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SPM UNIT 5 Notes

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UNIT V –STAFFING IN SOFTWARE

PROJECTS

Managing People

Understanding Behavior
 Handling of projects with practical experience becomes a vital role in the aspectof
project management.
 The managers must be able to decide on whether it is better to have experienced staff
or get an expert advice.
 There are numerous theories defined to explain people’s behavior.
 The theories are structures based on “If A is the situation then B is likely to be the
solution”.
 Other than the structures, there a wide range of influences on a situation whichare
invisible to the users which makes it difficult to decide on the solution.

Organizational Behavior

Work Objectives
 Fredrick Taylor analyzed the productive way of doing things and trained the
workers with these objectives:
 To select the best people for the job
 To instruct them in the best methods
 To give them incentives based on their performance
 These work objectives defined by Taylor emphasis exclusively on the financial
basis of the staff motivation and performance-related pay.
 This encouragement to the staff will help the project group to work together in
achieving their goals which ultimately increases the productivity.
 People may be motivated by money, but they are motivated by other factors as
well.

Theory X and Theory Y

 Some managers’ work for money being instrumental or called as cash-oriented
persons can be categorized based on their individual attitudes.
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 Donald McGregor labeled two different attitudes as Theory X and Theory Y.

 Theory X includes
 On an average, not every human likes to work.
 Somebody must have the control and direct the person to work.
 Generally, people do not like hold responsibilities.
 Theory Y includes
 People must like to work not forced to do it.
 External control is not the way to reach organizational goals.
 There must a commitment towards the work allocated to individuals.
 An average human can learn to accept and seek responsibility.
 Creative qualities must be widely distributed.
 Individual’s behavior towards the organization can be observed when their boss
is not available.
 Theory X environment makes everybody to relax which can be seen visibly
whereas Theory Y is more a goal oriented approach of the people involved in the
development.
 A reward does not need to be a financial reward but it could be something like a
sense of achievement.
 This theory explains the expectations which have a greater influence towards the
organizational behavior.

Best methods for staff selection

Selecting the right person for the right job

 Taylor formulated this factor of selecting the right person for the right job.
 The other factors which includes the use of software tools, methodologies,
programming productivity and so on.
 It is always better to have the best people employed in the right place of workfor
effective productivity.
 Say for example, a study on comparing experienced programmer indebugging a
code with a less experienced person was futile when the results
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were drawn.
 According to Gerald Weinberg, “Most programmers prefer to work alonewhere
they are not disturbed by other people”.

Recruitment Process
 There is a lot of stress for every project manager about choosing the right
people to make up their team.
 Recruitment is an organizational responsibility process of selecting theperson
form their organization.
 Meredith Belbin categorizes people in recruiting process into two different
types.
 Eligible candidates are those persons who have the right information
needed by the organization in paper, i.e. the curriculum vitaecontains the
right number or years and right paper qualifications.
 Suitable candidates can actually do the job well but are not officially
eligible. Ideal candidates once given a post are likely to be more loyal
towards the welfare of the organization.
 Actual skills have to be taken into account while selecting a person rather
than mere eligibility.
 The recruitment policy must avoid discrimination of race, gender, age or
irrelevant disabilities.
 A recruitment process must include:
 Creation of job specification: type of task that has to be carried out must
be documented and agreed.
 Creation of job profile: constructs a profile of the person needed to carry
out the job with qualities, qualifications, education and experience.
 Obtaining applicants: placing an advertisement within the organization or
the local press to get a maximum number of potential applicants.
 Examine Curriculum Vitae: all the received CV’s are compared with the
job holder profile and if satisfied are called for interview.
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 Interviews: these include the aptitude tests, technical tests, personality

tests and examination of previous work. Group discussions are also used
for evaluating and examining the statements provided in the CV.
 References: need to be verified and a medical examination test can also be
done if needed.

Instruction in the Best Methods

 The responsibility of the team leader becomes very high in case of recruiting new
members into the team.
 Half way through the project process, maximum effort must be taken to make the
induction of a new member into the team as an effective one.
 Team members must be continually assessed by the team leader to meet their
demands in the development process.
 Proper training must be given to every staff member involved in the
development of the project.
 There are many companies which provide training to the staffs by conducting
specific courses and giving hand-on training about the new software tool by
demonstration.
 Whatever may be, the training process must be actually implemented by the
team members as a whole in order to meet the objectives.

