Pre treatment of Raw materials – set of treatments preceding the drying process.

Goal is to improve flavor and/or improve drying mechanism

Salting- fruits are rubbed with salt to decrease moisture content and speed up drying process
Also enhances natural flavors – drawing out the sweetness or masking the bitterness of unripe fruits
Soaking- fruits are dipped in solution to prevent it from oxidizing as well as improve flavor.
Common soaking solutions include lemon juice, honey, sodium bisulfite, or vit. C

Syruping – soaked in a sugar solution for a period of time to decrease water activity, speeding up the
drying process.
Also increases sugar content prior to drying
Sulfuring – smoked with sulfur fumes to preserve fruit and color and nutrient contents
Optional and is done outdoors because the fumes can be harmful when inhaled by humans.
Sulfured fruits must be sundried
Topic 1: Drying and Dehydration
Methods for food preservation that involves the removal of moisture content from foos. These methods
prevent the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold
DRYING – method of food preservation that reduces the moisture content of food without the use of
equipment
e.g. sundrying
SUN DRYING – example of drying that utilizes heat from the sun to increase rate of evaporation in foos
Raw materials are laid out on mesh trays or on a solar drier and are left to dry under the sun
SOLAR DRYER- a secure equipment for sun-drying. It has a transparent material that covers the
structure to prevent contamination from dirt, animals, and pests. It also protects from sudden changes in
weather like rain or strong winds
Tips for sundrying
When sun drying, load raw materials onto trays in a single layer
Limit load to 6 kg per square meter of tray
Trays must be food grade. Use stainless steel trays or wooden trays (bilao)
Cover trays with a wire screen mesh to protect from wind, dusts, and pests
Do not place drying trays or racks on the ground
Fruits must be turned every hour during the first drying to speed up drying

DEHYDRATION – reduces moisture content with the use of an equipment that can manipulate
temperature and air circulation

CABINET DRYER/DEHYDRATOR
Uses electricity to distribute heated air onto its chamber. It is more expensive than a solar dryer but it can
control the drying rate of fruits regardless of external climatic conditions
TIPS FOR CABINET DRYING
Load raw materials onto trays in a single layer
Large portions should be turned halfway through the drying time
Pieces on the sides should be moved to the center to ensure even drying
Small fruits should be turned every hour during the first half of the drying period
Do not pre-treat raw materials by sulfuring if you are to use a cabinet dryer. Instead, you may replace
sulfuring with soaking fruits in sulfite

TOPIC 2: QUALLITY CONTROL PARAMETERS

Dryness is measure through moisture content and water activity.

MOISTURE CONTENT – quantity of water contained in a food sample, measure by weight loss on drying
Importance: helps determine the shelf life of food
Instrument: moisture analyzer
Unit of measurement: %MC
Formula: %MC = (Wet weight – Dry weight)/ WW *100
Method of measurement
Place the sample plate on the sample plate holder then tare the balance.
Spread the recommended amount of product evenly on the sample plate and record the weight. This is
called the wet weight and will be the basis of loss on drying
Close the cover of the moisture analyzer to start the process
The display panel continually updates the status of the process. The reading stops when drying is
complete and the dry weight is stable, or after a fixed time
The ideal moisture content for dried products is 10-15%

WATER ACIDITY – amount of free or non-chemically bound water in food that is available for microbial
growth
Importance: - used as a critical control point for HACCP programs
More relevant in affecting shelf life, texture, flavor, and smell
At cert Aw levels, microorganisms proliferate

E.coli- Pseudomonas : Aw= 0.94-0.99

Staphylococcus aureus : Aw= 0.85
Bacillus subtilis : Aw= 0.90
Microbial proliferation slows down below a water activity level of 0.5

Instrument: Water Activity meter

Unit: Aw ranges between 0-1
Method of measurement:
Place the sample in a disposable sample cup, completely covering the bottom of the cup. Be careful not
to fill the cup more than half full as this will contaminate the sample chamber
Make sure that the rim and outside of the sample cup are clean
Unfasten and lift the sample chamber
Place the sample cup in the chamber tray and push the lid down firmly
Move the lever to the READ position. This will seal the chamber and start the reading
When the device is finished measuring the sample, the water activity and sample temperature will be
displayed on the screen
Remove sample when finished sampling

