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 Water security in sub-Saharan Africa: understanding the status of
Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG6)
1
Elias Nkiaka, 1Robert G. Bryant, 2Murat Okumah, 3Fortune Faith Gomo

1
Department of Geography, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
2
Sustainability Research Institute, School of Earth and Environment, University of
Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK
3
Geography and Environmental Science, School of Social Sciences, University of Dundee,
DD1 4HN, Scotland, UK
Elias Nkiaka (Corresponding author): [email protected]
Postal Address: Department of Geography, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK

Abstract
The world is nearing the 2030 target-year by which sustainable development goals (SDGs)
should be achieved. While other developing regions seem to be making progress towards
achieving SDG6, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is lagging behind significantly, particularly with
regard to access to water supply and sanitation (WSS). As a result, most studies evaluating
progress towards the achievement of water security SDGs in SSA have focused on WSS while
the rest of the SDG6 targets have received scant attention, often using fragmented or
incomplete evidence. Here, we fill this knowledge gap by conducting a comprehensive
assessment of the status of SDG6 in all 48 countries in SSA. We provide a review of the
progress made, the challenges affecting each SDG6 target and examine the different political,
socioeconomic, and environmental factors with potential to undermine the achievement of
SDG6 in the region. Our review clearly demonstrates that it is likely that most countries may
not achieve water security by 2030. The complex nature of the challenges and factors impeding
the achievement of water security in SSA outlined here suggests that a holistic intervention
involving local, national, and international stakeholders and the research community is urgently
needed to address SDG6 if the 2030 target date is to be met. Approaches to enhance water
security may equally consider: (i) underpinning peace and security in SSA and (ii) the
commitment of more financial resources by donors particularly during this period of COVID-
19 pandemic.

Keywords: SDG6 assessment; water insecurity; water governance; urbanization and

population growth; conflict and migration; climate change

1
1 INTRODUCTION
Water is essential for life as it plays a crucial role in the provision of food, energy, health,
ecosystem services and environmental sustainability. Water is therefore at the centre of socio-
economic development (Wheeler, Xu, & Zuo, 2020). However, the unsustainable management
of water resources in many regions has led to numerous environmental challenges related to
water, which have been exacerbated by population growth, climate change and economic
development (Cosgrove & Loucks, 2015). Some of these challenges include water scarcity,
increased pollution of water bodies, depletion of surface water and groundwater resources
leading to the degradation of ecosystems, loss of habitat and extinction of many species that
depend on water resources (Hogeboom, 2020). The World Economic Forum has consistently
ranked water crisis as one of the top global risks in terms of impact. Due to the many water
related challenges facing humanity, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted
the sustainable development goals (SDGs) in 2015 with water security SDG6 (ensure
availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all) as one of the key
goals (Le Blanc, 2015).
Unlike the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the scope of the SDGs was
enlarged with a multidimensional view. As such, the number of targets under the water security
goal were enlarged to go beyond water supply and sanitation (target 6.1 and 6.2) to consider
water quality and wastewater (target 6.3), water use and efficiency (target 6.4), integrated water
resources management (IWRM) (target 6.5), ecosystems (target 6.6) and an enabling
environment (targets 6.a and 6.b). Proponents of the SDGs argue that achieving SDG6 may
bring multiple benefits to society because this goal offers the highest potential synergies for
attaining other goals particularly SDG1 (no poverty), SDG2 (no hunger), SDG3 (good health),
SDG7 (renewable energy), SDG14 (life below water) and SDG15 (life on land) (Pradhan,
Costa, Rybski, Lucht, & Kropp, 2017; Taka et al., 2021).
Compared to the rest of the world, SSA still faces substantial water security challenges
particularly access to water supply and sanitation (WSS). This may explain why many studies
addressing SDG6 in SSA have focussed mostly on access to WSS (Jiménez, Jawara, LeDeunff,
Naylor, & Scharp, 2017; Nhamo, Nhemachena, & Nhamo, 2019). Whilst interest has been
directed towards targets 6.1 and 6.2 mostly due to the disease burden and socioeconomic
impact associated with poor water and sanitation (Fuente, Allaire, Jeuland, & Whittington,
2020), the remaining targets have so far received scant attention, and evidence on their status
remains fragmented. There is an urgent need for a comprehensive evaluation of the status of
SDG6 in SSA as we are less than ten years away from the 2030 target. Such a generic
2
assessment would be both an extremely timely and valuable contribution to this debate and
would act to outline progress made by countries in the region. It will also highlight areas where
countries need additional support to attain specific targets or sustain the progress made, identify
contextual barriers to achieving specific targets and highlight knowledge gaps to guide future
research directions.
In assessing the status of SDG6 across SSA, the objectives of this review were to: (1)
evaluate the progress made and the challenges affecting each SDG6 target in SSA, and (2)
examine the different political, socioeconomic, and environmental factors with potential to
undermine the achievement of SDG6 in SSA. The review is structured as follows: section two
presents the review methodology. In section three, we explore the literature to highlight the
progress and challenges affecting each SDG6 target. In section four we examine the different
political, socioeconomic, and environmental factors with potential to undermine the progress
made towards achieving SDG6 and lastly, in section five we provide the main conclusions from
the review.

2 METHODS AND DATA

This paper consolidates the scant evidence on different SDG6 targets in SSA. Our
overarching goal was to use a systematic review approach to provide an overview of the status
of SDG6 targets by assessing progress made, identify challenges affecting each SDG6 target
and highlight the different socioeconomic and environmental factors impeding or with potential
to impede the achievement of SDG6.