Motivation

Motivation Theories
There are various theories formulated by different persons for motivatingthe
people to work. They are,
 Taylorist Model
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 Expectancy Theory of Motivation.
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Taylorist Model
 In this model, Taylor emphasis on the piece-rates and day-rates.
 Piece-rates are those where the workers are paid a fixed sum for each single item
they produce whereas day-rates refer to the daily pay that is given to the workers
on a timely basis.
 The tendency towards dispersed or virtual projects where the staffs either work
in organization or work at home has a difference in the payment based on time
worked.
 The amount paid to the workers will not directly relate to maximize the output in
order to maximize their income.
 The amount of output will normally depend on the working group and not based
on an individual.
 A reward based on piece-rates is directly proportional to the work produced.
But a support team cannot be adjudged by a single person, instead it is group
activity and the reward must be given to the group as a whole.
 In Taylorist model, the reward system makes excessive distinctions between co-
workers that result in damaging morale and productivity.
 This can be balanced by giving bonuses to project team members after
completion of a successful project.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order of importance are:

1. Physiological Needs: These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself, such
as food, water, warmth, shelter, and sleep. Maslow felt that until these needs are
satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain life, other needs will not motivate
people.

2. Security or Safety Needs: These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of
the fear of losing a job property, food, or shelter.
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3. Affiliation or Social Needs: Since people are social beings; they need to belong, to be
accepted by others. It includes friendship, the need to love and be loved, socializing,
etc.

4. Esteem Needs: Once people begin to satisfy their need to belong; they tend to want
to
be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need producessuch
satisfactions as respect, power, prestige, status, and self-confidence.

5. Self-actualization Needs: This is the highest need in the hierarchy. It is the desire
to become what one is capable of becoming—to fully realizes one's potential and to
accomplish what one is capable of achieving.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

 People tend to be dissatisfied about their job due to certain factors. They are
 Hygiene or maintenance factors
 Motivators
 A hygiene factor makes the person dissatisfied if they are not rightly used. For
example, the working condition of the worker.
 Motivators can make the person feel that the job is worth doing it, like a sense of
achievement or the challenge of the work.
 Higher-level of maintenance factors can be provided by large organizations
whereas better motivation can be provided to workers who work in smaller
organizations.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

 Vroom identified three influencing factors on motivation. They are:
 Expectancy
 Instrumentality
 Perceived value
 Expectancy is a belief that working harder will lead to better performance.
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 Instrumentality is the belief that better performance will be rewarded.

 Perceived value denotes the resulting reward.
 When all these factors are high, then the motivation level will also be high. At the
same time, a zero level for any one of the factor can remove motivation
completely.
 For example, when the developer is suppose to get a software package supplied
by a third party to work and it contains a bug, the worker gives up since how
much hard work the worker puts in it will not lead to success denotes zero
expectancy.
 On the other side, if the user is not using the package supplied by the developer,
instead the user works on an alternative tool, it makes the developer feel that it is
waste of time and leads to zero instrumentality.
 Suppose if the user is using the package but keeps on complaining about the
package and makes the developer responsibility for all short-comings, then at
some point of time the developer will not like to get involved for implementing a
newer package which leads to low perceive value of reward.

The Oldham-Hackman job characteristic model

 Oldman and Hackman coined a rule that managers should group together the
elements of tasks that is carried out must be meaningful and satisfying
assignments.
 The satisfaction of any job will depend on the following factors:
 Skill variety
 Task identity
 Task significance
 Autonomy
 Feedback

Elements of Tasks

 Factors that make the job meaningful to the person who is doing it are skill
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variety, task identity and task significance.

 Skill variety is the number of different skills that the job holder has the
opportunity to exercise.
 Task identity is the degree to which the person’s work and its results are
identifiable as belonging to the person.
 Task significance is the degree to which the job has an influence on others.
 The autonomy factor is the discretion about the way the person works.
 Feedback is the information the person receives back about the results of
his/her work.
 Personal growth needs and their working environment also influence the
perception of the job.
 In general, activities of the developing product should be designed in such a
manner that the person must feel personally associated with it.
Methods to Improve Motivation

 Managers must adopt the factors listed below to improve motivation.

 Set specific goals
 Provide feedback
 Consider job design
 Specific goals must be demanding goals but yet acceptable by staff and
should gain approval from them.
 Providing feedback reflects the performance of the staff about how they are
progressing.
 Considering job design makes the job more interesting and provides the staff
with greater responsibility.