LESSON 3: DRIED PRODUCTS

Topic 1: Dried mangos

Ingredients: 2.5kg mango pulp
1.25 kg sugar
1.25 kg water
1.25g sodium meta bisultifite
2 ½ tablet of vitamin c

Procedures
Wash mangoes and peel. Slice to 6-8 mm thickness
Prepare syrup by mixing wate, sugar, sodium metabisulfite, powdered vit. C in a pot. Add the mango to
the syrup
Cook mixture until it reached 90C and take off from the source of heat
Set the cooked mixture aside and allow to stand oovernight
Drain and spread onto trays drizzled with cooking oil
Dehydrate in an artificial dryer at 60-65C for 1-2hrs
Unload the dehydrated mangoes and allow them to cool down at room temperature
Dust with confectioner’s sugar if desired
Package in small bags (about 150g)

TOPIC 2: Dried fish (Tuyo)

Ingredients: 60kg fresh tunsoy fish
kg salt
5 gallons water
Procedures
Wash fish with clean water
Leave in a strainer for 20 minutes
Prepare brine solution by mixing 6.5kg of salt and 5 gallons of water
Soak the fish in the brine solution for 3 hours
Transfer fish into a strainer
Rinse fish under running water to wash off excess salt
Drain and spread onto drying racks
Dry, either in the sun or a solar/artificial dryer until the moisture content is 10-15%

Storage facilities for dried and dehydrated products

Dried products should be stored in a cool, dry place. When stored properly, dried foods can last for 4
months to 1 year. The temperature should be between 16-27C
DRY STORAGE- an area in the processing plant where dry ingredients, canned goods, and packaged
dried products are kept. These foods have low moisture content and low water activity and hence do not
promote bacteria growth at room temperature
How to maintain a dry storage
Keep the are dry and cools
Maintain room temperature with proper ventilation
Place shelves away from walls to allow air to circulate
Prevent sunlight from coming in, this can speed up spoilage
Arrange shelves or racks at least 15 cm (6in) above the floor
LESSON 2: PACKAGING MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT FOR DRIED AND DEHYDRATED
PRODUCTS
Purpose of packaging: containment, protection, information
TOPIC 1: PACKAGING MATERIAL
Polyethylene Bags- lightweight, transparent plastic bag used to package dried foods. It is water and
temperature resistant
TOPIC 2: PACKAGING EQUIPMENT
Vacuum sealer – seals package by clamping down the open end of the bag, removing the air, and
applying heat to the sides of the bag
Impulse Sealer – seals two layer of plastic together by lifting the sealing arm and pressing the sides of the
plastic against the jaw of the heating element
Band sealer- features a conveyor belt and a sealing belt where you can insert the open end of the bag
Food labels communicate the ingredients and manufacture details of the product as well as catch the
attend of consumer
Philippine Consumer Act (RA 7394), labels must contain the following:
Manufacturer’s name
Brand name
Product’s name
Place of production
Net weight or gross weight
Manufacture and expiry date
Ingredients

PROCESSING FOOD BY FERMENTATION AND PICKLING

Lesson 1: Preparing Raw Materials

TOPIC 1: PREPARING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Sorting and Grading vegetables and quality points

Root = carrot, radish
Bulbous root = onion, garlic
Tuber = potato, sweet potato, cassava
Stem and stalk = asparagus, celery
Leafy = lettuce, spinach
Flower = Cauliflower, broccoli, Brussel sprouts
Fruit vegetable = tomato, cucumber, bell pepper, eggplant
Fungi = mushroom

Quality points
- Clean, no soil
- Crisp and compact
- Normal shape
- No discoloration
- No bruising
- No pest damage
- No molds
- No slime

Types of fruits and Quality Points

Pome/hard fruit = apple, pear

Drupe/stone fruit = coconut, peach, plum
Berry = strawberry, blueberry, cranberry
Citrus= orange, lemon, grapefruit
Tropical = kiwi, mango, papaya, pineapple, grape

