Research

Nursing research
- is systematic inquiry designed to develop thrusty evidence related to nursing
- Goal: enhance client care (patient centered)
- Wrong answer: improve nursing profession (nurse centered)
- Outcome: evidence based-practice

Sources of evidence/ nursing knowledge

1. Tradition - least reliable sources
2. Authority - deemed experts of the field. Wrong answer: (all, never, always)
3. Clinical Experience - most subjective sources; quantitative research -› bias
4. Trial and Error - least reliable sources
5. Intuition - least reliable sources
6. Logical Reasoning - deductive vs inductive
7. Disciplined research - most sophisticated method

Purpose of Nursing Research

Basic Applied

Desire to expand knowledge; contribute Higher level than basic research

new information

Curiosity driven Finds solution to problem

May not necessarily lead to an invention for

solution to a problem

Undergrad Master, PHD

Purpose of Nursing Research

Quantitative Qualitative

Positivism (logical): there exist only one Naturalistic (constructivist): there's exists
reality multiple realities
Paradigm: world belief

Inquirer is independent from these being Inquirer interacts from these being
researched researched

Objective Subjective: feelings and thoughts

Empirical: use of 5 senes Human experience

Logical, planned Flexible

Numerical values (number, statistics) Narrative description (words)

Deductive (general to specific) Inductive (specific to general)

Research Ethics
- Protection of research subjects
 - Priority in research is safety
- Code of ethics for nurses
- BON Regulation No. 220s 2004 “preserve health at all cost”

Nuremberg codes: Eugenics

- First code; informed consent is required
Deceleration of Helsinki
- Vulnerable population should receive special protection

Research Ethical Principles

1. Beneficence (doing good) and non-malefiene (doing no harm): right for freedom
from harm
- Risk for harm is non-malefiene
- Compassion is beneficence
2. Justice: fairness; equal risks and benefit, equal distribution of resources.
Prioritization: physiologic vs psychologic. Right for fair treatment
3. Autonomy: voluntary decision making; Righ for self disclosure
4. Veracity: complete information; Right for full disclosure
5. Confidentiality: data not revealed (medical data); Right to privacy (personal data)
6. Fidelity: faithfulness, loyalty
Anonimity: data is not linked person; identifying information removed; not an ethical
principle

Informed Consent (autonomy)

- Decision to accept or decline participation to research
- Protects right to self-determination

Elements of Inform Consent

- Voluntary (autonomy)
- Informed, fully understood (veracity)
- Competent (of legal age, coherent, not in the influence of substance)
- Signature (subject and witness)
Doctor - obtained the inform consent
Nurse - witness
- Witness: nature validity of signature; ensure understanding of the patient; not to
explain the procedure (the one who will do the procedurewill explain the procedure)

Characteristics of Nursing Research

1. Systematic - follows step by step procedure
Conceptual First and most important step: identify a problem

Design and Planning Select research and sampling design

Empirical Collection of data; most time consuming part

Analytical Data analysis

Disseminating Last step in nursing research: Utilize findings in practice

 2nd to the last step: publication of findings

2. Control - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant
to minimize the bias (placebo)
Independent Variable Dependent Variable Extraneous Variable

Presumed cause; being Presumed effect; research Can affect the study
manipulated want to understand, explain outcome
or predict; being measured Kept constant

Antecedent variable Outcome variable, criterion Confounding,

variable uncontrollable, interfering
Example: The effect of preboards anxiety to students’ PNLE scores. Don't include the
population e.g. student’s

3. Empirically testable - measurable and can be observed by by 5 sense

4. Generalisability - can be applied to other settings

Chapter 1: Introduction
Research problem - curiosity and interest of the researcher
Source: “CLIENT”
- Clinical experience
- Literature (previous studies)
- Issues (social), except those that have no absolute truth
- External sources - option from others
- Nursing
- Theory

Significant of the Study

- Aim of the study, purpose of the study, benefit the population involved, nursing
profession, the society
Goal: general (umbrella effect)
Objective: specific (SMART) or CSMART c=challenging
Would be: specific, measurable, attainable, realistic,

Research Question Clinical Question

Used in typical research; basic research Used in clinical research; pplied nursing
research

Population Population
Independent Variable Intervention (new treatment to prove effective)
Relationship (increase/decrease) Comparison
Dependent variable Outcome

Definition of terms
Operational - how the term is used in the study
Conceptual - universal meaning; dictionary meaning
Hypothesis
- Predicted relationship of variable
Alternative hypothesis (there is an established relationship)
Null hypothesis (no established relationship)
Directional Non-directional

Increase/decrease Associated with

More/less Related to

1 tailed 2 tailed

Simple Complex

Reflect relationship between 2 variable More than 2 variable

1 dependent and 1 independent variable 2 or more dependent and independent

variables

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

Review of Related Literature
- Review of what is already known about the topic
“Heart of research”
- Characteristics
- Comprehensive
- Up to date (latest 5 years)
- Paraphrased not copy paste
- Balanced (no bias
- Types of Data
- Best type of data: neither, depends on the type of the study
- Primary: original study (thesis, journal)
- Secondary: report synthesized based on the primary study (book, published
study)

