEAN has doubled in membership. The body is headquartered in
Jakarta, Indonesia and the present Secretary-General: Dato Lim Jock Hoi.

ASEAN Purpose
ASEAN’s purpose is to promote economic and cultural exchange among its member countries,
maintain peace and stability in Southeast Asia, and establish relationships with foreign powers
with similar aims.
 Accelerating economic growth, cultural development, and social progress in the region
by joint initiatives in the spirit of partnership and equality to cement the foundation for a
peaceful and strong community of SE Asian countries.
 Promoting peace and stability in the region by incorporating respect for justice and the
rule of law in the relationships between nations and adherence to the United Nations
principles.
 Promoting active collaboration and mutual assistance in subjects of common interest in
social, economic, cultural, administrative, scientific, and technical domains.
 Assisting member countries via training and research facilities in the educational,
administrative, technical, and professional domains.
  Cooperating for better usage of agriculture and industries, trade expansion (including
studying the problem of international commodity trade), improving communication and
transportation facilities, and improving living standards among the people.
 Promoting South East Asian studies.
 Exploring more avenues for further cooperation among themselves, and maintaining
close and advantageous cooperation with other international groupings of similar
objectives.

Fundamental Principles

The ASEAN fundamental principles, as contained in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation
in Southeast Asia (TAC) of 1976

 The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in Southeast Asia, signed at the First
ASEAN Summit on 24 February 1976, declared that in their relations with one another,
the High Contracting Parties should be guided by the following fundamental principles:
 Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and
national identity of all nations
 The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference,
subversion, or coercion
 Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another
 Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner
 Renunciation of the threat or use of force
 Effective cooperation among themselves

To signal ASEAN’s commitment to international diplomacy, human rights, and democratic

values, its member countries signed the ASEAN Charter in 2007. Following its ratification by all
10 member states, the charter entered into force in December 2008. Among other things, the
charter conferred legal personality on ASEAN, increased the frequency of ASEAN summit
meetings, and established the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights.
ASEAN and India
India became a sectoral dialogue partner of ASEAN in 1992. Mutual interest led ASEAN to
invite India to become its full dialogue partner during the fifth ASEAN Summit in Bangkok in
1995. India also became a member of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1996. India and
ASEAN have been holding summit-level meetings on an annual basis since 2002.

India's relationship with ASEAN is a key pillar of her foreign policy and the foundation of Act
East Policy. India has a separate Mission to ASEAN and the EAS in Jakarta. India and ASEAN
already has 25 years of Dialogue Partnership, 15 years of Summit Level interaction and 5 years
of Strategic Partnership with ASEAN.

ASEAN-India Plan of Action

A Plan of Action (2004-2010) was developed to implement the ASEAN-India Partnership for
Peace, Progress and Shared Prosperity. The 3rd Plan of Action for 2016-2020 has been finalized
after successful implementation of previous one and a list of prioritized activities chalked out for
2016-18. It envisages functional cooperation in a range of sectors in the political, economic and
socio-cultural spheres with the objective of capacity building and development, particularly to
narrow the development gaps between ASEAN member states under their Initiative for ASEAN
Integration (IAI) programme. The financing of POA projects is done through ASEAN-India
Fund, Science & Technology Development Fund and Green Fund.

Challenges faced by ASEAN

 Regional imbalances in the economic and social status of its individual markets.
 Gap between rich and poor ASEAN member states remains very large and they have a
mixed record on income inequality.
 While Singapore boasts the highest GDP per capita—nearly $53,000 (2016), Cambodia’s
per capita GDP is the lowest at less than $1,300.
 Many regional initiatives were not able to be incorporated into national plans, as the less
developed countries faced resource constraints to implement the regional commitments.
 The members’ political systems are equally mixed with democracies, communist, and
authoritarian states.
 While the South China Sea is the main issue exposing the organization’s rifts.
 ASEAN has been divided over major issues of human rights. For example, crackdowns in
Myanmar against the Rohingyas.
 Inability to negotiate a unified approach with regards to China, particularly in response to
its widespread maritime claims in the South China Sea.
 The emphasis on consensus sometimes becomes the a chief drawback – difficult
problems have been avoided rather than confronted.
 There is no central mechanism to enforce compliance.
 Inefficient dispute-settlement mechanism, whether it be in the economic or political
spheres
 COLLECTIVE SECURITY
Collective Security is currently regarded as the most promising approach to international peace.
It is regarded as a valuable device of crisis management in international relations. It is designed
to protect international peace and security against war and aggression in any part of the world. It
is like an insurance system in which all the nations are bound to protect the victim of an
aggression or war by neutralizing the aggression or war against the victim.