Quality points
- Good size and shape
- Good color
- Clean
- Little to no soil
- Fresh
- No bruising
- No pest damage

Washing and Cleaning

Peeling
Slicing

TOPIC 2: PREPARING FISH

Sorting and Grading Fish

Appearance:
- Fresh fish should have shiny skin. Dull skin means its has been in storage for too long
- No bloodspot on gill covers
- Stiffness or rigor mortis indicates that the fish has just died. When the stiffness has passed,
the muscles begin to soften and become limp again. Is it an indication that the fish has been
dead for more than days and is no longer fresh
- The belly should be firm and not soft. Press on the belly, it should spring back to its original
shape
Smell
- Mild fresh smell. A strong distinctive smell indicates that the fish has been stored for too long
Eyes
- Should appear clear and not cloudy
- Should be protruding not sunken
 Gills
- Uniformly red gills with clear marked rays are indication of good quality. Dull gills indicate that
the fish has been displayed for too long
- The gills should not have a funky smell

LEVELS OF SPOILAGE- the QUALITY INDEX METHOD

- Used to determine the levels of spoilage of uncooked fish, based on sensory quality
parameters and storage life on ice.

1. Determine quality index score by objectively rating the fish for a given quality parameter on
the scheme. The score ranges from 1 – 3 and corresponds to an observable trait of the fish
LEVELS OF SPOILAGE (QUALITY INDEX METHOD)
Quality parameter Character Score (Ice/Seawater)
General Appearance Skin 0 bright, shining
1 bright
2 Dull
Bloodspot on gill cover 0 None
1 small, 10-30%
2 Big, 30-50%
3 very big, 50-100%
Stiffness 0 stiff, in rigor mortis
1 Elastic
2 Firm
3 Soft
Belly 0 Firm
1 Soft
2 belly burst
Smell 0 fresh, seaweed/metallic
1 neutral
2 musty/sour
3 stale meat/rancid
Eyes Clarity 0 Clear
1 cloudy
Shape 0 normal
1 plain
2 sunken
Gills Color 0 characteristic, red
1 faded, discolored
Smell 0 fresh, seaweed/metallic
1 neutral
2 sweaty/slight rancid
3 sour stink/stale, rancid
Sum of scores Min. 0 and max 20

2. Record the sum of the scores or the demerit points of the fish
3. Determine maximum keeping time or point of rejection of fish in days. This could be based on
company/industry standards
4. Determine the maximum demerit point based on the scheme
5. On a graph, plot the maximum keeping time on the x-axis. On the y-axis, plot the maximum
demerit points
6. Draw a line connecting the maximum keeping time and maximum demerit points
7. Along the y-axis, locate the actual demerit points of the fish. Draw a horizontal line from that
point to the point at which it intersects with the line connecting the maximum keeping time
and the maximum demerit points. Draw another line connecting that intersection to the value
in the x-axis. The value in the x-axis is now the remaining storage time in ice at 0C
 Descaling and Gutting
Filleting and Deboning

LESSON 2: PROCESSING FOOD BY FERMENTATION

Topic 1: Alcoholic fermentation

Fermentation- breakdown of carbohydrates into alcohols and acids. It is usually referred to as

anaerobic respiration – a type of respiration that occurs in the absence of oxygen.

COMMON INGREDIENTS IN FERMENTATION AND PICKLING

1. Sugar – soluble carbohydrate converted to alcohol or acid through fermentation. Simple

sugars or monosaccharides are made up of one molecule of sugar
The 3 simple sugars are:
a. Glucose- found in human bloodstream, sap of plants, fruits
b. Fructose – found in fruits and vegetables
c. Galactose – found in dairy products

Table sugar is a disaccharide, made up of glucose and fructose. As an ingredient, table sugar
reduces water activity and adds flavor to the product

2. Yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of fungus that converts sugar into ethanol
during alcoholic fermentation

3. Vinegar – both a product of fermentation and an ingredient of fermented products. The

mother vinegar which can be found floating on the surface of unpasteurized vinegar, provides
good bacteria that follows alcohol to ferment into acetic acid.
Vinegar has antiseptic properties which kill microbes – preventing spoilage. Vinegar
tenderizes meat and gives extra flavor to pickles.