2.1 Data search and retrieval process

In line with the objectives of the paper, we focus our systematic review exclusively on
peer reviewed scientific articles. We started by searching major scientific databases including
Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar (Bramer, Rethlefsen, Kleijnen, & Franco, 2017).
To search for relevant articles, we used a combination of keywords directly related to each of
the research objectives and SDG6 targets: “access AND water AND hygiene AND sanitation”,
“surface water OR groundwater contamination OR pollution”, “water use efficiency OR
productivity”, “financing water AND sanitation access”, “stakeholder OR community
participation AND water supply”, “integrated water resources management”, “water
governance AND SDG6”, “aquatic ecosystems AND sustainable development goals”, “climate
impact OR climate variability AND water resources”, “transboundary water management”,
“urbanization AND population growth AND water security”. This was augmented by a targeted

3
citation search for key terms within several African countries, basins, and sub-regions
(including Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Burkina Faso, South Africa, Senegal, Sahel,
West Africa, Horn of Africa) facing different water security challenges.

2.2 Screening process and paper selection

We used the following inclusion criteria to identify relevant scientific publications
guided by the objectives of the paper: (1) we retained only articles that focused on SSA (2)
articles published in the English language from 2010 to April 2021, (3) select only articles
whose titles, abstracts and key words contained at least two of the original keywords used in
the search, (4) articles addressing specific progress or challenges relating to SDG6 or any of
its targets in any country, city, basin, or sub-region in SSA, (5) case studies covering individual
or multiple countries or basins addressing any of the SDG6 targets because they provide
relevant context to identify the different socioeconomic and environmental factors driving
success or failure of SDG6 and its targets, and (6) articles that addressed any of the SDG6
targets without explicitly mentioning it as such were also examined. Out of more than 1000
articles retrieved, a quick read through the titles, abstracts and keywords reduced the number
of articles to 167 that were then included in the in-depth screening. The following exclusion
criteria were used: (1) articles not focusing on SSA (2) review articles were not included, (3)
articles published in other languages such as French (4) articles that dealt with hydrological
modelling without relating it to any of the SDG6 targets such water availability, quality, IWRM
and ecosystems, and (5) articles related to SDG6 targets and health.

2.3 Paper review and analytical methods

Next, we read the key sections of the 167 flagged papers and extracted information
relevant to the research objectives including the documentation of challenges affecting each
SDG6 target and different political, socioeconomic, and environmental factors undermining or
with potential to undermine water security in SSA. A deductive approach was applied
throughout this process to allow: (1) investigation of any underlying relationships between
variables, and (2) a comprehensive view of research findings from a disparate array of primary
studies. The selected articles were grouped under different themes as shown in Table 1.

4
Table 1: Articles related to SDG6 targets.
Review item Search theme Number of articles
Water supply, sanitation, and hygiene 15
Water and sanitation support 05
Community participation in water management 09
Water quality 22
SDG6 targets Water stress 15
Water use efficiency 06
IWRM and transboundary water management 15
Ecosystems 12
Governance 20
Socioeconomic and Conflict and migration 13
environmental Climate change 21
factors Urbanization and population growth 14

2.3 Limitations
As with any review of this nature, there are clear subjective constraints on the selection
of keywords and extraction of data from sources. Considering the scope of the paper, the
number of peer-reviewed articles included here is extensive but with understandable logistic
constraints. We have aimed to provide an initial outline assessment of SDG6 compliance, and
it is likely that some relevant articles may have been inadvertently omitted. Similarly, we also
acknowledge that the number of socioeconomic, political, and environmental factors
undermining water security that we identify are not exhaustive and many other factors may not
have been captured in this review. Nevertheless, the method adopted here allows us to provide
the first overview of the status of SDG6 compliance within SSA.

3 WATER SECURITY CHALLENGES FACING SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA.

An overview of the different SDG6 targets indicate that water and sanitation support,
water use efficiency, IWRM, transboundary water management and ecosystems have received
less attention compared to the rest of the targets (Table 1). Although our review methodology
follows a systematic approach making it transparent and replicable, we wish to reiterate that
the results of our search should be regarded with caution because not articles identified in
search could be included due to logistic constraints as highlighted earlier.

3.1 Access to drinking water and sanitation services.

Access to water supply and sanitation (WSS) remains one of the biggest challenges to
water security in SSA. Previous studies have reported that most countries in SSA made
substantial progress to improve access to water supply compared to sanitation services between
1990-2015 (Armah et al., 2018). Despite the remarkable progress, many countries did not

5
achieve the MDG in WSS. Evidence suggest that several countries may still not achieve the
WSS targets by 2030. While the situation for water supply may seem attainable with additional
support, the sanitation target seems to be in a dire situation (Assefa, Babel, Sušnik, & Shinde,
2019).
There are equally strong spatial inequalities in access to WSS between urban and rural
areas across SSA (Ellis A Adams & Smiley, 2018; Cole, Bailey, Cullis, & New, 2018). This
urban-rural disparity remains a major obstacle to achieving universal coverage in access to
WSS in SSA. Limited access to WSS in SSA disproportionately affects women and girls
because this group is mostly responsible for collecting water for their families and engaging in
reproductive roles such as caring for relatives with WSS related illnesses thereby reinforcing
gender inequality and poverty (Graham, Hirai, & Kim, 2016).
Open defaecation is still widespread across SSA and the prevalence of handwashing
with soap at critical times (after defecation and before eating) is still very low (Roche, Bain, &
Cumming, 2017). However, a recent study covering Nigeria, Tanzania and Uganda has
reported an improvement in water, hygiene and sanitation during the COVID-19 pandemic due
to innovation and continuous mass sensitisation (Durodola, Nabunya, Kironde, Nevo, &
Bwambale, 2020). It is widely reported that access to WSS services in schools has a positive
impact on school attendance rates among adolescent girls and can enhance health and hygienic
behaviour among children in SSA. However, a survey of some schools across six countries in
SSA indicated a very limited access to adequate WSS facilities and soap for handwashing; with
only few schools able to meet the student-to-latrine ratios for both sexes as recommended by
WHO (Morgan, Bowling, Bartram, & Kayser, 2017). Other studies have suggested that
intervention to enhance sanitation and hygiene practices in schools should focus on boys as
there appears to be a gender dimension to hygienic behaviours – current evidence suggests that
girls exhibit better hygienic behaviours than boys (Thakadu, Ngwenya, Phaladze, & Bolaane,
2018).
Some of the challenges impeding access to water supply particularly in urban areas
include rapid urbanization, increasing population, expansion of informal settlements, low
capital investment in water infrastructure and poor management of existing infrastructure and
resources (Ellis A Adams, Sambu, & Smiley, 2019; Cobbinah, Erdiaw-Kwasie, & Amoateng,
2015). These factors contribute to overwhelm the capacity of governments to respond to
increasing water demand in urban areas (Dos Santos et al., 2017). Development of sanitation
services in SSA is also constrained by a lack of reliable and comparable benchmark estimates
of the unit costs of sanitation infrastructure which is currently characterised by ambiguity