Chapter 3: Methodology
Basic Concepts
1. Bias - something that cause error; the higher the bias, the less accurate result
- Recall Bias - respondents’s memories of the past (socially unacceptable
topics)
- Selection Bias - under-represnted or over-respresented samples; to
eliminate selection bias, use randomization bias
- Observation Bias (Hawthorne Effect) - participants is a study are aware
that they are bing observed by researchers
- Confirmation Bias - favouring information that confirms previously existing
beliefs or biases.
2. Validity - you measure what you intend to measure.
- Internal - less bias and confounding variable (blind and randomization). The
higher the internal validity, the more accurate
 - Traits on internal validity
“How confident are you to say that the Iv is the real cause of DV?”
- Selection bias - to eliminate, use randomization
- Maturation - causes by physiological changes over time (with
time involved); to eliminate, use control group
- Instrumentation change - inaccurate reading of instruments
used.
- External - how generalized findings are
3. Reliability - same setting, same results; consistency of instrument used
4. Blinding - disguising formation to prevent bias
- Single blind - subject
- Double blind - subject and researchers; third party. Respect the entire
research

Research design
- Architectural backbone of the study
- Over plan obtained answer
- Tend to be highly structured controlled

Qualitative Research Design

- Inndepth Study phenomena
- Data collection is narrative; no statistics involved
- Data collection is interview (semi-structured)
- Structured: most formal
- Semi structured: most preferred
- Unsaturated: most freedrom
- Research in involved with participant
- Types:
- Phenomenological
- Lived experience of a person
- Ends with data saturation (no new info is obtained)
- Data collection: interview (semi-structured
- Ethnological
- Study culture or tribe
- Language, beliefs, tradition, artifact
- Data collection: immersion (natural habitat: you go the the tribe)
- Grounded Theory
- Social processes. Social and psychological stages about a particular
event strive to generate an explanation.
- Case study
- Generate in-depth, multi-faceted, understanding of a complex issue in
its real-life context.
- Historical
- Explore and explain the meaning and phenomenon at a particular
point of time in the past.
Quantitative Research Design
Experimental Non-experimental

There is a manipulation There is no manipulation

You will look for participants whose

independent variable is already inherent

Beneficial Harmful, unethical

Experimental - strongest design

- Element:
- Manipulation - administration of independent variable
- Randomized - random assignment to experimental an control gorup
- Controlled -
True experimental Quasi experimental Pre experimental (weakest)

Manipulation Manipulation Manipulation

Randomization Lack either control or Lack both control or

randomization (usually randomization
Controlled remove)

2-4 groups 1-2 groups 1 group

1 pretest and post tets

Design: Design: Design:

Pretest - post test control Time series design 1 group pre-test, post-test
group design - most design
powerful design Non equivalent control
group design (same with pre One shot case study
Post test only control group test - post test design, but
design with no randomization)

Non-experimental
- Descriptive (observation research)
- Weakest; exploration of a phenomena
- Gather characteristics, occurrence, prevalence
- Descriptive Correlational
- Studies the relationship of variable of co-exist
- Positive - directly proportional
- Negative - indirectly proportional
- Descriptive Comparative
- Studies cause and effect of variable (without manipulation) by comparing two
groups.

Prospective approach
- Present to future
 - Data collection: longitudinal
- Threat: morality or drop out

Retrospective approach
- Past to present
- Data collection: cross sectional
- Threat: recall bias

Identifying sampling an population

- Element - basic unit that represents whatever is being sampled and d from which
survey data are to be gathered
- Sample - specific group that the researcher will collect data fron
- Population - entire group that the researcher wand to draw conclusions about

Types of sampling
- Probability - randomized, no bias
- Simple random - elements selected at random; fish bowl, draw lots; most
laborus
- Stratified random - divided into subgroups, called strata, get
representative from each group
- Cluster - multi-staging: choose group rather than individual
- Systematic - every kth or member of the population is selected for the
sample after a random start is determined (N/n) N = population, n = sample
- Non-probability - not randomized, bias
- Convince - accidental and incidental sampling; selection of the most readily
available people or objects for a study; weakest
- Quota - breakdown by percentage then using convince sampling; according
to characteristics
- Purposive - hand-picked, criteria
- Snowball - network sampling; referral

Data collection Method

1. Questionnaire - most common
2. Interview
3. Observation
4. Records
5. Delphine Technique - invitation of experts to cretic your instrument
6. Biopysiological measure - related to human body
a. In Vivo (inside)
b. In Vitro (outside): extraction of specimen

Chapter 4: Data Analysis

Descriptive - summarize characteristics of data set: describe
Inferential - testing hypothesis by messing statistical sample

Descriptive statistics
Measure of central tendency:
Mean: average value
Median: central or middle value
Mode: value that appear most often

Non-parametric Data
1. Nominal
- Classifying into categories; no ranking involved
2. Ordinal
- Ranking and ordering; but no distance
- “Scale”
Parametric Data
1. Interval
- Can specify both ranking and distance
- No absolute zero
2. Ratio
- Highest level; has absolute zero, ranking, distance
- Height, weight, age* Korean