4. Salt reduces water activity and enhances flavor. It also affects the texture of the product
5. Spices are used to mask color and odor of fermented and pickled products

TOPIC 1: ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION

- Breakdown of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide due to the addition of yeast.
- Occurs under anaerobic conditions
- Final product is ethanol

Wine – alcoholic drink made from fermented fruits – the most common being made from grapes

Four stages
1. Extraction
- Two methods of Extraction: Applying pressure and water extraction
a. Pressure – fleshy and juicy fruits like grapes, pineapple, and tomatoes are pounded and
pressed
b. Water extraction – water is added in proportion to the fruit. The mixture is brought to a
boil and then strained. The solid particles are removed and the juice is extracted.
 2. Fermentation
- At this stage, yeast is added to the extract. Yeast reproduces exponentially and digests the
sugars, converting it to ethanol and carbon dioxide. A good indicator of this process is the
formation of froth and bubbles on the surface of the liquid
- The process takes about 1-4 weeks depending on the amount of sugar in the juice extract
and the minimum number of yeast cells required to stat a viable, active fermentation. At least
one tablespoon of active dry yeast is required to start alcoholic fermentation. The ideal
temperature for alcoholic fermentation is 28-35C
- Complete conversion of sugar to ethanol produces “dry wine” which is characterized by the
absence of sweet taste. Some winemakers stop the process before complete fermentation to
retain a bit of the sweet taste
- Use a refractometer to determine the sugar content after fermentation

3. Ageing
- When fermentation is completed, the wine is siphoned into sterilized containers while the
sediments at the bottom of the fermentation vat are discarded.
- The wine is then stored in oak barrels and left to age for one to two years. This gives the wine
its distinct aroma and color. The longer the ageing, the higher the price
- Wine will continue to age when bottled.

4. Clarification
Clarifying wine is done before bottling. This is to ensure that the wine appears clear – without
floating particles nor colloidal suspension. Cloudy wine does not command a good price.

Various ways to clarify wine:

a. Sedimentation and Decantation – leave the mixture undisturbed in order for the sediment to
settle at the bottom, and then transfer or siphon the liquid above the sediment into a different
container
b. Filtration – use a filter paper or medium to separate the impurities from the liquid
c. Mondavl’s Method – heat wine in a double boiler at 60-65C. Add beaten egg whites. The egg
whites will bond with the sediments. Stir and maintain temperature for 30 minutes. Cool and
filter the wine.

DETERMINING ALCOHOL CONTENT

- Knowing alcohol content is crucial in determining its price as wells as complying with
regulations set by the Food and Drug Administration
- Alcohol content must be indicated in percentage (%) volume or proof units
- To obtain accurate alcohol content, you will need a hydrometer. Take a reading before adding
the yeast and after the wine has undergone complete fermentation.

You can measure alcohol content by determining alcohol by weight (ABW) and alcohol by
volume (ABV)
How to compute for ABW and ABV
1. Take initial and final readings
2. Subtract final reading from initial reading
3. Multiply the difference by 105 to get the alcohol by weight (ABW)
4. To get the alcohol by volume, multiply ABW by 1.25

TOPIC 2: Acetic Acid Fermentation

- Is the breakdown of ethanol into acetic acid. This type of fermentation follow alcoholic
fermentation and occurs under aerobic conditions. Ethanol is oxidized by an Acetobacter or
vinegar bacteria

VINEGAR-MAKING
Vinegar is also referred to as spoiled wine. To make vinegar, sugar must first be converted to ethanol in
the process of alcoholic fermentation. The vinegar bacteria, Acetobacter aceti, or the mother vinegar is
then added to the mixture to convert ethanol into acetic acid.
Vinegar contains 4-8% acetic acid. It has a distinctive sour taste and pungent smell. Its keeping quality is
due to the antiseptic properties of the acetic acid.