6
concerning costing standards (Sainati, Zakaria, Locatelli, & Evans, 2020). Access to water
supply in some communities is also constrained by the dissonance between statutory and
customary institutions that regulate access to water (Gondo & Kolawole, 2020).
Access to WSS services in SSA remains a great cause for concern; particularly during
this COVID-19 pandemic when access to clean water and soap for handwashing is the first line
of protection against the virus. Numerous case studies have reported that a lack of access to
clean water and basic hygiene facilities will substantially limit the capacity of countries in SSA
to effectively combat the COVID-19 pandemic (Ekumah et al., 2020). It is possible that this
pandemic will be a wake-up call to governments in SSA and donors to prioritise and step-up
different sustainable financing mechanisms to increase access to WSS services in the region.
Also considering that access to WSS services is a basic human right that is not being met for a
large proportion of the population in SSA.

3.1.1 Water supply and sanitation support

Disbursements for official development assistance for water supply and sanitation
(ODA-WSS) to SSA have witnessed an increasing trend since 2002, exceeding US$250 million
after the adoption of SDGs in 2015 (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Gross ODA disbursements for water and sanitation to SSA covering the period
2000 – 2018 (Source: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

Although the status of national contributions towards WSS targets were not readily
available, limited access to WSS services in SSA indicate that these contributions may be
insufficient. In fact, it has been reported that as of 2014, only 50% of total spending for WSS

7
was funded by SSA countries (Salami, Stampini, Kamara, Sullivan, & Namara, 2014). Funding
deficits have also been identified as a major constraint to achieving sanitation target in North
Africa (Kherbache & Oukaci, 2020). Many reasons may account for the low apparent
governmental investment in WSS from within SSA. Some of these include: (1) high initial
capital cost required to build new water infrastructure, (2) high cost of maintaining water
supply and sanitation facilities, (3) priority of education and health care provision by
governments and donors compared to WSS, (4) lack of financial sustainability for sanitation
projects, (5) weak technical and administrative capacity, (6) limited private sector involvement
particularly in the provision of sanitation services, and (7) low stakeholder participation (Libey,
Adank, & Thomas, 2020; Ndikumana & Pickbourn, 2017; Perard, 2018; Salami et al., 2014).
Our review clearly highlights that, access to WSS in SSA faces a myriad of challenges, and
these seem to be impacting countries progress towards achieving these targets.

Figure 2: ODA-WSS per capita vs population. The figure shows that the disbursement of
ODA-WSS per capita does not follow demographic trends.

Figure 2 shows a plot of ODA-WSS per capita against the population for each country.
We observe that ODA-WSS disbursement does not follow the demographic trend, and the
disbursements are mostly below $10 per capita with only four countries Cape Verde, Djibouti,
Liberia and Sao Tome and Principe exceeding this amount (Figure 2).

8
Figure 3: ODA-WSS against access to basic WSS. The figure show that correlation between
ODA-WSS and access to basic WSS is weak.

Figure 3 shows a plot of ODA-WSS per capita against access to basic WSS. To obtain
access to basic WSS, access to drinking water was given a weight of 60% while access to basic
sanitation services received a weight of 40%. It can be observed that access to basic WSS had
weak albeit statistically significant correlation (R2 = 0.10) with ODA-WSS per capita. This
suggest that increasing ODA-WSS per capita may have a positive impact on access to WSS in
SSA as previously reported (Ndikumana & Pickbourn, 2017; Salami et al., 2014).
Overall, the current ODA-WSS disbursement to SSA could be considered to be
insufficient to meet SDG 6.1 and 6.2 targets. This suggest that governments and donors would
need to substantially increase capital investment in the region in order to cover the WSS
funding deficit. Given that revenue collected by water utility companies cannot cover the full
cost of service delivery, it has been suggested that governments and development partners need
to provide additional support to cover this gap (Libey et al., 2020). Countries may also need to
identify new financing mechanisms to bridge the funding gap and explore ways of making
sanitation services sustainable.

3.1.2 Community participation in drinking-water supply planning

programs
Evidence uncovered here suggests that the level of community participation in
drinking-water supply management in SSA is relatively high (Kelly et al., 2017; Tantoh &
Simatele, 2017). The high level of community engagement in this area may be attributed to
policies that promote community participation as a means to increase access to safe drinking

9
water supply in SSA particularly in rural areas (Whaley et al., 2019). Contrastingly, in urban
areas, community engagement is attributed to the failure of both the governments and the
private sector to meet the increasing demand for drinking-water supply (Ellis Adjei Adams &
Zulu, 2015; Alda-Vidal, Kooy, & Rusca, 2018). Therefore, community participation in
drinking water supply management in SSA is driven by different factors depending on the
location.
It has been suggested that to increase access to drinking-water supply and boost
community participation in water management in urban areas, governments in SSA will need
to (1) increase funding to local authorities, (2) upgrade existing water infrastructure while
building new ones, (3) avoid political interference, (4) reduce the financial burden imposed on
poor communities, (5) reform the existing institutions to ensure transparent management (Ellis
A Adams et al., 2019). Furthermore, the heterogeneity of the urban population and differences
in income levels must also be considered when implementing new plans.
To increase community participation in drinking-water supply management in rural
areas, it has been suggested that stakeholders must work together to identify the most
appropriate resources mobilisation mechanisms which are inclusive of poor community
members and to train members on fair financial management (Behnke et al., 2017). Other
studies have suggested that development partners should seek ways of strengthening existing
water supply management institutions, practices, and governance systems that consider local
realities rather than attempting to create new institutions (Jones, 2011; Whaley, Cleaver, &
Mwathunga, 2020). More research is needed to explore other options that can be used to spur
community participation in water management both in urban and rural areas across SSA.

