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CHAPTER 3
Geographical Information Data Sources

At the end of this topic, students will be able to:

• Understand the data types

LESSON
• Differentiate
OBJECTIVE primary,
secondary & Raster , Vector
• Discuss various type of data
sources

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 Data:
- Primary data - captured specifically for use in
mapping by direct measurement
- Secondary data – re-used from earlier studies or obtained from other
systems
 Comes with digital and analog format
 Analog format must be digitized before it was processed in geographic
database
 Process of data collection: Capture,
Automation,
Conversion,
Transfer,
Interpretation
Digitizing.

 Why we need data in cartography?

To collect attribute information as well as location data of any
geographical features.

To combine any related data in order to boost the analysis of

geospatial data.

Major need in map making → Data input costs often consume

(60-90% of project costs yet important)

Locational data → Cartesian coordinate system source maps may

have different projections and scale.

Digital data sharing

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PRIMARY SECONDARY
SOURCES SOURCES
Remote sensing Scanned map & photograph

Aerial photograph Well established data

Global Positioning System Attributes data

(GPS)
Ground surveying Census & sampling

Light Detection and

Ranging (LiDAR)

 Two common data models:

VECTOR DATA RASTER DATA

Assumption: Earth's surface is Earth is represented as a grid of

composed of discrete objects such as equally sized cells.
trees, rivers, lakes, etc.
Objects are represented as point, line, Individual cell represents a portion
and polygon features with well- of the earth such as a square meter
defined boundaries. or a square mile.
Feature boundaries are defined Only (x,y) coordinate pair (called
by (x,y) coordinate pairs, which the origin) is used to define the
reference a location in the real world. location of every cell.
Every feature is assigned a unique Each raster cell is assigned a
numerical identifier, which is stored numeric value, which can represent
with the feature record in an attribute any kind of information about that
table. geographic location e.g. an
elevation measurement in m

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VECTOR DATA RASTER DATA

POINT

LINE

AREA

Cartographic Data Source

PHOTOGRAMMETRY

REMOTE SENSING DIGITISING

GROUND SURVEY SCANNING

LiDAR

GLOBAL POSITIONING EXISTING DIGITAL

SYSTEM DATA

Prepared by: Madam Siti Aekbal Salleh

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Cartographic Data Source

PRIMARY SOURCE DATA MODEL

Remote sensing Raster data

Aerial photograph Raster data

Global Positioning Vector data

System
Ground surveying Vector data
LiDAR Vector data

 Technique used to derive information about the physical,

chemical, and biological properties of objects without
direct physical contact

 Widely used over mapping larger areas

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Satellite Spatial Resolution Temporal Swath width

Sensor (m) Resolution
GeoEye-1 0.41 m panchromatic 8.3/2.8/2.1 days 15.2 km / 9.44 mi at Nadir
1.65 m multispectral
Worldview-1 0.50 1.7 days at 1 meter GSD 17.6km
or less
5.9 days at 20° off-nadir
or less (0.51 meter
GSD)
Quick-Bird 0.61 1-3.5 days, depending 16.5 Km x 16.5 Km at nadir
on latitude (30° off-
nadir)
Ikonos 1.0 meter panchromatic; 14.7, every 24 hours 11.3 kilometers at nadir; 13.8
4.0 meters multispectral kilometers at 26° off-nadir

SPOT-5 2.5/5/10 60 Km x 60 Km to 80 2-3 days, depending on

Km at nadir latitude
Aster 15/30/90 16 days 60 km

Landsat 7 15/30/60 16 days 185 km (115 mi)

Prepared by: Madam Siti Aekbal Salleh

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 How the information gathered & absorbed?

Information is derived from measurements of the amount of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR) reflected, emitted, or scattered from objects.
 How data are captured?
A variety of sensors, operating throughout certain wavelength were employed
to obtain measurements.
 How remote sensing is classified?
Passive sensors : Use reflected solar radiation
Active sensors : Generate their own source of EMR
 How to measure remote sensing images?
Identifying the resolution elements of the image which are spatial, spectral
and temporal resolution

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 Spatial resolution

Size of object that can be resolved and the most usual

measure is the pixel size.
 Spectral resolution

Parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that are

measured.
 Temporal resolution

Repeat cycle describe frequency with which images are

collected for the same area.

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QUICKBIRD IKONOS

SPOT 5 LANDSAT TM

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SPOT (2.5 M)

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QUICKBIRD (0.6 M)

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IKONOS
(4 M MULTISPECTRAL)

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 SPOT (Système Pour l'Observation de la Terre) is a series of Earth

observation imaging satellites designed and launched by France, with
support from Sweden and Belgium.

 Temporal resolution : 26 days

Spatial resolution:-
-Panchromatic(black white) : 2.5m x 2.5m
-Panchromatic : 5m x 5m
-Multispectral (RGB) : 10m x 10m
-Short wave infra – red : 20m x 20m

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Spectral resolution:
Panchromatic: 0.48 – 0.71 µm
Green: 0.50 - 0.59 µm
Red: 0.61 - 0.68 µm
Near IR: 0.79 – 0.89 µm
Shortwave IR: 1.58 - 1.75 µm

 Applications requiring frequent monitoring such as agriculture,

forestry are well served by the SPOT sensors.

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 Aerial photography is equally important in medium- to large-scale

projects
 Photographs are normally collected by analog optical cameras and
later scanned
 Can provide stereo imagery for the extraction of digital elevation
models (DEM)
 Aerial photographs are very suitable for detailed surveying and
mapping projects.