Alcoholic Fermentation
Yeast is added to a juice extract. For vinegar, sugar cane and coconut are usually extracted
Yeast converts the sugars into carbon dioxide and ethanol under anaerobic conditions
Alcoholic fermentation takes 1-4 weeks

Acetic Acid Fermentation

At this stage, a live culture of acetic acid bacteria (Acetobacter aceti) – also referred to as mother
vinegar/vinegar starter- is combined with the ethanol.

At 5-13% alcohol content, acetic acid fermentation will begin. The acetic acid bacteria will convert ethanol
into acetic acid and water in the presence of oxygen. The optimum temperature is between 20-30C at a
pH level of 5-6.

Acetic acid fermentation takes about 2 to 4 weeks to complete

TITRATABLE ACIDITY
- Test to measure the amount of acid in a solution (such as citric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid,
etc). It is expressed as grams/Liter (g/L). Deriving titratable acidity helps to describe the
impact of acid on flavor while acidity (pH) only measures the strength of the acid.

Materials
Analytical Balance
Alkali Burette
Erlenmeyer Flask
Pipettes
Stirring Rods
Graduated Cylinder
Citric Acid
Sodium Hydroxide
Phenolphthalein Indicator

How to determine Titratable Acidity

1. Pipetter or transfer 10 mL sample of liquid food or 10g of solid food to an Erlenmeyer flask. Solid
foods should be liquefied by mixing with distilled water then osterized or blended into a fine pulp
2. Add 90 mL distilled water to the sample and mix completely
3. Add about 0.3 mL of an indicator solution (e.g. 1% phenolphthalein in 95% Ethyl alcohol or
ethanol)
4. Fill an acid burette with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution and titrate the sample until a faint pink
color is attained.
5. Calculate the amount of acid as Titratable Acidity, %, when the sample is weighed in grams; and
Titratable Acidity in g/100 mL, when the sample is measured in volume with the following formula:

Titratable Acidity %∨( g

100 mL
= )
mL NaOH x N NaOH x ME∨ predominant acid
weight
of sample
x 100
volume
Milliequivalent (ME) weight of different acids:
Acetic acid – 0.060
Citric acid = 0.070
Tartaric acid = 0.075
Lactic acid = 0.090

TOPIC 3: LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

-anaerobic microbial breakdown of carbohydrates or sugars to produce energy and byproduct in the form
of lactic acid. Lactic acid fermentation, however, only produces 2 units of energy for every glucose
molecule. This renders lactic acid inefficient in producing cellular energy.

Nevertheless, lactic acid fermentation is useful in the creation of various shelf-stable products in the
market. They lower the pH of food, inhibiting the growth of disease-causing microorganisms. Common
products of lactic acid fermentation are sauerkraut, kimchi, yogurt, patis, and burong isda.

Lactic acid bacteria which aids fermentation in food are naturally found in environments rich in
carbohydrates such as plants while others are cultured in the laboratory. The most commercially-
important genus of lactic acid producing bacteria is Lactobacillus. Various species of Lactobacillus are
used to produce different types of products. Yogurts use Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophiles while Sauerkraut uses bacteria from the genus Leuconostoc.

TOPIC 4: PRODUCTS OF FERMENTATION

Alcoholic fermentation
1. Strawberry wine
2. Rice wine

Acetic acid Fermentation

1. Coconut water vinegar

Lactic acid Fermentation

1. Kimchi
2. Burong isda
3. Patis (Fish sauce)
4. Yogurt

STRAWBERRY WINE
Extraction:
1. Put 2kg of strawberry through a food processor or crush with clean hands
2. Boil crushed grapes in 2L of distilled water
3. Strain with cheesecloth
4. Using a refractometer, check for Total Soluble Solid (TSS). TSS of undiluted fruit juice should be
15%.
 5. Add ½ cup of sugar per liter of diluted fruit juice.