Collective Security is based on the principle, ‘Aggression against any one member of the
international community is an aggression against international peace and security. As such it has
to be met by the collective efforts of all the nations.’ Collective security is a device by which the
security of all the nations is assessed. Under the system of collective security, aggression or war
would no longer be the concern of any individual nation, but would be the concern of all nations.
The underlying principle of Collective Security has been ‘One for All and All for One’.

MEANING AND DEFINITION

Collective security is a collective measure for security. The word security represents the goal
while the word collective indicates the nature of the combined strength will face the
aggression. The basic principle of collective security is that an attack on one state will be
regarded as an attack on all states.

Security becomes the concern of all nations and all will take care collectively of the security of
each of them as if their own security were at stake.
According to Morgenthau “one for all and all for one is the watchword of collective security.”

On collective security Palmer and Perkins observe “It clearly implies collective measure for
dealing with threat to peace”.

George Schwarzenegger has defined collective security as machinery for joint action in order to
prevent or counter any attack against an established international order”.
It is generally believed that the collective security system is a better arrangement for keeping
peace than the balance of power. But in reality both are not very much different from each other.

NATURE OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY

Collective Security stands for preserving security through collective actions. Its two key
elements are:
(1) Security is the chief goal of all the nations.
(2) The term ‘collective’, as a part of the concept of collective security, refers to the method
by which security is to be defended in the event of any war or aggression against the security of
any nation. The power of the aggressor has to be met by the collective power of all the nations.
All the nations are required to create an international preponderance of power for negating the
aggression or for ending a war.

Main Features/Characteristics of Collective Security:

(1) A Device of Power Management::- It seeks to preserve international peace through crisis
management in the event of any war or aggression in the world.
(2) It accepts Universality of Aggression: Collective Security accepts that violations of the
security of a nation are bound to occur and that wars and aggressions cannot be totally eliminated
from international relations.
(3) All Nations are committed to pool their power for ending Aggression:
Collective Security believes that in the event of a violation of international peace by any
aggression in any part of the world, all the nations are committed to pool their power and
resources for taking effective steps against every aggression for restoring international peace.
(4) Global Preponderance of Power: Collective Security stands for the creation of a universal
or global preponderance of power involving all the nations for the maintenance of international
peace and security. Under it all the nations are ready to defend international peace and security
through collective military action against aggression.
(5) Admits the presence of an International Organisation:/Collective Security presupposes
the existence of an international organisation under whose flag a global preponderance of power
is created for ending the aggression.
(6) Collective Security System is a Deterrent against War: Collective Security can be an
effective deterrent against a state with aggressive designs. Under this system each nation knows
that any aggression against another nation shall be met by the collective power of all other
nations. As such no nation tries to commit aggression and war because it knows that such an
action will invite collective security action against it. This realization acts as a deterrent against
any war or aggression.
(7) Aggression/war is the enemy and not the State which commits it: Finally, Collective
Security regards ‘aggression’ or ‘war’ as the enemy and not the state which may resort to war or
aggression. A collective security action is limited to the elimination of war, aggression or threat
of war or aggression. It does not stand for the elimination of the state which commits aggression.