3.2 Water quality

Although there is acute paucity in water quality data in most countries in SSA, evidence
suggests that water quality is a critical and growing challenge to water security in the region
(Chishugi et al., 2021). Lack of water quality data in SSA like in other regions have been
attributed to the fact water quality was often not considered in water security assessments until
water pollution became a critical factor affecting sustainable development in many countries
(Vanham et al., 2018).
Several factors may account for poor water quality in SSA. For example, naturally
occurring hazardous compounds in the soil such as nitrates and arsenic are increasingly being
detected in groundwater systems across SSA (Bretzler et al., 2017; Ouedraogo & Vanclooster,
2016). Aquifer characteristics including depth, type and groundwater recharge rate also

10
contribute to increase the vulnerability of groundwater systems to pollution (Lapworth et al.,
2017; Ouedraogo & Vanclooster, 2016). Anthropogenic factors such as mining also have
significant impact on both groundwater and surface water quality across many countries e.g.,
Cameroon (Rakotondrabe et al., 2018), Guinea (Sow et al., 2018), Zimbabwe (Masocha, Dube,
Mambwe, & Mushore, 2019) and Nigeria (Adewumi & Laniyan, 2020). Industrial pollution
from oil and gas exploration is another source of water pollution through oil spillage and
leakages from pipelines with cases reported in Nigeria (Arojojoye et al., 2021). Leaching of
agrochemicals from agricultural fields is also a major source of water pollution in SSA
(Curchod et al., 2020; Teklu, Hailu, Wiegant, Scholten, & Van den Brink, 2018). Invasive alien
plant species have equally been identified to contribute to freshwater pollution (Chamier,
Schachtschneider, Le Maitre, Ashton, & Van Wilgen, 2012). Land use/cover change resulting
to increase sediment loads from upstream catchments is also a major source of water pollution
(Dutton et al., 2018; Stenfert Kroese et al., 2020).
Untreated sewerage discharged or leakage of organic and microbial pollutants to water
bodies also contribute to the deterioration of water quality in many countries resulting in
several public health threats and disease outbreaks in SSA (Gumbo, Dzaga, & Nethengwe,
2016; Houéménou et al., 2020). Seawater intrusion particularly in coastal areas is another
source of shallow groundwater contamination, rendering it undrinkable and not suitable for
irrigation (Oiro & Comte, 2019; Takem et al., 2015). Emerging organic contaminants have
equally been detected in wastewater, surface water and groundwater wells across many
countries (Gwenzi & Chaukura, 2018; Sorensen et al., 2015). Recently, pharmaceutical
residuals have also been found in surface water bodies and groundwater wells in some countries
(Branchet et al., 2019; K'oreje et al., 2016). Our review has highlighted that water pollution is
widespread across SSA threatening both human health (SDG 3) and ecosystems (SDG 14 &
15). We observe that substantial research has been conducted to establish the factors impeding
the achievement of target 6.3 & 6.4 in SSA. This suggest that water quality monitoring must
become a priority in current and future strategies to address water security in SSA. There is
equally an urgent need to investigate the impact of plastic pollution on water quality in SSA.

3.3 Water stress and variability of water resources

Evidence suggests that most countries appear to have low levels of water stress because
the percentage of freshwater withdrawal compared to available water resources is low
(Supplementary material). However, water stress remains a significant challenge in most
countries because there are marked differences in water availability within the same country

11
due to spatial and temporal variability in rainfall which affects water supply (Twisa &
Buchroithner, 2019). Therefore, low water stress at national scale has the potential to mask
water stress hotspots at local scale within the same country and highlights a need to monitor
water resources at local scale. Water stress in SSA may be attributed to several reasons. Firstly,
about 43% of the land in SSA is classified as arid or semi-arid implying the area is vulnerable
to drought caused by rainfall deficit which then propagates to water supply shortages (Hadebe,
Modi, & Mabhaudhi, 2017). Secondly, water stress in some countries may be due to population
growth, changing lifestyle, and economic growth thereby exacerbating the imbalance between
water availability and demand (Gain, Giupponi, & Wada, 2016).
Land use/cover change is also reported to exert significant pressure on water resources
in SSA as it can lead to an increase in runoff and streamflow (flood) and decrease in
groundwater recharge (Baker & Miller, 2013; Guzha, Rufino, Okoth, Jacobs, & Nóbrega, 2018;
Yira, Diekkrüger, Steup, & Bossa, 2016). Invasive alien plant species have also been identified
to increase water stress in SSA by contributing to reduce annual runoff volumes through
increased evapotranspiration (Le Maitre et al., 2020; Mkunyana, Mazvimavi, Dzikiti, &
Ntshidi, 2019).
Other studies have reported that water stress in some areas may be attributed to
fluctuations in groundwater levels as a result of climate variability and changes in the
precipitation patterns (Bonsor, Shamsudduha, Marchant, Macdonald, & Taylor, 2018; Nanteza,
De Linage, Thomas, & Famiglietti, 2016). However, groundwater exploitation to reduce water
stress is currently constraint by limited financial resources and lack of institutional support
(Cobbing, 2020).
Whilst much research has established the biophysical drivers of water stress in SSA,
there is a need to assess the level of water stress (low, moderate, or high) across countries and
basins in the region and to identify the socioeconomic drivers of water stress. This information
may be critical for managing transboundary basins considering the potential for conflict among
riparian states that may arise from water stress. Climate information services (CIS) have been
identified as critically important for supporting water management in SSA (Dinku et al., 2018).
However, current applications of CIS in water management have focused mostly in providing
seasonal forecasts for soil moisture and vegetation to monitor food security (Agutu et al., 2017;
Asfaw et al., 2018). Other studies have focused on disaster management (de la Poterie et al.,
2018; Mwangi, Wetterhall, Dutra, Di Giuseppe, & Pappenberger, 2014). The application of
CIS for managing other aspects of water security have received less attention. This is a key

12
knowledge gap and highlights a need to explore how CIS can be used to enhance other aspects
of water security such as water supply, IWRM, transboundary basins and aquatic ecosystems.

