Unit V (Global Environmental Issues and Policies)

Climate change

Climate is average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions, seasonal variations
and extremes of weather in a region. Such conditions which average over a long period – at least
30 years is called climate.

Climate change is the catch-all term for the shift in worldwide weather phenomena associated
with an increase in global average temperatures. It's real and temperatures have been going up
around the world for many decades. Reliable temperature records began in 1850 and our world is
now about one degree Celsius hotter than it was in the period between 1850 and 1900 –
commonly referred to as the "pre-industrial" average. The change is even more visible over a
shorter time period – compared to average temperatures between 1961 and 1990, 2017 was 0.68
degrees warmer, while 2016 was 0.8 degrees warmer, thanks to an extra boost from the
naturally-occurring El Niño weather system.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992 published best
available evidence about past climate, the green house effect and recent changes in global
temperature. It is observed that earth’s temperature has changed considerably during the
geological times.

While this temperature increase is more specifically referred to as global warming, climate
change is the term currently favoured by science communicators, as it explicitly includes not
only Earth's increasing global average temperature, but also the climate effects caused by this
increase. Global efforts are now focussed on keeping temperatures from increasing more than
two degrees above that pre-industrial average, and ideally no more than 1.5 degrees. That goal
may still be possible if the international community pulls together.

Causes of climate change

A wide range of natural phenomena can radically affect the climate, publishing climate scientists
overwhelmingly agree that global warming and resultant climate effects that we're witnessing are
the result of human activities. Green house gases are increasing in the atmosphere resulting in
increase in the average global temperature. Human activity is currently generating an excess of
long-lived greenhouse gasses that – unlike water vapour – don't dissipate in response to
temperature increases, resulting in a continuing build-up of heat.

Key greenhouse gasses include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Carbon dioxide is the
best-known, with natural sources including decomposition and animal respiration. The main
source of excess carbon dioxide emissions is the burning of fossil fuels, while deforestation has
reduced the amount of plant life available to turn CO2 into oxygen.
Methane, a more potent but less abundant greenhouse gas, enters the atmosphere from farming
both from animals such as cattle and farming methods including traditional rice paddies and from
fossil fuel exploration and abandoned oil and gas wells.
Chlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons – once widely used in industrial applications and
home appliances such as refrigerators – were key greenhouse gasses released during the 20th
century, but are now heavily regulated due to their severe impact on the atmosphere, which
includes ozone depletion, as well as trapping heat in the lower atmosphere.

Impact of climate change

 Over the years, scientific evidence has grown that anthropogenic emissions of GHGs
(carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and several industrial gases) are changing the
Earth’s climate. The atmosphere and oceans have warmed. Snow, ice, permafrost and
glaciers have reduced at the poles and elsewhere. Sea level has risen and oceans have
become more acidic by absorbing more CO2. Several extreme weather events have
intensified.
 The harsh consequences of climate change will intensify challenges to development,
especially in India, Bangladesh, Maldives, Sri Lanka and other South Asian countries.
Natural hazards and vulnerabilities arising from economic, social and environmental
circumstances already make India one of the more disaster-prone countries of the world.
Climate change related risks will increasingly affect the Indian subcontinent, including
via sea level rise, cyclonic activity and changes in temperature and precipitation patterns.
Rising sea levels would submerge low-lying islands and coastal lands and contaminate
coastal freshwater reserves.
 Extreme weather events often also collapse electricity, water supply, and health and
emergency services. Moreover, increased heat-related mortality and heat stroke due to
rising and extreme temperatures could undermine the modest progress made in recent
decades by South Asian countries in tackling disease, malnutrition and early deaths.
Disease causing pathogens and parasites will multiply faster at higher temperatures,
escalating the incidence of many tropical diseases.
 Climate change will seriously impact global food production as drought, increased
unpredictability of precipitation, and rising temperatures would reduce global crops
yields, while warming and acidification of the oceans would affect marine wildlife and
fisheries.

Global warming
 Troposphere, the lowermost layer of the atmosphere, traps heat by a natural process due to the
presence of certain gases. This effect is called Green House Effect as it is similar to the warming
effect observed in the horticultural greenhouse made of glass. The amount of heat trapped in the
atmosphere depends mostly on the concentrations of heat trapping or greenhouse gases and the
length of time they stay in the atmosphere. The major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide,
ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and water vapours. The average
global temperature is 15⸰C. In the absence of greenhouse gases this temperature would have been
-18⸰C. Therefore, Green House Effect contributes a temperature rise to the tune of 33⸰C. Heat
trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough to allow us and
other species to exist. The two predominant green house gases are water vapours, which are
controlled by hydrological cycle, and carbon dioxide, which is controlled mostly by the global
carbon cycle. While the levels of water vapour in the troposphere have relatively remained
constant, the levels of carbon dioxide have increased. Other gases whose levels have increased
due to human activities are methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons. Deforestation has
further resulted in elevated levels of carbon dioxide due to non-removal of carbon dioxide by
plants through photosynthesis.