Collective Security and Collective Defence in International System:

1. Collective security
● wider scope -Collective Security is a global system. It involves all the states of the world.
● World peace
● Enemy is unknown
● Unknown threat to society
● No advance planning to deal with enemy
● it tries to secure international peace
● includes one system where all the countries are included
● E.g. ;- league of nations and UNO

Collective defence
● Limited arrangement. It involves only some states who come forward to join hands against a
common enemy
● Only involved countries
● Collective Defence admits Advance Planning, Collective Security does not.
● Known enemy
● Known and possible threat
● Strength of enemy is known in advance
● It seeks to preserve peace or balance equilibrium or status quo
● Exists between alliances of different countries
● Eg NATO WARSAW pact

Difference between Collective Security and Collective Defence in International System:

Collective Defence refers to the organisation of collective machinery for meeting any aggression
by the enemy against any member of the collective defence system. A collective defence
arrangement is made by a group of nations who have a common perception of threat to their
security from a common enemy.

Usually, a collective defence system is organised as an alliance involving a regional defence

system. It covers only the members of the collective defence system. As against this, Collective
Security stands for a universal system in which all states of the world, without any
discrimination, undertake to meet any aggression anywhere in the system, and against any
aggressor. It is designed to act as a deterrent against any aggression against any nation.

UN Collective Security System:

During this last decade of the 20th century, the Collective Security System began acting as a
popular and useful device for the preservation of international peace and security.

● The Charter of the United Nations regards the preservation of international peace and security
as its most major objective. In this Charter “International Peace and Security” have been used 32
times. In its very first article, while stating the purposes of the United Nations, it makes the
preservation of international peace and security as the first priority. It lays down a collective
security system for this purpose.
● Collective Security system has been laid down in Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter and its title
reads: “Action with respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of
Aggression.” It contain 13 Articles, from Art. 39 to 51, which together provide for a collective
system for preserving international peace and security. The UN Security Council has been
assigned the responsibility and power to initiate collective security action for meeting any threat
to international peace by a war or aggression.

Art. 39 makes it the responsibility of the Security Council to determine the existence of any
threat to the peace, breach of peace, or act of aggression and to decide about measures that are to
be taken for managing the crisis for restoring international peace and security.

Art 40 lays down that as the first step towards preventing the aggravation of the situation
involving a threat to or breach of international peace and security, the Security Council can take
provisional measures like cease fire, and call upon the concerned parties to comply with these.

Art. 41 refers to the enforcement actions, other than the collective military action. The Security
Council can recommend to the members of the United Nations for compelling the concerned
parties to end the violation of peace and security. It can recommend sanctions against the state
involved in aggression.

Art. 42 empowers the Security Council to take military action for securing or maintaining
international peace and security.

Art. 43 makes it the responsibility of all the members of the United Nations to contribute their
support, efforts, resources and forces for raising the Collective Security force that may have to be
raised when Security Council decides to undertake action under Article 42.

● The next four Articles of the U.N. Charter (44-47) lay down the procedure
for raising, maintaining and using the U.N. Peace Keeping Force for Collective Security force.
❖ Art. 48 states, “The action required to carry out the decision of the Security Council
for the maintenance of international peace and security shall be taken by all the
members of the United Nations, or by some of them, as the Security Council may
determine.”
❖ Article 49 asserts that: “The members of the United Nations shall join in affording
mutual assistance in-carrying out measures decided upon by the Security Council.”
 ❖ Arts 50 lays down the ways in which non-member states can adjust their policies and
actions towards the decision that may be taken up by the Security Council under
Articles 41 and 42.
❖ Art. 51, however, accepts the right of the states “to individual or collective self-
defence if an armed attack occurs against a member, until the Security Council has
taken the measures necessary to maintain international peace and security.”
❖ With all these provisions, Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter lays down the Collective
Security system for preservation of international peace and security.

CONDITIONS FOR MAINTAINING COLLECTIVE SECURITY

The principle of collective security in order to work successfully as an instrument for
providing peace must fulfil the following conditions.
1. The basic requirement of collective security is that it
should function impartially. If collective security is
to operate impartially government and people must
exhibit flexibility of policy and sentiments.
2. The system of collective security must be able to
muster at all time such overwhelming strength
against the potential aggressor that the later should
not repeat the aggression. The collective system
must be able to meet any situation.
3. The nations which offer the combined strength to
meet the threat of aggression under collective
security system must have identical conception of
security.
4. The nations must be willing to subordinate their
political differences to the service of the world
community by whole heartedly supporting
collective action against the aggressor.
 5. In the event of any aggression there should be
unanimity among states in determining the
aggressor.
6. Collective security must not be directed against any
specific states group of states, but against
aggression in general, that is against any aggression
anywhere.
7. Collective security is incompatible with the
traditional doctrine of neutrality in war. Neutrality
strikes at the very root of collective security.
8. Collective security system necessitates the
willingness of the nations to fight for the status-quo.
Collective security does not accept a forcible change
in the international order.