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PROS CONS
Provide stereo imagery which Resolution is often too coarse
are used to create a 3D analog
or
digital model
Consistency of data Many sensors are restricted by
cloud cover

Availability of systematic Maps less "realistic"

global coverage

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 Ground surveying is based on the principle that the 3-D location of any
point can be determined by measuring angles and distances from
other known points.

 Traditional equipment like theodolites have been replaced by total

stations that can measure both angles and distances to an accuracy of 1
mm

 Ground survey is a very time-consuming and expensive activity, but it

is still the best way to obtain highly accurate point locations.

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 Typically used for capturing buildings, land and property

boundaries, manholes, and other objects that need to be
located accurately.

 Surveying also used to obtain reference marks for use in

other data capture projects. E.g. Aerial photographs and
satellite images are frequently georeferenced using
points obtained from ground survey.

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 GPS have revolutionized the measurement of position, making it possible for people to
know almost exactly where they are anywhere on the surface of the earth.

 The GPS consists of a system of 24 satellites , each orbiting the Earth every 12 hours at
a height of 20,200km and transmitting radio pulses at precisely timed intervals.

 Positioning in 3 dimensions (latitude, longitude and elevation) requires that at least

four satellites are above the horizon and accuracy depends on the number of such
satellites.

 GPS is very useful for recording ground control points e.g. when locating objects that
move (ship’s navigation, cars, and etc)

 Also can direct capture of the locations of many types of fixed objects such as utility
assets, buildings, etc.

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 LiDAR ( Light Detection and Ranging) is a recent technology that

employs a scanning laser rangefinder to produce accurate
topographic surveys of great detail.

 A LiDAR scanner is an active remote sensing instrument; it transmits

EMR and measures the radiation that is scattered back to a receiver
after interacting with the Earth’s atmosphere or objects on the surface.

 The scanner is typically carried on a low altitude aircraft that also has
an inertial navigation system and differential GPS to provide location.

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Image: NASA 2005

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PROS & CONS

OF VECTOR DATA

PROS CONS

Compact data structure Complex structure

Efficient for encoding topology Overlay operations difficult

True representation of shape Might imply false sense of

accuracy

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DEM sources for different applications at different scales

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SECONDARY SOURCES

Scanned map & photograph

Well established data

Attributes data

Census & sampling

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 It refers to the data obtained from maps, hardcopy documents etc.

Some of the methods to capture secondary data are as follows:

a) Scanned data:
- A scanner is used to convert analog source map or document
into digital images by scanning successive lines across a map or
document and recording the amount of light reflected from the
data source.
- E.g. building plans, CAD drawings, images and maps are
scanned
- Helps in reducing wear and tear; improves access and provides
integrated storage.

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b) Digitization:

- Digitizing is the process of interpreting and

converting paper map or image data to vector digital
data.
- Two types of digitizing:
i) Heads down digitization
ii) Heads up digitization

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Heads down digitization

Digitizers are used to capture data from hardcopy maps. Heads down
digitization is done on a digitizing table using a magnetic pen. The
position of a cursor is detected when passed over a table inlaid with
a fine mesh of wires. The function of a digitizer is to input correctly
the coordinates of the points and the lines.

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 Heads-up digitization

This method uses scanned copy of the map or image and digitization is done on the
screen of the computer monitor. The scanned map lays vertical which can be viewed
without bending the head down and therefore is called as heads up digitization. Semi-
automatic and automatic methods of digitizing requires post processing but saves lot of
time and resources compared to manual method.

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 Besides ground survey and remote sensing measurement, readily

made data also can be used as one of the data sources for
cartographic purposes

 A large amount of information is now available in digital formats, so

there are great opportunities to secure and use existing digital
sources.

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 To acquire some digital sources, users must contact the producers directly to gain
the necessary data in a compatible format but some can be downloaded online for
free

 There are still several constraints when using existing digital data. These include:

a) Cost of data may be very expensive

b) Incompatible with some user platforms e.g. not inter-
exchangeable data format
c) Incompatible with user required standards e.g. poor data quality,
not appropriate scale
d) Restrictions for data use and sharing

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 The storage of spatial information can also contain attributive data in spatial
locations.

 The attributes can be used for symbolization and annotation of maps, and can be
acquired from different sources by different entering methods:

 Importing from GIS databases (ArcGIS, MapInfo,

etc.)
 Importing from attributive databases (Ms Access, Oracle, etc,)
 Manually entering from keyboard
 Deriving from existing data (e.g. From
classification,computation, etc.)
 Importing from field observations

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Hardware
files

Intervie
w&
survey

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 Not all spatial features and phenomena information can be collected

through ground survey, and remote sensing, therefore we need to
captured the data through field sampling

 What aspects is critical in census and data sampling procedures?

1. Identify the subjects

2. Identify the scope of your subject
3. Collect the data and its location
4. Tabulate it in a proper manner

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 Example:

Source of data : Malaysia Royal

Police
Date of census : Jan 07 – Dec 07
Type of accidents : All
Type of vehicles : Cars and
motorbikes only

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 Spatial sampling method:

What aspects we need to emphasized in field data

sampling?
Size of the sample: Adequate

Sampling units: Appropriate

Sample spatial distributions: Well distributed

Sampling strategies: Suitable and sufficient

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 Example:
Dengue Epidemic

Size of the sample: Average on every

states
Sampling units: No of cases

Sample spatial All states

distributions:
Sampling Random
strategies:

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