Green house gases:

The phenomenon that worries the environmental scientists is that due to anthropogenic activities
there is an increase in the concentration of the greenhouse gases in the air that absorb infra-red
light containing heat and results in an increase in the temperature of air and the earth are
discussed here:

Carbon dioxide : It contributes about 55% to global warming from greenhouse gases produced
by human activity. Industrial countries account for about 76% of annual emissions. The main
sources are fossil fuel burning (67%) and deforestation, other forms of land clearing and burning
(33%). CO2 stays in the atmosphere for about 500 years. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
was 355 ppm in 1990 that is increasing at a rate of 1.5 ppm every year.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) : These are believed to be responsible for 24% of the human
contribution to greenhouse gases. They also deplete ozone in the stratosphere. The main sources
of CFCs include leaking air conditioners and refrigerators, evaporation of industrial solvents,
production of plastic foams, aerosols, propellants etc. CFCs take 10-15 years to reach the
stratosphere and generally trap 1500 to 7000 times more heat per molecule than CO 2 while they
are in the troposphere. They stay 65 to 110 years in the stratosphere. Atmospheric concentration
of CFC is 0.00225 ppm that is increasing at a rate of 0.5% annually.
Methane (CH4) : It accounts for 18% of the increased greenhouse gases. Methane is produced
when bacteria break down dead organic matter in moist places that lack oxygen such as swamps,
natural wetlands, paddy fields, landfills and digestive tracts of cattle, sheep and termites.
Production and use of oil and natural gas and incomplete burning of organic material are also
significant sources of methane. Methane stays in the atmosphere for 7-10 years. Each methane
molecule traps about 25 times as much heat as a CO2 molecule. Atmospheric concentration of
methane is 1.675 ppm and it is increasing at a rate of 1% annually.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) : It is responsible for 6% of the human input of greenhouse gases. Besides
trapping heat in the troposphere, it also depletes ozone in the stratosphere. It is released from
nylon products, from burning of biomass and nitrogen rich fuels (especially coal ) and from the
breakdown of nitrogen fertilizers in soil, livestock wastes and nitrate contaminate ground water.
Its life span in the troposphere is 140-190 years and it traps about 230 times as much heat per
molecule as CO2. The atmospheric concentration of N2O is 0.3 ppm and is increasing at a rate of
0.2% annually.

Impacts of Greenhouse Effect

 Global temperature increase: It is estimated that the earth’s mean temperature will rise
between 1.5 to 5.5⸰C by 2050 if input of greenhouse gases continues to rise at the present
rate. Even at the lower value, earth would be warmer than it has been for 10,000 years.
 Rise in Sea Level: With the increase in global temperature sea water will expand. Heating
will melt the polar ice sheets and glaciers resulting in further rise in sea level. One meter
rise in sea level will inundate low lying areas of cities like Shanghai, Cairo, Bangkok,
Sydney, Hamburg and Venice as well as agricultural lowlands and deltas in Egypt,
Bangladesh, India, China and will affect rice productivity. This will also disturb many
commercially important spawning grounds, and would probably increase the frequency
of storm damage to lagoons, estuaries and coral reefs.

 Effects on Human Health: The global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern
in many areas, thereby affecting the distribution of vector-borne diseases like malaria,
filariasis, elephantiasis etc. Areas which are presently free from diseases like malaria,
schistosomiasis etc. may become the breeding grounds for the vectors of such diseases.
The areas likely to be affected in this manner are Ethiopia, Kenya and Indonesia.

 Effects on Agriculture: There are different views regarding the effect of global warming
on agriculture. It may show positive or negative effects on various types of crops in
different regions of the world. Even a rise of 2∞C may be quite harmful to crops. Soil
moisture will decrease and evapo-transpiration will increase, which may drastically affect
wheat and maize production.

Measures to Check Global Warming

To slow down enhanced global warming the following steps will be important:
(i) Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuel.
(ii) Use energy more efficiently.
(iii) Shift to renewable energy resources.
(iv) Increase Nuclear Power Plants for electricity production.
(v) Shift from coal to natural gas.
(vi) Trap and use methane as a fuel.
(vii) Reduce beef production.
(viii) Adopt sustainable agriculture.
(ix) Stabilize population growth.
(x) Efficiently remove CO2 from smoke stacks.
(xi) Plant more trees.
(xii) Remove atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photosynthetic algae

Acid Rain:
Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain, fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than normal (pH
of less than 5.6. pH below 7 is acidic). Pure rain water has a pH of 5.6 because of the formation
of carbonic acid. Acid rain is caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted from the burning of fossil fuels. It is also recognized that
acidic smog, fog, mist, move out of the atmosphere and settle on dust particles which in turn
accumulate on vegetation as acid depositions. When rain falls, the acid from these depositions
leak and form acid dews.
 Sources of SOx: Fossil fuel burning, power plants, smelting of metal sulphide ores,
industrial sources, industrial production of sulphuric acid in metallurgical, chemical and
fertiliser industries volcanoes, seas and oceans, decomposition of organic matter.
 Sources of NOx: fossil fuel burning, lightning, biomass
burning, forest fires, power plants.