Fundamental Principles of Collective Security

So what principles form the cornerstone of collective security in law? Here are the three most
important ones.
 An attack against one member is considered an attack against all
 All members are obligated to respond to this attack
 The system is based on the power of collective member countries and not on the
individual capabilities of the states
Basic assumptions
Five basic assumptions underlying the theory of collective security:
 In an armed conflict, member nation-states can agree on which nation is the aggressor.
 All member nation-states are equally committed to contain and constrain the aggression,
irrespective of its source or origin.
 All member nation-states have an identical freedom of action and ability to join in
proceedings against the aggressor.
 The cumulative power of the cooperating members of the alliance for collective security
is adequate and sufficient to overpower the might of the aggressor.
  In the light of the threat posed by the collective might of the nations of a collective
security coalition, the aggressor nation will either modify its policies or be defeated.

EVOLUTION

Criticism Against Collective Security:

1. It is Idealistic in Nature and Scope:

The concept of Collective Security is based upon certain idealistic assumptions which make its
operationalization difficult.
For example:
(1) It assumes that there can be a complete international understanding regarding the nature of all
threats or aggressions against international peace and security.
(2) It is assumed that all nations could and would come forward to name the aggressor and to
take up collective security actions against the aggressor.
(3) The concept of “collectivity” meaning, “All acting for one and all” is basically an idealistic
concept since it ignores the fact; all nations are not active in international relations. Nor can all
the nations be expected to join a collective security action.

2. At times it is not possible to identify the Aggressor:

Another major defect of the Collective Security system is that it wrongly assumes that in the
event of an aggression against any nation, the aggressor and the nature of its aggression can be
really and easily identified. In practice, it is very difficult to determine and name the aggressor as
well as to identify the nature of aggression. Often the aggressor acts in the name of self-defence
and justifies its aggression as a defensive action.

3. Admits War as a means:

Collective Security is self-negating in so far as it first denounces war or aggression as an illegal
activity and then indirectly accepts that wars and aggressions are bound to remain present in
international relations. It wrongly believes the most effective way to deal with such situations is
to undertake a collective security war.

4. Rules out ‘Neutrality’ in times of War:

The concept of Collective Security makes it an international obligation of all the nations to pool
their resources and undertake collective action in the event of an aggression. It, as such, rules out
neutrality. Many nations often prefer to remain away from war. It makes Collective Security war
an international obligation and wrongly assumes that all nations are willing to participate in such
a war.
5. A Limited Concept:
The concept of Collective Security, as laid down in the U.N. Charter, has two inherent
limitations. It accepts the right of the states to undertake war as a measure of self-defence against
any aggression. In practice this provision gives a legal basis to an aggression or war in the name
of action in self-defence.
Secondly, it admits the right of the nations to establish regional defence pacts and organisations
for protecting their security. It admits regional security systems as devices for preserving peace
and security. The working of regional security systems has in-fact been a source of strain upon
international peace and security.

6. Absence of a Permanent International Peace Keeping Force:

Another major limitation of the Collective Security system is the absence of a permanent peace
keeping force. It is only after a decision of the Security Council to take military action against an
aggressor is taken that the constitution of a collective security military force in initiated. This
process is so slow and difficult that it takes a long time to raise the force and press it into service.
The time-gap between the date of aggression and the date on which the United Nations is
actually able to send its peace keeping force for restoring peace is very big, and the aggressor
gets all the time needed for reaping the fruits of aggression.