Alcoholic Fermentation
1. Add ¼ teaspoon of active dry yeast for every liter of fruit juice. Hydrate the yeast in a small
amount of the juice before adding to the whole mix
2. Mix thoroughly
3. Transfer into a glass jar or glass bottle. Cover with cheesecloth to protect it from contaminants.
4. Place away from direct sunlight and at room temperature. Let it stand for 1-2 weeks or until the
gas formation has ceased.
5. Check for TSS. When the Brix reading is zero, it means sugar has turned to alcohol. Alcoholic
fermentation is complete. You may now proceed to secondary fermentation

Secondary fermentation/ageing and clarifying

The purpose of secondary fermentation is to allow the wine to age by removing the layer of sediment that
occurred during the primary fermentation. This will prevent the wine from taking the flavor of the sediment.
Additionally, the clarity of wine will improve.
1. Strain the liquid with a cheesecloth and transfer the wine into a secondary fermentation container.
This will separate the sediment and froth from the wine. Fill to the brim to allow as little air as
possible.
2. Secure with an airlock and let it stand for two more weeks
3. With a plastic tube, siphon the wine into a clear glass bottle
4. Racking. Repeat steps 3&4 until the wine looks clear
5. Pour into glass bottles. Leave about a half inch of extra room.
6. Seal with corks
7. Store upright for the first three days. Afterwards, store the wine on its side at 13C (55F). Red wine
must be aged for at least one year while white wine can be consumed after six months.

RICE WINE
1. Cook 1kg of Kintuman red rice. You may also use glutinous rice as an alternative
2. Once cooked, spread rice evenly onto a tray. Allow rice to cool down for 1 to 2 hours
3. Once the rice has cooled down, break the bubod into granules and sprinkle over the rice
4. Transfer into a jar
5. Cover jar with cheesecloth to protect it from contaminants. Place away from direct sunlight at
room temperature. Let it stand for 3-5 days or until the gas formation has ceased.
6. Strain the liquid and transfer into a container. This will separate the sediment and froth from the
wine.
7. You may leave the wine for another 3-5 days to allow the liquid to clear up.
8. Or you may proceed to pour the wine into a glass bottle. Leave about a half-inch of room from the
neck. Seal with a cap or cork
9. Store upright at 13C.

COCONUT WATER VINEGAR

1L of coconut water
1 ½ cup of refined sugar
1 tbsp. of yeast

Dissolve sugar in coconut water

Pasteurize coconut water by heating at 65C for 10 minutes
Take off the listen
Activate the dry yeast by mixing it with lukewarm water
Set aside for 10 minutes
Pour all coconut water into a glass bottle and add the activated yeast
Then, cover the container with a clean cheesecloth and sure with a rubber band
Allow coconut water to ferment for 4-7 days
At this point, the sugar will be converted into alcohol
After 4-7 days, strain the liquid using a cheesecloth placed over a strainer
Place vinegar over medium heat and bring it to a boil
Once the vinegar has cooled down, add the mother vinegar
Transfer the vinegar into a container
Again, cover the container with a clean cheesecloth
Secure with a rubber band
Allow to ferment for 2 to 4 weeks
At this point, the alcohol will be converted into acetic acid
Repeat the straining process
Transfer vinegar into its final container
Seal tightly

KIMCHI
1 pc Chinese cabbage
1 cup table salt
2 cups water
1 tbsp garlic
1 tsp ginger
1 tsp sugar
2 tbsp red chili flakes
1 cup saeujeot (salted and fermented shrimp) or raw krill

Procedures
1. Slice the cabbage lengthwise into quarters. Then, cut crosswise into 2 inch strips
2. Mix ½ cup table salt and 2 cups of water to make a brine solution
3. Soak Chinese cabbage in brine solution for 30 minutes. Strain
4. Sprinkle ½ cup table salt over the thick white part of the cabbage
5. Make kimchi paste by mixing garlic, ginger, sugar, and saeujeot. Add the chili flakes last
6. With your hands, mix kimchi paste and cabbage
7. Pack kimchi into a jar
8. Allow to ferment for 2 weeks

BURONG ISDA
1 kg fish (dalag, hito, or bangus) filleted
Salt
2 ½ cup rice
4 cups water
Angkak powder (optional)