Types of Acid deposition

“Acid rain” is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (a form of deposition
material) from the atmosphere.
Wet Deposition
 If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas where the weather is wet, the acids can
fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist. As this acidic water flows over and
through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals.
Dry Deposition
 In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated into dust
or smoke and fall to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings,
vegetation, cars, etc.
 Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from these surfaces by rainstorms,
through runoff. This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more acidic. About half of
the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition.

Effects of acid Rain

Acid rain causes extensive damage to the environment.
 Vegetation and fertility of soil: The acid rain makes the soil acidic. This adversely affects
the plants and animals. The acid rain contains H+, SO42- and NO3- ions which when added
to soil, leaches the nutrients from the soil. The acid rain also damages the leaves of plants
and trees and damages the fertility of soil.
 Aquatic life: acid rain renders the river or ocean waters acidic, thereby, adversely
affecting marine animals. Changes in pH of fresh water affect the survival of fishes.
 Human health: Bad smells, reduced visibility; irritation of the skin, eyes and the respiratory
tract. Some direct effects include chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and cancer.
 Ecological balance: acid rain is responsible for wiping out many bacterial and blue green
algae; thereby disturbing the whole ecological balance.
 Building and monuments: acid rain causes extensive damage to buildings and monuments
made from marble, limestone, slate and mortar. The damage caused to the buildings and
monuments by acid rain is irreversible. A most glaring example is slow degradation of
Taj Mahal in Agra ( UP, India).

Control of Acid Rain

 Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.
 Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid rain.
 A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water
pipes for drinking water.

Ozone layer depletion

The Earth's atmosphere is composed of several layers. The lowest layer, the troposphere. The
troposphere extends from the surface up to about 10 km in altitude, although this height varies
with latitude. Almost all weather phenomenon takes place in the troposphere. The next layer, the
stratosphere, continues from 6 miles (10 km) to about 31 miles (50 km). Most commercial
airplanes fly in the lower part of the stratosphere. Most atmospheric ozone is concentrated in a
layer in the stratosphere, about 9 to 18 miles (15 to 30 km) above the Earth's surface. Ozone is a
molecule that contains three oxygen atoms. At any given time, ozone molecules are constantly
formed and destroyed in the stratosphere. The total amount has remained relatively stable during
the decades that it has been measured. This layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiations from
the sunlight and thus protects various life forms on the earth.
Ozone is a form of oxygen. The molecule of oxygen contains two atoms whereas that of ozone
contains three (O3). In the stratosphere ozone is continuously being created by the absorption of
short wavelength ultraviolet (UV) radiations.
Ultraviolet radiations less than 242 nanometres decompose molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen
(O) by photolytic decomposition.
 O2 + hv → O + O
The atomic oxygen rapidly reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone.
O + O2 + M → O3 + M
(M is a third body necessary to carry away the energy released in the reaction).
Ozone thus formed distributes itself in the stratosphere and absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiations
(200 to 320 nm) and is continuously being converted back to molecular oxygen.
O3 +hv → O2 + O
Absorption of UV radiations results in heating of the stratosphere. The net result of the above
reactions is an equilibrium concentration of ozone. Ozone concentration in about 24 km of the
stratosphere i.e. from 16 km to 40 Km away from earth is about 10 ppm (as compared to 0.05
ppm concentration of harmful tropospheric ozone). This equilibrium is disturbed by reactive
atoms of chlorine, bromine etc. which destroy ozone molecules and result is thinning of ozone
layer generally called ozone hole.

The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by ‘Dobson Spectrometer’ and is expressed in

Dobson units (DU). One DU is equivalent to a 0.01 mm thickness of pure ozone at the density it
would possess if it were brought to ground level (1atm) pressure. Normally over temperate
latitude its concentration is about 350 DU, over tropics it is 250 DU whereas at subpolar regions
(except when ozone thinning occurs) it is on an average 450 DU. It is because of the
stratospheric winds which transport ozone from tropical towards polar regions.

Thining of ozone layer

The Antarctic ozone hole was discovered by Dr Joe C. Farman and his colleagues in the British
Antarctic Survey who had been recording ozone levels over this region since 1957. During
spring season of south pole, i.e. September to November each year ozone depletion is observed.
Steep decline has been observed since mid 1970s with a record low concentration of 90 DU in
early October of 1993. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are mainly responsible for ozone depletion in
the stratosphere. CFCs are a group of synthetic chemicals first discovered by Thomas Midgley
Jr. in 1930. CFC-11 and CFC-12 are the CFCs most commonly used. CFCs are used as coolants
in refrigerators and air conditioners, as propellants, cleaning solvents, sterilant and in styrofoam
etc. CFCs released in the troposphere reach the stratosphere and remain there for 65-110 years
destroying O3 molecules. At Antarctic region the temperature during winter drops to -90∞C. The
winds blowing in a circular pattern over earth’s poles create polar vortices. Water droplets in
clouds when enter these vortices form ice crystals. CFCs get collected on the surfaces of these
ice crystals and destroy ozone much faster.
Nitrous oxide emitted by supersonic aircrafts, during combustion of fossil fuel and use of
nitrogen fertilizers breaks ozone molecules. Chlorine liberated from chlorofluorocarbons also
break ozone molecules.