7. Lack of provisions for the termination of Collective Security Action:

Another drawback of the U.N. Collective Security System is that whereas elaborate provisions
have been laid down for implementing the system, no provision has been made regarding the
method of terminating the Collective Security action.

8. Dependence on Powerful States:

One of the basic principles of Collective Security is that all the states should have an equal say in
arriving at collective security decisions. In actual operation, it fails to work on the principle of
equality. Powerful states always dominate collective security decisions and actions. In fact, only
the powerful states can play an effective role in executing a collective security action. At times
the powerful state are reluctant to put their power behind a collective security action which does
not strictly conform to their national interests.

9. Dangerous:
Some critics hold the view the Collective Security system is a dangerous system as it can
transform a local war into a global war involving all the nations. On the basis of these points
critics describe the collective security system as an idealistic and limited system.

COLLECTIVE SECURITY IN 21ST CENTURY

The Collective Security System has been gaining a new credibility in contemporary international
relations. Preservation of international peace and security as well as securing of development
through cooperation at all levels of international relations can be described as the two major
objectives of our generation. Collective Security of peace and collective efforts for development
stand accepted as the two means for attaining these objectives.
Collective security and covid 19
Collective security as a concept holds deep importance in international relations. Just like any
other topic in 21st century, there is a “paradigm shift" in conventional understanding of the
concept of "collective security" too, especially at a time when the entire world is fighting a
common enemy - Covid-19.
COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access, abbreviated as COVAX, is a worldwide initiative aimed at
equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines directed by GAVI (Global Alliance for Vaccines and
Immunization), the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), and the World
Health Organization (WHO). The paradigm of Security shift from traditional to modern
Collective Security covers broad aspects of security such as hunger , diseases etc... When our
country faces Covid diseases or crisis UNO and its agencies like WTO strongly provide aids to
those countries under this pandemic situation

Ukraine Russia conflict 2022

The UN Human Rights Council decided to urgently establish an independent international
commission of inquiry following Russia’s aggression against Ukraine. The International Court of
Justice ordered Russia to immediately suspend its military operations in Ukraine. The UN
General Assembly overwhelmingly demanded civilian protection and humanitarian access in
Ukraine, while also criticizing Russia for creating a “dire” humanitarian situation . The United
Nations appointed three human rights experts to investigate possible violations of international
law committed during the conflict in Ukraine. The UN General Assembly adopted a resolution
calling for Russia to be suspended from the Human Rights Council. The UN Secretary-General
visited Russia and Ukraine. On 26 April 2022, the UN General Assembly adopted a new
resolution calling on the five permanent members of the Security Council to justify the use of the
veto. The Secretary-General welcomed the fact that for the first time the Security Council is
speaking with one voice for peace in Ukraine. The Human Rights Council approved a resolution
at a special session on Ukraine calling for an investigation into the atrocities alleged against
Russian occupation troops.
The UN Human Rights Council in Geneva adopted a resolution that agreed to establish a
commission to investigate violations committed during Russia's military attack on Ukraine. The
UN is delivering emergency aid and assistance to people across Ukraine and neighboring areas
particularly women, children, elderly people, and those with disabilities. As a device of crisis
management through power-management and as a means of securing international peace and
security, Collective Security has been the object of severe criticism.

1. Non-State Actors; Features, Types, Impact

2. Non-Alignment
3. India and her Neighbours ( Pakisthan, China, and Srilanka)
4. India and Major Powers ( US, China, Russia )
5. India’s Nuclear Policy
6. Diplomacy: Meaning, Evolution, Functions of Diplomats, Classification of
Diplomats, Diplomatic Rules and Procedures, Appointment, Privileges,
Termination, Types of Diplomacy, Decline of Diplomacy
7. Mechanisms for Controlling Inter – State Relations.
8. Balance of power: Meaning and Characterization, Evolution, Devices,
Relevance
9. Pacific Settlement of Disputes – Meaning, Chief Methods
10. International Organisation : United Nations Organisaiton - Major Organs,
Relevance, Restructuring of the UNO.
11. Regional Organisations: NATO - ASEAN – SAARC – Europion Union
(EU)
12. World Trade Organisation.