3.4 Water use efficiency.

Across SSA, there is a general lack of quantitative data on water supply, use and
distribution, coupled with the absence of a credible baseline information to monitor progress
on this target. Evidence suggests that water use efficiency (WUE) across SSA is generally low
(Supplementary material). In economic terms, this suggest that the added economic value
output per unit volume of water input is low in SSA.
WUE is calculated as the sum of the WUE in agriculture, industries, and services
weighted according to the proportion of water used by each sector over the total uses. The low
WUE scores in SSA may be attributed to several factors. Firstly, the contribution of irrigated
agriculture to WUE in SSA is relatively low as most of the agriculture is rain-fed (Rockström
& Falkenmark, 2015). Secondly, WUE from industrial activities such as mining and quarrying
may be difficult to quantify given the high rate of artisanal mining and quarrying activities
(Fold, Allotey, Kalvig, & Moeller-Jensen, 2018; Hilson & Garforth, 2012; Maconachie &
Hilson, 2011). Such unregulated industrial activities may not have been considered in the
calculation of WUE even though contributions from such activities could be substantial in
economic terms. Thirdly, most countries in SSA are classified as low-income countries by the
World Bank implying that informal economic activities are substantial making it difficult to
capture WUE scores. Lastly, the contribution of urban water utilities to WUE may equally be
low due to different factors such as network leakages, meter reading inaccuracy, unauthorised
consumption from theft and illegal connection (Mutikanga, Sharma, & Vairavamoorthy, 2011).
There is paucity of information on water losses from water distribution networks in SSA while
the contribution of artisanal mining and quarrying to WUE are poorly documented which
directly affects the monitoring of SDG6. These are potential research gaps in WUE assessment
in SSA that have been identified here for the first time. Despite the limited number of case
studies on this target, available evidence suggest that water policy reforms can lead to an
increase in WUE particularly in the agricultural sector (Thiam, Muchapondwa, Kirsten, &
Bourblanc, 2015).

3.5 Integrated water resources management and transboundary water

management

13
 Due to the advantages offered by integrated water resources management (IWRM) such
as promoting water diplomacy, international policy and water law, IWRM has been adopted as
a key component of national water policy and climate change adaptation strategy by many
countries in SSA (Mehta & Movik, 2014; Nkiaka & Lovett, 2019). It has also been used to test
different water management options in some countries (Mersha, de Fraiture, Masih, &
Alamirew, 2021). However, evidence suggest that only a few countries have made substantial
progress towards achieving this target while others are either stagnating or regressing
(Supplementary material).
Many factors may account for the slow implementation of IWRM in SSA. These
include limited skills and capacity for water sector practitioners, stakeholders do not fully
understand the processes involved in the implementation of an IWRM plan, absence of water
management plans at basin scale, lack of financial resources, weak governance, limited
stakeholder participation, and lack of coordination among different institutions involve
(Malaza & Mabuda, 2019; Osumanu, Yelfaanibe, & Galaa, 2014; Van Koppen, Tarimo, van
Eeden, Manzungu, & Sumuni, 2016). Considering the pivotal role of women in IWRM
implementation, gender inequality limit the participation of women in IWRM processes (Elias,
2017). It has been suggested that for IWRM to be successful in SSA, specific IWRM policies
that can deliver high societal impact should be targeted for implementation rather than trying
to implement all aspects of IWRM at the same time (Duncan, de Vries, & Nyarko, 2019;
Gallego-Ayala & Juízo, 2011). Furthermore, the implementation of IWRM could also be
fostered through the coordination of sub-regional economic commissions (Ladel, Mehta,
Gulemvuga, & Namayanga, 2020). However, there is an urgent need for more research to
identify the key policy actions that can deliver high societal impacts and to develop operational
tools such as decision support systems to support IWRM in SSA (Ladel et al., 2020)
Beyond national-scale indicators, transboundary basins also represent an important
spatial scale for assessing progress towards achieving SDG6 because many geophysical
processes and environmental feedbacks on SDG6 occur at this level (Scown, 2020). Effective
transboundary water management can lead to international cooperation among riparian states
and enhance regional integration. Evidence suggests slow progress towards implementing this
target across SSA (Supplementary material). There are 42 countries sharing transboundary
basins in SSA (McCracken & Wolf, 2019) and many transboundary basin organisations (e.g.
Lake Chad Basin Commission, Niger Basin Authority, Limpopo Water Course Commission)
that can facilitate the implementation of this target. Few studies have highlighted the
importance of transboundary basin organisations in the effective management of transboundary
14
watercourses in SSA (Mogomotsi, Mogomotsi, & Mosepele, 2020). The slow progress towards
achieving this target may be attributed to several factors such as a pervasive weakness in water
governance and differences in financial and technical capacity and development priorities
among riparian states (Keller, 2012). As climate change is expected to increase water stress in
many transboundary basins in SSA, there is a need to strengthen water cooperation among
riparian states to ensure adequate allocation and efficient water management (Mgquba &
Majozi, 2018). There are also knowledge gaps to evaluate how existing institutions have
enhanced transboundary water cooperation in SSA. In contrast, similar operational
arrangements for transboundary groundwater aquifers are absent. Given that groundwater plays
a crucial role in mitigating water stress, there is an urgent need to put in place transboundary
groundwater aquifer institutions to enhance groundwater management in SSA.