Effects of Ozone layer depletion

  Ozone depletion in the stratosphere will result in more UV radiation reaching the earth
especially UV-B (290-320 nm). The UV-B radiations affect DNA and the photosynthetic
chemicals. Any change in DNA can result in mutation and cancer. Cases of skin cancer
(basal and squamous cell carcinoma) which do not cause death but cause disfigurement
will increase.

 Easy absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of eye will result in increase in
incidents of cataract. Melanin producing cells of the epidermis (important for human
immune system) will be destroyed by UV-rays resulting in immuno-suppression. Fair
people (can’t produce enough melanin) will be at a greater risk of UV exposure.

 Phytoplanktons are sensitive to UV exposure. Ozone depletion will result in decrease in

their population thereby affecting the population of zooplankton, fish, marine animals, in
fact the whole aquatic food chain.

 Yield of vital crops like corn, rice, soybean, cotton, bean, pea, sorghum and wheat will
decrease.

 Degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer material will result in economic loss
due to effects of UV radiation resulting from ozone depletion.

International agreement and programmes

Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol

In 1981, United Nation Environment Program (UNEP) acted on a proposal to develop a global
convention on the ozone layer. As a result, in 1985 Vienna Convention on the Protection of the
Ozone Layer, a multilateral environmental agreement came into existence.
Within two year that followed the creation of the Vienna Convention, there was incredible
progress in reaching a global scientific consensus of the nature and the threat from ozone loss.
By September 1987, the disagreements and lack of understanding had given way to substantial
trust among the international community. And so it was on September 16, 1987, that the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed by
Canada along with 23 other countries. As a result we celebrate ozone day for the protection of
ozone layer on 16th September each year.
As of September 16, 2009, it has been signed and ratified by 196 countries, achieving universal
participation. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is one of the
first international environmental agreements that includes trade sanctions to achieve the stated
goals of a treaty. India became Party to the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol on
18th March, 1991 and 19th June 1992 respectively.
Main goal of Montreal Protocol was to phase out ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Under the
Montreal Protocol, 95% of the production and consumption of all ozone-depleting substances
have been phased-out. In the 28th meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, negotiators
from 197 nations have signed a historic agreement to amend the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, a
capital city of a tiny African country, Rwanda on 15th October 2016 known as Kigali
agreement. It is an amendment to Montreal Protocol. As per the agreement, countries are
expected to reduce the manufacture and use of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) (though is not an
ODS but it is having a very high global warming potential (GWP)) by roughly 80-85% from
their respective baselines, till 2045.

United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972)

 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was first held in Stockholm,
Sweden, in 1972.
 It marked the emergence of international environmental law.

Stockholm Declaration
 It is also known as The Declaration on the Human Environment.
 It set out the principles for various international environmental issues, natural resource
management, pollution prevention and the relationship between the environment and
development.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) or UN Environment

 UNEP is an agency of the United Nations. It coordinates the UN’s environmental
activities.
 It assists developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and
practices.
 It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
1972. It has overall responsibility for environmental problems among United Nations
agencies.
 Addressing climate change or combating desertification, are overseen by other UN
organizations, like the UNFCCC and the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification.
  UNEP’s activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and
terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy.
 The World Meteorological Organization and UN Environment established the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
 UN Environment is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global
Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of
the Montreal Protocol. It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.

Earth summit(1992)

 Earth Summit 1992 was also known as The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED). It was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
 Earth Summit 1992 succeeded in raising public awareness of the need to integrate
environment and development.
 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the
current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.
 As a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio+10) was held in
2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa.
 In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was also held in
Rio and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012.

The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:

1. Rio Declaration: principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development.
2. Agenda 21: non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable
development. The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century.
3. Forest Principles: Non-legally binding document on Conservation and Sustainable
Development of All Types of Forests.

Landmark Agreements
 An important achievement of the summit was an agreement on the Climate Change
Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
 Important legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were opened for signature:
1. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
3. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

 UNCCD is a Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought

through national action programs (NAP).
 National action programs (NAP) incorporate long-term strategies supported by
international cooperation.
 It is the only internationally legally binding framework set up to address
desertification.
 It was adopted in Paris, France in 1994 and entered into force in 1996.
 It has 196 parties, making it truly global in reach.
 2006 was declared “International Year of Deserts and Desertification”.
 Recent COP14 of UNCCD was held in New Delhi in Sept 2019.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a step towards conserving biological

diversity or biodiversity with the involvement of the entire world.
 The Convention on Biological Diversity (a multilateral treaty) was opened for signature
at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into effect in 1993.
 The convention called upon all nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of
biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its benefits.
 The Convention has three main goals:
1. conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);
2. sustainable use of its components; and
3. fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.