Procedures:
1. Salt the fish and allow it to stand for at least two hours
2. Cook 2 ½ cup of rice with 4 cups of water. Once cooked, set aside to cool down
3. Add angkak powder and 1/3 cup of salt to the rice
4. Pat the fish dry with a paper towel
5. In a sterilized jar, pack the rice, fish, and salt consecutively
6. Allow to ferment for 7 to 10 days

PATIS (FISH SAUCE)

3 kg fish (dilis, galunggong, or terong) or krill

1 kg salt

Wash and clean the fish

Add 1 part salt to 3 parts fish. Mix.
Transfer into a fermentation vat
Allow to ferment for 6 month to 1 ½ year
Siphon the fermented fish sauce into a container
Fill bottles with the fermented fish sauce

YOGURT
1 cup plain yogurt
1 gallon of milk

Half fill two clean 1 gallon jugs with cold water. Then, fill both jugs with boiling water. Put the jugs in a
cooler and close the lid. This will now serve as an incubator
Sterilize glass jars
Let 1 cup of plain yogurt warm to room temperature. This serves as the seed yogurt because it contains
live cultures of Lactobacillus which will help convert lactose to lactic acid

1. Fill a pot with one gallon of milk. Place on high heat. Stir constantly while heating
2. Heat it to 85C for 20-30 minutes
3. After 20-30 minutes, turn off the stove and let it cool to 43C
4. Once the milk has cooled to 43C, add a cup of plain yogurt
5. Stir thoroughly
6. Using a ladle, transfer mixture to the glass jars
7. Place jars into the incubator and close the lid
8. Leave on overnight or for atleast nine hours
9. Store in the refrigerator to stop the fermentation process
10. Enjoy with fruits, oats, and jams

LESSON: PROCESSING FOOD BY PICKLING

Introduction

Pickling is the preservation of food in vinegar solution without bacterial fermentation

Pickling uses acidic solution to give food its sour flavor, whereas fermenting uses lactic acid bacteria

TOPIC 1: Preparing Pickling Solution

Basic Pickling Solutions

1. Sweet – 1 cup vinegar, 1 cup sugar, 1 tsp mixed pickling spices, 1 tsp salt
2. Sour – 1 cup vinegar, ½ cup sugar, 1 tsp mixed pickling spices, 1 tsp salt
3. Sweet/sour – 1 cup vinegar, ¾ cup sugar, 1 tsp mixed pickling spices, 1 tsp salt

Procedures:
1. Add vinegar, sugar, salt and spices in a sauce pan
2. Stir mixture until the sugar and the salt has been dissolved
3. Boil mixture for two minutes

PICKLED PRODUCTS

a. ATCHARA
- Popular appetizer and side dish for fried or grilled foods in the Philippines
Ingredients:
1 kg green papaya, grated
1 cup carrot, grated
½ cup red bell pepper, julienne
½ cup ginger, julienne (only for boiling the pickling solution)
¼ cup garlic, sliced (only for boiling the pickling solution)
½ cup raisin (optional)
1 to 2 tbsp salt for salting the papaya
 2 cups vinegar
1 ½ cup white sugar
2 tsp salt
2 tsp mixed pickling spices

1. In a bowl, salt the grated green papaya. Set aside while preparing the pickling solution
2. Combine ginger, garlic, vinegar, white sugar, salt, and pickling spices in a pot. Bring to a boil.
3. While waiting for the brine to boil, place the papaya inside a cheesecloth and then squeeze
the liquid
4. In a mixing bowl, mix papaya with the grated carrot, bell pepper, and raisins
5. Fill the jar with the vegetables. Leave at least an inch of space for the pickling solution
6. Fill the jar with boiled pickling solution
7. Cover while hot to partially cook the vegetables
8. Label and store

SAYOTE MIXED PICKLES

Ingredients:

Sayote (batonnet cut)

Carrots (batonnet cut)
Green and red bell pepper (batonnnet cut)
Ginger (julienne cut)
Garlic

Pickling solution: 1 cup vinegar, 1 cup sugar, 1 tsp salt

Procedures:
1. Prepare the pickling solution
2. Mix vinegar, sugar, and salt in a mixing container. Stir until the sugar and salt have dissolved.
Ass garlic and ginger into the mixture
3. Transfer into a saucepot. Bring mixture to a boil
4. While waiting for the pickling solution to boil, fill the jar with the sliced vegetables. Set aside.
5. Take the pickling solution off the stove.
6. With the help of a funnel and measuring cup, pour the pickling solution into the jars
7. Cover the jars with lids immediately. This will partially cook the vegetables.