3.6 Water related ecosystems.

Evidence suggests that few countries appear to have achieved this target and are
working towards sustaining the results while others are on track toward achieving it
(Supplementary material). This is also evident by the increasing number of Ramsar sites in
SSA which increased from 190 in 2011 to 289 Ramsar designated sites in 2020 (Mitchell, 2013;
Xi, Peng, Ciais, & Chen, 2021). However, the impact of unsustainable water use, flow regime
alteration and water pollution on aquatic ecosystems is still poorly understood. Evidence show
that flow alteration due to dam construction, unsustainable water use, and climate change has
caused the collapse of many ecosystems in SSA with a notable example in the Lake Chad basin
(LCB) (Gao, Bohn, Podest, McDonald, & Lettenmaier, 2011). Dam construction on the Omo
River has also resulted to a substantial drop in the Lake Turkana water level with serious
implications on its ecosystem (Avery & Tebbs, 2018; Gownaris et al., 2017; Tebbs, Avery, &
Chadwick, 2020). Considering that many multipurpose dams are currently under construction
or planned to be built across SSA (e.g., the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam [GERD]);
governments, the civil society, and the research community are called upon to provide detailed
environmental impact assessments of such projects on aquatic ecosystems.
Other studies have reported that land use changes have resulted to dramatic changes in
water levels in the Rift Valley Lake system (Nakuru, Baringo, Bogoria, and Elementaita)
altering the biogeochemical cycle of these lakes with severe consequences on aquatic
ecosystems (Kiage & Douglas, 2020). Crude oil exploration has also led to substantial damage
to mangrove ecosystems in SSA (Chinweze, Abiola-Oloke, & Jideani, 2012; Sam & Zabbey,
2018). Population pressure resulting to increased demand for agricultural land, rapid

15
urbanization, deforestation, and demand for fuel wood has also led to a substantial loss in
wetland and mangrove areas (Adanguidi et al., 2020; Beuel et al., 2016; Munishi & Jewitt,
2019; Phethi & Gumbo, 2019).
Despite the progress made by countries towards attaining this target, there is still a need
for improvement. Another critical area of concern is the urgent need to investigate the impact
of plastic pollution on aquatic ecosystems in SSA.

4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS DRIVING WATER

INSECURITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA.

In the preceding section, we provided an overview of the progress and challenges

impeding the achievement of each SDG6 target in SSA. In this section we examine the different
political, socioeconomic, and environmental factors undermining or with potential to
undermine water security in SSA. We group these factors under the following themes: water
governance, conflict and migration, climate change and urbanization/population growth.

4.1 Water governance

The race to achieve water security has brought water governance to the forefront of
major scientific and political interests which has led to different definitions of water
governance (Pahl-Wostl, 2017). In this paper, we adopt the definition proposed by the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) which defines water
governance as “the range of political, social, economic, and administrative systems that are in
place to develop and manage water resources, and to deliver water services at different levels
of society” (OECD, 2011). The challenges faced by countries in SSA towards achieving water
security reflects a general weakness in governance across the region (Gain et al., 2016). Weak
water governance is exacerbated by the spatial and temporal variability of freshwater resources,
the transboundary nature of many basins and limited cooperation among riparian states in
transboundary water management (Kanyerere et al., 2018). This implies, for example, that the
quality of water as it moves across national boundaries is influenced by different local
catchment management strategies; water withdrawal being influenced by competing demands
in each country and flood and drought management policies are different in each riparian state.
Weak water governance within the same country is also exacerbated by limited
cooperation between different governance units (water, agriculture, energy, disaster
management, environment), private sector and non-governmental organisations acting at
different levels (local, national, and sub-regional) (Kim, Keane, & Bernard, 2015). Each

16
governance unit at each level has different interests in the country’s water resources making
water governance a complex issue (Meissner & Jacobs, 2016). Therefore, the current
organisation of governance units and their apparent fragmentation may inhibit the balancing of
water governance benefits across different scales, sectors, and stakeholders. This remains a
major challenge constraining the achievement of sustainable water management in SSA.
Water governance is also constrained by policies involving significant compromises –
and the political will/capacity to address these may be lacking. Some of these include urban
water supply governance (Ellis A Adams et al., 2019), sanitation governance (Ekane, Kjellén,
Westlund, Ntakarutimana, & Mwesige, 2020; Ekane, Nykvist, Kjellén, Noel, & Weitz, 2014),
irrigation governance (Lefore, Giordano, Ringler, & Barron, 2019; Woodhouse et al., 2017),
groundwater governance (Jiménez et al., 2017; Whaley et al., 2019), community water supply
governance (Alexander, Tesfaye, Dreibelbis, Abaire, & Freeman, 2015), governance of water
related disasters (Bahta, Jordaan, & Muyambo, 2016; Bottazzi, Winkler, & Speranza, 2019;
King-Okumu, Jillo, Kinyanjui, & Jarso, 2018). The multiple dimensions of water governance
suggest a need to adopt a polycentric approach to water governance considering the
interlinkages among the different dimensions. In addition, putting in place the different policies
and legislation to ensure sustainable water governance demands inputs from stakeholders with
expertise that may currently be lacking in many countries. This suggests an urgent need for
capacity-building assistance to enhance water governance in SSA (Hegga, Kunamwene, &
Ziervogel, 2020)..
Many river/lake basin organisations have been put in place in SSA and IWRM adopted
as a new paradigm for sustainable water management at national and regional scale. Our review
has revealed that these too are confronted by different contextual factors due to differences in
political and socio-economic priorities among riparian states and a lack of cooperation. To
achieve sustainable water governance in SSA, these complexities must be acknowledged to
develop plans that consider the local context and the specificities of each country or riparian
state for transboundary basins because a one-size-fits-all approach may not deliver the expected
results.