 The Convention is legally binding; countries that join it (‘Parties’) are obliged to
implement its provisions.
 195 UN states and the European Union are parties to the convention.
 All UN member states, with the exception of the United States, have ratified the treaty.
 At the 2010 10th Conference of Parties (COP) to the Convention on Biological Diversity
in October in Nagoya, Japan, the Nagoya Protocol was adopted.
Cartagena protocol
 CBD covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology through its Cartagena Protocol
on Biosafety.
 It addresses technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety issues.
 The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed
by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.

Nagoya protocol
 It is the second Protocol to the CBD; the first is the 2000 Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety.
 It is a 2010 supplementary agreement to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD). The Nagoya Protocol is about “Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and
Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization”, one of the three
objectives of the CBD.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 UNFCCC is negotiated at the Earth Summit 1992. Signed in 1992, New York City. As
of March 2019, UNFCCC has 197 parties.
 Role: UNFCCC provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties
(called “protocols”) that aim to set binding limits on greenhouse gases.
 Objective of UNFCCC: Stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a
level that would prevent dangerous consequences.
 Legal Effect: Treaty is considered legally non-binding. The treaty itself sets no binding
limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries.

Conference of Parties (COP) in UNFCCC

 The COP is the decision-making body of UNFCCC.
 All States that are Parties to the Convention are represented at the COP. They review the
implementation of any legal instruments that the COP adopts and they promote the
effective implementation of the Convention.
 The first COP meeting was held in Berlin, Germany in March 1995. The parties to the
convention have met annually since 1995.
 In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol (3rd COP) was concluded and established legally binding
obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.

Kyoto Protocol (COP 3; UNFCCC Summit 1997)

  The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997. India ratified Kyoto
Protocol in 2002.
 The Kyoto Protocol came into force in February 2005. There are currently 192 Parties.
 USA never ratified Kyoto Protocol. Canada withdrew in 2012.
 Goal: Fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere to “a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system.”
 Kyoto protocol aimed to cut emissions of greenhouse gases across the developed world
by about 5 per cent by 2012 compared with 1990 levels. The Protocol is based on the
principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
 Kyoto Protocol is the only global treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions (CO2,
CH4, N2O, SF6, HFCs, PFCs) .

Ramsar Convention

The Ramsar conservation or Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance

especially as Waterfowl Habitat an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use
of wetlands. It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands. It is named after the city of Ramsar
in Iran, where the Convention was signed on 2nd Feb 1971. The 2nd of February each year is
World Wetlands Day. The Convention entered into force in 21st Dec 1975 and now has over
2,331 Ramsar Sites on the territories of 170 Ramsar Contracting Parties across the world,
covering more than 2.1 million square kilometers.
Under Ramsar convention, there is a standing committee, a scientific review panel, and a
secretariat. The headquarters is located in Gland, Switzerland, shared with the IUCN.

Objectives
Ramsar Convention has two fold objectives viz.
1. Conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands;
2. Stop the encroachment and loss of wetlands.

Key features of the Ramsar Convention

 Recognizes wetlands (goods and services) as vital for human wellbeing (food and water
security) and poverty alleviation.
 Support practical sustainable utilization by countries.
 open, collaborative and flexible mechanisms (for both ecosystems and species).
 supports implementation and provides practical guidance on many topics.

A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that
it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem.
The Montreux Record
 The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of
International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are
occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or
other human interference.
 It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
 Now, there are 37 Ramsar Sites in India. Out of these 37, two (Keoladeo Ghana
National park and Loktak Lake) are present in Montreux record.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna &

Flora (CITES)

 CITES is also known as the Washington Convention. It is an international agreement

(multilateral treaty) between governments that aim to ensure that international trade in
specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
 CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of
IUCN (The World Conservation Union). The text of the Convention was finally agreed at
a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C., the United States of
America, on 3 March 1973, and on 1 July 1975 CITES entered in force. Thus, we
celebrate wildlife day on 3rd of march each year.
 States that have agreed to be bound by the Convention are known as Parties. CITES is
legally binding on the Parties. However, it does not take the place of national laws. It
only provides a framework to be respected by each Party. The parties need to adopt their
own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level.
 CITES accords varying degree of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and
plants.
 The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices, according to the degree of
protection they need.
 Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these
species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
 Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which
trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.
 Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has
asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade
 The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)

 The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is a multilateral treaty that bans chemical
weapons and requires their destruction within a specified period of time.
 The treaty is of unlimited duration and is far more comprehensive than the 1925 Geneva
Protocol, which outlaws the use but not the possession of chemical weapons.
 CWC negotiations started in 1980 in the UN Conference on Disarmament. The
convention opened for signature on January 13, 1993, and entered into force on April 29,
1997. The CWC is implemented by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW), which is headquartered in The Hague with about 500 employees.
 The OPCW receives states-parties’ declarations detailing chemical weapons-related
activities or materials and relevant industrial activities. After receiving declarations, the
OPCW inspects and monitors states-parties’ facilities and activities that are relevant to
the convention, to ensure compliance.
 The CWC is open to all nations and currently has 193 states-parties. Israel has signed but
has yet to ratify the convention. Three states have neither signed nor ratified the
convention (Egypt, North Korea and South Sudan).