Measures for enhancing Job

 Managers must involve the following measures to enhance the job design: .
 Job enlargement
 Job enrichment
 Job enlargement is exactly reverse of specialization where the person doing
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the job carries out a wider variety of activities.

 Say for example, a software developer associated with maintenance group might
be given additional responsibility for specifying minor changes in otherphases.
 Job enrichment is where the job holder carried out tasks at managerial and
supervisory level.
 Say for example, programmers in maintenance group might be given authority to
accept requests for changes for a very small period (five days) without getting
manger’s approval.

Ethical and Programmed Concerns

Ethics relates to the moral obligation to respect the rights and interests of others –
goesbeyond strictly legal responsibilities.

Three groups of responsibilities:

 Responsibilities that everyone has

 Responsibilities that people in organizations have

 Responsibilities relating to your profession or calling

Organizational ethics
There are some who argue that ethical organizational ethics are limited:
Stockholder theory (e.g. Milton Friedman). An employee’s duty is to theowners
of the business (which often means the stakeholders) above allothers – although
legal
requirements must be met.
Competitive relationships between businesses.
Competition may cause you to do things that could have a negative impact onthe
owners or employees of competitive businesses Uniform Treatment
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One example of organizational ethics is the uniform treatment of all

employees. Small business owners should treat all employees with the same respect,
regardless of their race, religion, cultures or lifestyles. Everyone should also have
equal chances for promotions. One way to promote uniform treatment in
organizations is through sensitivity training. Some companies holdone-day seminars
on various discrimination issues. They then invite outside experts in to discuss
these topics. Similarly, small company managers must also avoid favoring one
employee over others. This practice may also lead to lawsuits from disgruntled
employees. It is also counterproductive.

Social Responsibility
Small companies also have an obligation to protect the community. For
example, the owner of a small chemical company needs to communicate certain
dangers to the community when explosions or other disasters occur. The owner
must also maintain certain safety standards for protecting nearby residents from
leaks that affect the water or air quality. There are state and federal laws that
protect people from unethical environmental practices. Business owners who
violate these laws may face stiff penalties. They may also be shut down.

Financial Ethics
Business owners must run clean operations with respect to finances,
investing and expanding their companies. For example, organizations must not
bribe state legislators for tax credits or special privileges. Insider trading is also
prohibited. Insider trading is when managers or executives illegally apprise
investors or outside parties of privileged information affecting publicly traded
stocks, according to the Securities and Exchange Commission. The information
helps some investors achieve greater returns on their investments at the expense of
others. Executives in small companies must strive to help all shareholders earn
better returns on their money. They must also avoid collusive arrangements with
other companies to deliberately harm other competitors.
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Considerations
A small company's organizational ethics can also include taking care of
employees with mental illnesses or substance abuse problems, such as drug and
alcohol dependency. Ethical business owners help their employees overcome these
types of problems when possible. They often put them through employee advisor
programs, which involves getting them the treatment they need. Employees may
have issues that lead to these types of problems. Therefore, they deserve a chance
to explain their situations and get the help they need.

Professional ethics
Professionals have knowledge about the technical domain that the general
public does not. Ethical duty of the expert to warn lay people of the risks involved in
a particular course of action. Many professions, or would be professions, have codes
of conduct for their members

Working in teams

 Not all people involved in the development process like to work in groups.
 But major software projects always have to work in groups and many peopledo
not like to work in groups.
 Any organization involved in the development process will have various
departments reflecting its structure.
 Formal groups can be formulated based on the different departments and
task groups can be formed based on specific tasks carried.
 Task group can contain different people from different departments to work
together to carry out a specific task.
 Every task group formed for specific activities to be carried out are dissolved
once the task is completely achieved.

Becoming a team
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 Making people work together is the most difficult task that the project manager
has to carefully handle.
 A team cannot perform instantly; it has to develop over time.

Team Formation Model

 Every team has to go through five different stages of development asdepicted

in the Team Formation Model namely,
 Forming
 Storming
 Norming
 Performing
 Adjourning
 Forming : basic ground rules and general behavior are set up to try and get to
know each other in the team.
 Storming: grouping methods of operation have to establish as there is a
chance of conflicts arising due to leadership.
 Norming: a group identity emerges as the conflicts are largely settled.
 Performing: how the tasks are handled by the team.
 Adjourning: disbanding of the group.