4.2 Conflict and migration

Competition for access to water is a source of conflict that has persisted for centuries
and has led to many claims about the relationship between water scarcity, conflict, and
migration (Ayana, Ceccato, Fisher, & DeFries, 2016; Selby & Hoffmann, 2012). Water related
conflicts are expected to increase under climate change as droughts which drive water scarcity

17
become more frequent due to erratic rainfall patterns (Fjelde & von Uexkull, 2012; Levy,
2019). This may have dire consequences for people living in areas already facing water scarcity
such as the Horn of Africa, the Sahel, and the southern Africa sub-region. Water may also be
used as a trigger, target, or weapon in conflict and has been reported to be both a trigger for
conflict in SSA (Almer, Laurent-Lucchetti, & Oechslin, 2017), and a target for conflict as well
e.g., in the LCB (Okpara, Stringer, & Dougill, 2017) and Kenya (Detges, 2014). Conflicts
related to sufficient water availability have also been reported in some countries and sub-
regions (Mack et al., 2021; Selby & Hoffmann, 2014). Most conflicts triggered by water
scarcity are often between different water user groups within the same countries. The recent
use of water as a target in the LCB between state and non-state armed groups (Kamta, Schilling,
& Scheffran, 2020), suggest that water conflicts in SSA are becoming increasingly complex
and could have wider geopolitical ramifications with potential to threaten global security.
Although no interstate water conflicts have been reported in SSA (Levy, 2019), the
recent diplomatic stand-off among some Nile Basin riparian states (Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan)
over the filling of GERD highlight the likelihood of future interstate conflicts over water. Water
scarcity could also become a threat multiplier in regions where diplomatic relations between
riparian states are absent (Levy, 2019). Considering that many dams are planned or currently
under construction across SSA, there is an urgent need to strengthen transboundary water
cooperation in the region. This is because such dams could become a source of interstate
conflicts between upstream countries where dams are located and downstream countries facing
water scarcity caused by the dam. There is equally a need to train more hydrologists and
specialists in hydro-diplomacy to be able to lead complex water sharing negotiations among
riparian countries (Niyitunga, 2019).
Conflicts resulting from other socio-economic and political crisis also have the
potential to undermine water security through the destruction of water infrastructure, reducing
the operational capacity of government agencies and could weaken transboundary water
governance (Kut, Sarswat, Bundschuh, & Mohan, 2019; Roach & Al-Saidi, 2021). There are
currently many ongoing conflicts in SSA which have resulted to forced displacement of people
both internally and as refugees. Such massive displacement of people has serious implications
on water security and could lead to tension between the host communities and the IDPs (Kamta,
Schilling, & Scheffran, 2021). Although the impact of conflicts on water security in SSA is
poorly documented, achieving peace and stability in the region could be another critical
condition for attaining water security.

18
 4.3 Climate change
SSA is one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change which is expected to
influence the availability of water resources through changes in soil moisture, evaporation,
runoff, and groundwater recharge as well as increase the demand for water (Taylor et al., 2013).
Analysis of past observational records in SSA show increasing trends in mean annual
temperatures over the past several decades with the trend expected to continue in the future
(Almazroui et al., 2020; Hoffman, Kemanian, & Forest, 2018). This increasing temperature
trend is expected to be accompanied by an increase in the frequency of extreme temperatures
and aridity leading to a decline in agricultural production (Dale, Fant, Strzepek, Lickley, &
Solomon, 2017; Serdeczny et al., 2017). Enhanced evaporation as result of rising temperature
is also expected to alter the relationship between rainfall and ‘available water’ (i.e.,
precipitation minus evaporation) which will likely increase water stress in many areas across
SSA (Bornemann et al., 2019).
Climate change is also projected to alter precipitation patterns in SSA which will
increase water stress in many areas (Faramarzi et al., 2013; Serdeczny et al., 2017), and increase
the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation (Kendon et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2017).
It will equally contribute to sea level rise in many coastal areas (Serdeczny et al., 2017).
Precipitation projections for SSA also show large spatial variability with some areas expected
to observe a decrease while others will experience an increase (Almazroui et al., 2020). Climate
change is also expected to affect groundwater quality in SSA (Aladejana, Kalin, Sentenac, &
Hassan, 2020). These factors will have serious implications for water security in the region.
Climate change may also significantly disrupt water availability in dryland areas in SSA
forcing people to migrate to urban areas (Henderson, Storeygard, & Deichmann, 2017;
Kniveton, Smith, & Black, 2012). Forced migration to urban areas may increase water security
challenges in areas where the host communities are already struggling to meet their water
demands. Under climate change, longer dry spells are expected to become frequent during the
rainy season resulting to soil moisture deficits during the growing season with impact on
rainfed agriculture and food security (Kendon et al., 2019).
Climate model projections also show that the frequency and intensity of extreme events
such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) will increase with more severe droughts and
floods expected across SSA (Cai et al., 2014; Gizaw & Gan, 2017; Wang et al., 2019). Climate
change will also increase the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones which may trigger
extreme storms and floods with potential to destroy critical water infrastructure thereby

19
undermining the achievement of water security (Mendelsohn, Emanuel, Chonabayashi, &
Bakkensen, 2012).