Prohibitions
The Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits:
 Developing, producing, acquiring, stockpiling, or retaining chemical weapons.
 The direct or indirect transfer of chemical weapons.
 Chemical weapons use or military preparation for use.
 Assisting, encouraging, or inducing other states to engage in CWC-prohibited activity.
 The use of riot control agents “as a method of warfare.”

Declaration Requirements
The CWC requires states-parties to declare in writing to the OPCW their chemical weapons
stockpiles, chemical weapons production facilities (CWPFs), relevant chemical industry
facilities, and other weapons-related information. This must be done within 30 days of the
convention's entry into force for each member state.

Penalties for Noncompliance

If states-parties are found to have engaged in prohibited actions that could result in “serious
damage” to the convention, the OPCW could recommend collective punitive measures to other
states-parties. In cases of “particular gravity,” the OPCW could bring the issue before the UN
Security Council and General Assembly. States-parties must take measures to address questions
raised about their compliance with the CWC. If they do not, the OPCW may, inter alia, restrict or
suspend their CWC-related rights and privileges (such as voting and trade rights).

Environment Legislation

India is the first country in the world to have made provisions for the protection and conservation
of environment in its constitution. On 5th June, 1972, environment was first discussed as an item
of international agenda in the U.N. Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm and
thereafter 5th June is celebrated all over the world as World Environment Day. Soon after the
Stockholm Conference our country took substantive legislative steps for environmental
protection. The Wildlife (Protection) Act was passed in 1972, followed by the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and subsequently the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

Constitutional Provisions
The provisions for environmental protection in the constitution were made within four years of
Stockholm Conference, in 1976, through the 42nd amendment as follows :
Article 48-A of the constitution provides: “The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country”.
Article 51A(g) provides: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the
natural environment including forests,lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living
creatures.”
Thus our constitution includes environmental protection and conservation as one of our
fundamental duties.

Some important acts passed by Government of India are discussed here:

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

This act was came into existence in 1972. Wildlife was transferred from State list to concurrent list
in 1976, thus giving power to the Central Government to enact the legislation. The Indian Board
of Wildlife (IBWL) was created in 1952 in our country, which after the enactment of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act actively took up the task of setting up wildlife National Parks and
sanctuaries. The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as follows:
(i) It defines the wild-life related terminology. It provides for the appointment of wildlife
advisory Board, Wildlife warden, their powers, duties etc.
(ii) Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wild life species was done for the first
time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned.
(iii) Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies Slipper
Orchid, Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.
(iv) The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc. The Act
provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
(v) There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer etc.
(vi) The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
(vii) It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders. It provides for captive
breeding programme for endangered species.

Several Conservation Projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972) Tiger (1973),
Crocodile (1974) and Brown antlered Deer (1981) were started under this Act. The Act is
adopted by all states in India except J & K, which has it own Act. Some of the major drawbacks
of the Act include mild penalty to offenders, illegal wild life trade in J & K, personal ownership
certificate for animal articles like tiger and leopard skins, no coverage of foreign endangered
wildlife, pitiable condition of wildlife in mobile zoos and little emphasis on protection of plant
genetic resources.

Forest Conservation Act, 1980

This act deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects. Except J & K, the act is
adopted all over India. The Act covers under it all types of forests including reserved forests,
protected forests or any forested land irrespective of its ownership.
The salient features of the Act are as follows:
(i) The State Govt. has been empowered under this Act to use the forests only for forestry
purposes. If at all it wants to use it in any other way, it has to take prior approval of central
Government, after which it can pass orders for declaring some part of reserve forest for non-
forest purposes (e.g mining) or for clearing some naturally growing trees and replacing them by
economically important trees (reforestation).
(ii) It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests and for this purpose there is an
Advisory committee which recommends funding for it to the Central Government.
(iii) Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under this
Act.
Non-forest activities include clearing of forest land for cultivation of any type of plants/crops or
any other purpose (except re-afforestation). However, some construction work in the forest for
wildlife or forest management is exempted from non-forest activity (e.g. fencing, making water-
holes, trench, pipelines, check posts, wireless communication etc.)