Individual Characteristics

 Any project team must be formed with the best mix of different personalities.
 Belbin formulated the need of balanced teams based on individual
characteristics of people.
 Chair: these people must be good at conducting meetings, must be
calm, strong and tolerant. Need not be excellent leaders.
 Plant: these people must be good at generating ideas and givingpotential
solution to problems.
 Monitor-Evaluator: they must be good evaluators and best in selecting
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the most feasible solution.

 Shaper: helps in directing the team’s attention to important issues.
 Team worker: must be efficient in creating a good working
environment.
 Resource investigator: helps in finding resources in terms of both
physical resources and information.
 Complete-finisher: people who are concerned with completing thetasks.
 Company-worker: must be good team player willing to undertake less
attractive work for team’s success.
 To be a good team member, the person must be flexible, restrained, timelyand
keeping the common goals of the team in mind all the time.

Group Performance

 There is a strong question raised often: “Are groups more effective than
individuals working alone?”.
 It is the responsibility of the project manager to distinguish the tasks which are
supposed to be carried out together and those tasks to be carried out by
individuals.
 Some works yield better results when worked together as a team, while some
others are slowed down because of the work be compartmentalized based on
individuals.
 There are four different ways of categorizing group tasks. They are:
 Additive Tasks: in this the effort of every person are added to reach the
final result. People involved in additive tasks are interchangeable.
 Compensatory Tasks: here, the judgements of individual group members
are taken and the results are then averaged. These result in effective
group work rather than the efforts of individuals.
 Disjunctive Tasks: these tasks have only one correct solution to the task.
Here, if someone comes with a solution and everybody in the
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team accepts it.

 Conjunctive Tasks: here, the progress is governed by the rate of the
slowest performer where until each and every person completes their own
tasks, the overall tasks do not attain its completion. In this case, a
cooperative attitude of the team becomes productive.
 A major problem can arise with additive tasks that lead to social loafing.
 Social loafing is a problem where some individuals do not make their proper
contribution when carrying out group assignments.

Decision making

Categories of Decisions

 Decision making process can be categorized into structured and unstructured.

 Structured decisions are generally simple where the rules are applied ina
straight-forwards way.
 Unstructured decisions are often more complex and require a great
degree of creativity.
 The amount of risk and the uncertainty involved in the development processcan
affect the decision making process.

Obstacles to Good Decision Making

 Few factors that affect good decision making process are:

 Faulty heuristics: the rules of thumb or heuristics are useful but can be
misleading. These are based on mere stereotypes.
 Escalation of commitment: this happens when a wrong decision is made
which cannot be altered easily later.
 Information overload: too much of information also might lead thedecision
process to choose a wrong one.

Group Decision Making

 In group discussions, different specialists and point of view of stakeholders

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can be brought together to make a better decision.

 Decisions made by a team can be approved and accepted easily than decisions
imposed by individuals.
 Every group meeting takes the collective responsibility of having properly
briefed of solving complex problems.
 A group can arrive at better solutions for complex problems because the
members of the group have complementary skills and expertise.
 Group meetings provide an opportunity for people to communicate freely and
easily among the members of the group.
 Often, groups are less effective for poorly structures problems where
brainstorming techniques can be used to helps the groups to make it structured
 Even though, group decision making is effective in achieving solutions, it has been
proved by research that people come up with more ideas individually than in
groups.

Obstacles to Good Group Decision Making

 Group decision making process has its own disadvantages:

 It is time consuming process.
 Conflicts can arise among the members of the group.
 Decisions can be influenced by dominant personalities.
 Once established the group norms can survive many changes of membership in
the group.
 Experimental results have shown that people can modify their personal
judgements to conform to group norms.
 Sometimes people in groups take hasty decisions that can cause more riskthen
when they make their decisions on their own known as risky shift.

Measures to reduce obstacles of Group Decision Making

 To make group decision making process to be more effective and efficientthe

Delphi Technique can be adopted.
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 Delphi technique endeavourers to collate the judgements of a number of

experts without actually bringing them face to face.
 The set of procedures is carried out as follows:
 Cooperation of a number of experts is enlisted.
 Problem is presented to the experts.
 Experts record their recommendations.
 Recommendations are collated and are reproduced.
 Collected responses are recirculated.
 Experts comment on the ideas of others and modify their
recommendations.
 If the leader finds any discrepancy, the process is stopped,
otherwise it is recirculated to the experts.
 This method can be adopted to geographically dispersed experts but the
process becomes time consuming.