4.4 Urbanization and population growth

Rapid population growth has led to an increasing trend in urbanization across SSA with
the urban population projected to exceed 1.3 billion by 2050 (Güneralp, Lwasa, Masundire,
Parnell, & Seto, 2017). However, this trend is expected to vary spatially with the coastal zones
experiencing the highest rate of population growth and urbanization driven by migration from
arid and semi-arid areas due to climate induced water scarcity (Henderson et al., 2017;
Neumann, Vafeidis, Zimmermann, & Nicholls, 2015).
Increased migration to urban centres will lead to an increase in water demand (Dos
Santos et al., 2017). Given that most water supply to urban areas is captured from surface water
bodies in rural catchments, increased pollution from agricultural fields in these areas will
increase the financial cost of water treatment which will be charged on urbanites by water
utility companies (Niasse & Varis, 2020). Achieving water security in urban areas could also
be constraint by a lack of proportional investment in water infrastructure to match the rapid
urbanization coupled with poorly maintained aging infrastructure (Dos Santos et al., 2017;
Nlend et al., 2018). It is reported that limited access to water supply in informal settlements in
SSA is already forcing residents to rely on polluted shallow groundwater wells and surface
water bodies thereby increasing exposure to water-related diseases (Niasse & Varis, 2020).
Urban expansion resulting to increased impervious areas is also reducing the rate of
groundwater recharge across many cities leading to a drop in groundwater levels (Olarinoye,
Foppen, Veerbeek, Morienyane, & Komakech, 2020). Considering that groundwater is a vital
source of fresh water supply in many cities in SSA (Oiro, Comte, Soulsby, MacDonald, &
Mwakamba, 2020), this may have significant impact on sustainable water supply in urban
areas. Urbanization and population growth in SSA could also lead to the rapid depletion of
groundwater and surface water stocks which will exacerbate water scarcity (Niasse & Varis,
2020; Oiro et al., 2020). Despite a low rate of irrigation in SSA, accounting for less than 7%
of cultivated land, an increasing population is expected to increase the amount of water used
in agriculture to meet food-supply demands (Niasse & Varis, 2020). The quantity of water used
in hydropower production is also expected to increase to generate more electricity needed in
urban areas and to fulfil rural electrification policies/strategies.
As a result of changes in land-use, and particularly increases in the prevalence of
impervious surfaces, urbanization will significantly contribute to higher flood peaks and

20
increase the risk of flash flooding in cities (Amoako & Frimpong, 2015; Mahmood, Elagib,
Horn, & Saad, 2017). The expansion of informal settlements mostly built on marginal land,
including flood prone areas will increase exposure to flood risk (Dalu, Shackleton, & Dalu,
2018). Incidence of urban floods in SSA have also been attributed to the blockage of drainage
systems by solid waste including plastics (Mahmood et al., 2017; Roebroek et al., 2021). This
highlights the importance of maintaining drainage systems to mitigate urban flooding in cities.
Rapid urbanization and population growth in coastal areas will equally lead to increased
exposure to coastal flooding caused by sea level rise triggered by global warming (Neumann
et al., 2015). Based on evidence uncovered here, there is an urgent need to incorporate water
security in urban development strategies across SSA.

5 CONCLUSION

In response to recent calls for consolidated evidence on progress towards the attainment
of the SDGs and associated challenges, this review aimed to evaluate progress made, unpack
the challenges impeding the achievement of different SDG6 targets and examine the political,
socioeconomic, and environmental factors undermining water security in SSA.
Our review has revealed that SSA faces substantial water security challenges with WSS
targets well below global benchmarks. Unless a radical approach is adopted, current progress
indicates that many countries may not achieve water security by 2030. Not achieving water
security will directly impact the possible achievement of other goals that are interrelated to
water: Especially SDG1 (no poverty), SDG2 (food security), SDG3 (good health), SDG5
(gender inequality), SDG7 (affordable energy), SDG14 (life below water) and SDG15 (life on
land).
The complex nature of the challenges impeding the achievement of SDG6 targets and
the factors undermining or with potential to undermine water security in SSA implies that a
holistic approach involving local, national, and international stakeholders is urgently needed to
address SDG6 if the 2030 target is to be met. Approaches to enhance water security may
equally consider underpinning peace and security and the commitment of more financial
resources by countries and donors. Achieving water security has now become ever more
apparent due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, where access to clean water and soap to wash
hands are a primary means of controlling virus transmission. We hope the COVID-19
pandemic will be a wake-up call for governments and donors to prioritise access to WSS in
SSA and also considering that access to WSS is a basic human right that has been neglected

21
for a large proportion of the population in SSA. At the same time to recognise the importance
of achieving the rest of the SDG6 targets.
Our review has uncovered significant and pervasive data gaps in relation to specific
SDG6 targets including water quality, transboundary water management, WUE and water
related ecosystems. These may be directly addressed by countries through timely and open
reporting of data to relevant UN agencies, and establishing structures for the generation and
dissemination of data. Additionally, researchers might also seize the opportunities offered by
Earth Observation for large scale monitoring (Kapalanga, Hoko, Gumindoga, &
Chikwiramakomo, 2020) and Citizen Science due to its low-cost to setup water quality
monitoring programs to resolve data challenges (Quinlivan, Chapman, & Sullivan, 2020). Our
review has revealed that water pollution is increasingly becoming a major threat to water
security in SSA given the range of hazardous compounds that have been detected in both
surface water and groundwater wells and their potential impact on human health and the
environment.
The review has equally revealed many unexploited research areas that need urgent
attention to address specific SDG6 targets. Examples include: (1) identifying factors driving
water stress in different countries and transboundary basins, (2) investigating how CIS may be
used to enhance water management in SSA, (3) examining and understanding barriers to
effective water management among riparian countries, (4) evaluating water losses in urban
water distribution systems, and (5) the development and management of trans-boundary
organisations to administer groundwater aquifers. Also deserving attention is the need to
investigate the impact of population growth and climate change on agricultural water demand
and how this may affect future water security in SSA.
In sum, we find that little progress has been made by SSA countries towards SDG6. It
is clear that challenges in achieving SDG6 are enormous, and the knock-on effects of not doing
so to other SDGs are apparent. Nevertheless, there are clear viable opportunities for both
progress and improvement in a number of key areas. Indeed, in this endeavour, findings from
this review will be invaluable to governments and development partners as well as the
academic community. This is the first article to provide an overview of the status of SDG6 and
its targets in the global south thereby contributing to enrich the literature evaluating the
progress made by countries and regions towards achieving the UN SDGs.

22
Acknowledgements
Elias Nkiaka is funded by the Leverhulme Trust Early Career Fellowship - Award Number
ECF – 097 – 2020. All the data used in this overview article is openly available as cited in the
review.

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