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006, recognises the rights of forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest
dwellers over the forest areas inhabited by them and provides a framework for according the
same.
 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

It provides for maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing and
controlling its pollution.
The salient features and provisions of the Act are summed up as follows:
(i) It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground water.
(ii) It provides for the establishment of Central and State Boards for pollution control.
(iii) It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution.
The Central and State Pollution Control Boards are widely represented and are given
comprehensive powers to advise, coordinate and provide technical assistance for prevention and
control of pollution of water.
(iv) The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the Central and State
Pollution Control Boards.
(v) The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and procedure for the same.
Further, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977 to
provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and
carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a view to augment the
resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the prevention and control of water
pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act
was last amended in 2003.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (the "Air Act") is an act to provide for
the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution and for the establishment of Boards at the
Central and State levels with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes.

To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality standards were
established under the Air Act. The Air Act seeks to combat air pollution by prohibiting the use of
polluting fuels and substances, as well as by regulating appliances that give rise to air pollution.
The Air Act empowers the State Government, after consultation with the SPCBs, to declare any
area or areas within the Sate as air pollution control area or areas. Under the Act, establishing or
operating any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires consent from SPCBs. SPCBs
are also expected to test the air in air pollution control areas, inspect pollution control equipment,
and manufacturing processes.

The Environment Protection Act, 1986

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 (the "Environment Act") provides for the protection and
improvement of environment. The Environment Protection Act establishes the framework for
studying, planning and implementing long-term requirements of environmental safety and laying
down a system of speedy and adequate response to situations threatening the environment. It is
an umbrella legislation designed to provide a framework for the coordination of central and state
authorities established under the Water Act, 1974 and the Air Act. The term "environment" is
understood in a very wide term under s 2(a) of the Environment Act. It includes water, air and
land as well as the interrelationship which exists between water, air and land, and human beings,
other living creatures, plants, micro-organisms and property.

Under the Environment Act, the Central Government is empowered to take measures necessary
to protect and improve the quality of environment by setting standards for emissions and
discharges of pollution in the atmosphere by any person carrying on an industry or activity;
regulating the location of industries; management of hazardous wastes, and protection of public
health and welfare. From time to time, the Central Government issues notifications under the
Environment Act for the protection of ecologically-sensitive areas or issues guidelines for
matters under the Environment Act.

In case of any non-compliance or contravention of the Environment Act, or of the rules or

directions under the said Act, the violator will be punishable with imprisonment up to five years
or with fine up to Rs 1,00,000, or with both. In case of continuation of such violation, an
additional fine of up to Rs 5,000 for every day during which such failure or contravention
continues after the conviction for the first such failure or contravention, will be levied. Further, if
the violation continues beyond a period of one year after the date of conviction, the offender
shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to seven years.

India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change

  The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched in 2008 by
the Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change.
 It aims at creating awareness among the representatives of the public, different agencies
of the government, scientists, industry and the communities on the threat posed by
climate change and the steps to counter it.

 There are 8 national missions forming the core of the NAPCC which represent multi-
pronged, long term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in climate change.
These are:
 National Solar Mission (started in 2010 to promote the use of solar power)
 National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (approved in 2009)
 National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (approved in 2011)
 National Water Mission
 National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (approved in 2014)
 National Mission for A Green India (approved in 2014)
 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (approved in 2010)
 National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC)

Salient features of NAPCC:

 Protection of poor and vulnerable sections of society through inclusive and sustainable
development strategy, sensitive to climate change.
 Achievements of national growth through qualitative changes enhancing ecological
sustainability.
 Deployment of appropriate technologies for both adaptation and mitigation of
Greenhouse Gases emissions extensively and at an accelerated pace.
 Regulatory and voluntary mechanisms to promote sustainable development and
engineering new and innovative forms of market.
 Effective implementation of plans using unique linkages like civil society and local
governments through public-private partnership.
 Invite international cooperation for research, development, sharing and transfer of data
and technologies enabled by sufficient funding and backed up by a global IPR regime
under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
 It identifies measures that promote our developmental goals and co-benefits by
addressing climate change also.

The National missions are discussed here:

The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
  Governed by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
 It was launched in 2010 with the primary aim of achieving grid parity by 2022 and with
coal-based thermal power by 2030.
 Aims to increase the share of solar energy in India's energy mix.
 It takes the measures of increasing R&D efforts, promoting decentralised distribution of
energy by creating cheaper and more convenient solar power systems.
 By the remote village electrification programme, using solar power as an off-grid
solution to provide power to the power deprived poor.
 It is hoped that by the end of the third phase, 2022, India should have installed 20,000
MW of solar power.

National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

 Governed by the Ministry of Power. It was based on the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
 It creates a market based mechanism to enhance cost effectiveness of improvements on
energy efficiency. Switching to cleaner fuels, commercially viable technology transfers,
capacity building needs etc are the way forward for this mission.

 Spread awareness about the efficacy and efficiency of energy efficient products
and create demand.