Team Structures

Department Structure

 Departmentalization of organizations depends on staff specialties, product lines,

categories of customer or the geographical location.
 In general, the software development process approach is referred as either
function-oriented or task-oriented.
 Function oriented approach deals with different groups that are formed based on
their functional specialization.
 This approach leads to a more effective usage of staff both technically and in
employing the standards that are needed to be concerned.
 With the task oriented approach, members are grouped together with respect toa
specific task.
 The specific task has to be achieved by the group and the group is dissolvedafter
the successful completion of the particular task.
 Departmentalization is also based on life-cycle phase.
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 In project life cycle phases there are separate teams for development and
maintenance.
 Matrix form of departmentalization can also be formed where there are two
managers namely project manager and programming manager. The project
manager deals with the day-to-day activities while the programming manager
focuses on future career development.
 Egoless programming suggests that the programmers and the programming team
leaders should read other people’s programs so that the programs become a
common property to both.

Team Structure
Team structure addresses the issue of organization of the individual project teams.
There are mainly three formal team structures:

Chief programmer,Democratic,
and
The mixed control team organizations

Chief Programmer Teams

 If the number of groups is larger, then the work will be slower because of
increased communication. So large projects must be formalized and must be
represented in an centralized structure.
 One way to avoid this, to reduce the number of people and giving them more
support to make the work done which led to the formulation of chief programmer
team.
 The chief programmer defines the specification, design, code, tests and documents
the entire software.
 The chief programmer can have a co-pilot who can assist in writing some code and
discussions.
 An editor can be used to write up the documentation drafted by the chief
programmer, along with a program clerk who maintains the actual code and a
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tester who validates the code.

 The disadvantage of chief programmer teams is that the chief programmer is
overloaded with lots of information and cannot manage at some point of time.
 Extreme programming concept can overcome this disadvantage where the software
is developed by pairs of developers with a chief programmer / co-pilot relationship.

Chief programmer

Team Members

In this team organization, a senior engineer provides the technicalleadership

and is designated as the chief programmer.
The chief programmer partitions the task into small activities and assigns
them to the team members.
He also verifies and integrates the products developed by different team
members.

Advantages

The chief programmer provides an authority, and this structure is arguably

more efficient than the democratic team for well-understood problems.
However, the chief programmer team leads to lower team morale, since team-
members work under the constant supervision of the chief programmer.
This also inhibits collective and their original thinking.
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The chief programmer team is subject to single point failure since toomuch
responsibility and authority is assigned to the chief programmer.
Since the chief programmer carries out many tasks individually, there is a
danger of information overload on the chief programmer

Democratic Team Structure

The democratic team structure, as the name implies, does not enforce any
formal team hierarchy. Decisions are taken based on discussions, where any member is
free to discuss with any other matters.Typically, a manager provides the administrative
leadership. At different times,different members of the group provide technical
leadership.

Advantages:

The democratic organization leads to higher morale and job satisfaction.

Democratic team structure is appropriate for less understood problems, since
a group of engineers can invent better solutions than a singleindividual as
in a chief programmer team.
A democratic team structure is suitable for projects requiring less than five
or six engineers and for research-oriented projects. For large sized projects,
a pure democratic organization tends to become chaotic.
The democratic team organization encourages egoless programming as
programmers can share and review one another’s work.

Disadvantages:

Consequently, it suffers from less man-power turnoverMixed

Control Team Structure

The mixed team organization, as the name implies, draws upon the ideas
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from both the democratic organization and the chief-programmer

organization. This team organization incorporates both hierarchical
reporting and democratic set up.

The democratic connections are shown as dashed lines and the reporting
structure is shown using solid arrows.
The mixed control team organization is suitable for large team sizes.
The democratic arrangement at the senior engineer’s level is used to
decomposethe problem into small parts. Each democratic setup at the
programmer level attempts solution to a single part. Thus, this team
organization is eminently
suited to handle large and complex programs.

This team structure is extremely popular and is being used in many software
development companies.

Virtual Teams

A Virtual Team – also known as a Geographically Dispersed Team (GDT) – is a

group of individuals who work across time, space, and organizational boundaries with
links strengthened by webs of communication technology. They have complementary
skills and are committed to a common purpose, have interdependent performance goals,
and share an approach to work for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.
Geographically dispersed teams allow organizations to hire and retain the best people
regardless of location. A virtual team does not always mean teleworkers. Teleworkers are
defined as individuals who work from home. Many virtual teams in today’sorganizations
consist of employees both working at home and small groups in the office but in different
geographic locations.