 Key areas to work upon are Energy, Efficiency, Equity and Environment.
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
 Governed by the Ministry of Urban Development.
 Manifold agenda mission because it looks at energy efficiency within buildings, waste
disposal from these buildings and betters the public transport system.
 Plans to make urban areas more climate friendly and less susceptible to climate
change by a multi-pronged approach to mitigate and adapt to it.
 To provide for adoption and creation of alternative technologies mitigating climate
change and to encourage community involvement for it.
 Reduce need for pumping of water, proper treatment of waste water and use of better
designed toilets.
 To encourage alternative transport systems and establish fuel efficiency standards and
reduce fuel consumed per passenger travel by the provision of pedestrian pathways.

National Water Mission

 Governed by the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation.
  Ensures better integrated water resource management leading to water conservation, less
wastage, equitable distribution forming better policies.
 Looks into the issues of groundwater and surface water management, domestic and
industrial water management, improvement of water storage capacities and protection of
wetlands.
 Review and data collection on the network of hydrological, automatic weather and
automated rain gauge stations.
 Promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and
preservation.
 Improving water use efficiency by 20% through regulatory and pricing mechanisms.

National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

 Governed by the Department of Science and Technology.
 Created to protect the Himalayan ecosystem. The mandate is to evolve measures
to sustain and safeguard the Himalayan glaciers, mountain ecosystems, biodiversity and
wildlife conservation & protection.
 Human and knowledge capacities- appointing trained personnel who can capture, store
and apply knowledge relating to vulnerability and changes in the region.
 Continuous self learning for balancing between forces of Nature and actions of mankind
by creating strong linkages with community based organisations.
 Identification and training of experts and specialists in the area relevant to sustaining the
Himalayan ecosystem.

National Mission for Green India

 Governed by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
 Works towards reducing fragmentation of forests, enhancing private public partnerships
for plantations, improving schemes based on joint forestry management etc.
 Makes plans to tackle the challenges posed by climate change.
 Enhance resilience of forests and ecosystems falling under the mission.
 Double the area to be taken up for afforestation.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

 Governed by the Ministry of Agriculture.
  It works towards devising strategies to make Indian agriculture less susceptible to climate
change.
 It would identify and develop new crop varieties, use traditional and modern agricultural
techniques.
 This mission sees dry land agriculture, risk management, access to information and use of
biotechnology as areas of intervention.
 Production of bio-fertilizer, compost along with subsidies for chemical fertilizers.
 Nutritional strategies to manage heat stress in dairy animals.

National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

 Governed by the Department of Science and Technology.
 It identifies challenges and requisite responses to climate change. This will be done
through open international collaboration and would ensure sufficient funding for this
research.
 There is a need for strong strategic knowledge system on climate change.
 The efforts undertaken here would feed into the Indian National Network for Climate
Change Assessment (INCCA) which is a stock taking exercise conducted every two years
as part of the national obligations under UNFCCC.
 Creation of a data generation and sharing system by mapping resources on knowledge
relevant to climate change.

Sustainable development goals

Background on the goals
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by
all United Nations Member States in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the
planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030.
The 17 SDGs are integrated—that is, they recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes
in others, and that development must balance social, economic and environmental sustainability.
The SDGs are unique in that they cover issues that affect us all. They reaffirm our international
commitment to end poverty, permanently, everywhere. They are ambitious in making sure no
one is left behind. More importantly, they involve us all to build a more sustainable, safer, more
prosperous planet for all humanity.
What are the proposed 17 goals?
 Fig. 1. Sustainable development goals

Sustainable development is defined as “meeting the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This definition was
given by the Norwegian Prime Minister, G.H. Brundtland, who was also the Director of World
Health Organisation (WHO). Today sustainable development has become a buzz word and
hundreds of programmes have been initiated in the name of sustainable development.
A clear discussion on sustainable development emerged on an international level in 1992, in the
UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), popularly known as The Earth
Summit, held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
These are the key aspects for sustainable development:
(a) Inter-generational equity: This emphasizes that we should minimize any adverse impacts on
resources and environment for future generations. This can be possible only if we stop over-
exploitation of resources, reduce waste discharge and emissions and maintain ecological balance.
(b) Intra-generational equity: This emphasizes that the development processes should seek to
minimize the wealth gaps within and between nations. The Human Development Report of
United Nations (2001) emphasizes that the benefits of technology should seek to achieve the
goals of intra-generational equity. The technology should address to the problems of the
developing countries, producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain climates, vaccines for
infectious diseases, clean fuels for domestic and industrial use.

Measures for Sustainable Development: Some of the important measures for sustainable
development are as follows:
 Using appropriate technology is one which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly, resource-
efficient and culturally suitable. It mostly involves local resources and local labour.
 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle approach: The 3-R approach advocating minimization of
resource use, using them again and again instead of passing it on to the waste stream and
recycling the materials goes a long way in achieving the goals of sustainability.
 Prompting environmental education and awareness
 Resource utilization as per carrying capacity: Any system can sustain a limited number of
organisms on a long-term basis which is known as its carrying capacity.