Why Virtual Teams?

Best employees may be located anywhere in the world. Workers

demand personal flexibility.

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Workers demand increasing technological sophistication.

A flexible organization is more competitive and responsive to themarketplace.

Workers tend to be more productive – less commuting and travel time. The

increasing globalization of trade and corporate activity.

The global workday is 24 vs. 8 hours.

The emergence of environments which require inter-organizationalcooperation as

well as competition.

Changes in workers’ expectations of organizational participation.

A continued shift from production to service/knowledge work environments.

Increasing horizontal organization structures characterized by structurally and

geographically distributed human resources.

Communication genres

A major influence on the nature of communication genres is the constraints of

time and place. Modes of communication can be categorized as combinations of two
opposite: Same time/Different time and Same Place/Different Place.

Same Place Different Place

Same Time Meetings, Interviews Telephone, Instant Messaging

Different Time Notice Boards E-mail, Voice mail, Documents

The nature of the information to be conveyed:

o What is the extent and complexity of the information to be conveyed?

A phone conversation if message is simple

o Is it easy to understand? Is the context well known to both the senderand

the recipient?

Two way communication

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o Where the communication is personally sensitive

Face-to-face contacts

At different stages of a project – different communication genres will be preferredEarly

stages – meeting(s)

Team members need to build up their trust and confidence in their

co-workers
Decision making

Intermediate stages (design) – teleconferencing

Activities executed in parallel

Some points needs to be clarified

Implementation stages - emails

Everyone knows his role, work can progress

Communication plans

A communications plan, in project management, is a policy-driven approach to

providing stakeholders with information about a project. The plan formally defines who
should be given specific information, when that information should be delivered and what
communication channels will be used to deliver the information.

An effective communications management plan anticipates what information will

need to be communicated to specific audience segments. The plan should also address who
has the authority to communicate confidential or sensitive information and how
information should be disseminated (email, web sites, printed reports, and/or
presentations). Finally, the plan should define what communication channels stakeholders
should use to provide feedback and how communication documentation will be archived as
part of the project records.

In some organizations the communications management plan may also include a

glossary of common project terminology that will be used within the project. This
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glossary may define and include samples of templates, reports and forms that theproject
manager will use to communicate information.

The result of the communication process could be documented in a table with the
following column headings.

 What – This contains the name of a particular communication event

 Who/target – The target audience for the communication

 Purpose – What the communication is to achieve

 When/frequency – If the communication by means of a single event, then a specific

date can be supplied. If the event is a recurring one, such as a progress meeting,
then the frequency should be indicated

 Type/method – The nature of the communication, for example a meeting or a

distributed document

 Responsibility – The person who initiates the communication

Leadership

 Leadership means the ability to influence others in a group to act in aparticular

way to achieve group goals.
 A leader need not be a very good manager or vice-versa since managers have
different roles such s organizing, planning and controlling.
 It is very difficult to list the common characteristics of good leaders.
 But every leader have a greater need for power and achievement and must
have more self-control and self-confidence than others.
 Leadership is generally based on the idea of authority or power.
Positional Leadership Power
 Power can take the form based on the position of the person. Positional
power can be analyzed as:
 Coercive power: ability to force someone to do something by
threatening punishment.
 Connection power: based on having access to those who have power.
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 Legitimate power: based on person’s title giving a special status.

 Reward power: here the holder gives rewards to those who carry out
tasks to the satisfaction of their leader.
Personal Leadership Power
 Personal power depicts the person’s individual qualities. Personal power canbe
analyzed as:
 Expert power: person who is capable of doing specialized tasks.
 Information power: here, the holder has exclusive access to
information.
 Referent power: based on the personal attractiveness of the leader.
Leadership Styles
 In order to make best use of the expertise and commitment of the people
involved the leaders must be an authoritative but at the same time more flexible
and tolerant.
 Sometimes, the leaders must be democratic as well, to have a very disciplined
execution of the plan.
 Leadership styles can be classified as:
 Directive vs. permissive
 Autocratic vs. democratic.
 Directive autocrat makes decisions alone and will be person very closely
associated with the implementation.
 Permissive autocrat also makes decisions alone, but subordinates havelatitude
in implementation.
 Directive democrat makes decisions participative and will be a person very
closely associated with the implementation.
 Permissive democrat also makes decisions participative, but subordinateshave
latitude in implementation.
 The emphasis is that there are no one best style of leadership which has tobe
chosen by the management but it truly depends on the situation.