PACKAGING MATERIALS

TOPIC 1: Types of Packaging Materials

Metal containers are used as fermentation vats, but are not used for packaging fermented products. They
are relatively expensive, and their reaction with acids in fermented food can cause an off taste

Wooden containers are specially used for fermenting wines and beers but are rarely used for packaging.
Wooden containers are difficult to sanitize and are not ideal for transportation
Ceramic containers or stonewares can be used for fermented foods but they are heavy to transport and
prone to breakage. They are ideal for household consumption
Plastic containers are widely used for packaging fermented and pickled products. Look for high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and polypropylene (PP) in the labels or ask your
supplier. These are guaranteed food grade plastic containers.
Glass containers are widely accepted as packaging materials for fermented and pickled products.

Glass container is ideal for fermented and pickled products for a number of reasons:
- No chemical reactions between container and the contents
- Non toxic
 - Clear and transparent, growth of molds can be easily detected
- Reusable as long as it is washed and sterilized
- High temperature resistance
- Impermeable, if properly sealed, gas and liquid cannot contaminate the contents.

TYPES OF GLASS CONTAINERS

Jar type – ideal for solid and semi-solid products
Wide mouth bottle – bigger than a jar, ideal for storing solid and semi-solid products
Bottle – ideal for storing liquid products
Jug – large glass container, capacity of at least half a gallon, features a handle

PACKAGING PROCESS

Sterilization
Packing
Packing Fermented Products
- Fill sterilized glass containers immediately. Do not allow containers to cool down to room
temperature or you will have to sterilize them again
- Use wide mouth jars for products that are scooped out such as atchara, pickles, yogurt,
burong isda. Use glass bottles and jugs for liquid products
- Ensure headspace. Headspace should be up until the bottleneck or ¼ inch or ¾ cm for jars
- Seal tightly

Water bath
- Done by subjecting a packaged product to boiling water for a period of time. Only selected
fermented products undergo a water bath because it kills the bacteria which gives fermented
products its quality and taste. Pickled products undergo water bath to further eliminate
microbial growth.
1. Pour water in water bath canner. Bring to a boil
2. Using a jar lifter, place the sealed jar on the rack of the water bath canner
3. Allow jar to sit in the boiling water for 15 minutes to 20 minutes

Labelling

Food labels communicate the ingredients and manufacture details of the product as well as catch
the attention of the consumer.

LESSON 3: STORAGE

Topic 1: Type of Storage and Shelf life

Most fermented and pickled products can survive in room temperature. However, fermented products
continue to ferment while in storage. Placing them in cold storage will keep them for a longer time, and
will prevent them from getting too sour or too soft.

Shelf-life of fermented products vary greatly. If stored at the right temperature conditions, handled safely,
as well as packaged with the appropriate materials, fermented and pickled products will last for a long
time.

TYPE OF STORAGE AND SHELF-LIFE

Product Type of storage Average shelf-life
(unopened, past printed date)
Wine Dry 1-2 years for white wine
2-3 years for red wine
Decades if in a wine cellar
Vinegar Dry 5 years
 Kimchi Refrigerated 3-6 months
Patis Dry 2-3 years
Fermented Fish (burong isda) Dry 1 month – 1 year
Atchara Dry or cold 1 to 2 years
Pickled vegetables Dry or cold 1 to 2 years

PROCESSING FOOD BY SALTING, CURING, AND SMOKING

Food spoilage – any change in food which renders it unfit for eating. It is caused by contamination or
natural decay which are both associated with the growth of microorganisms. It can be also be caused by
reactions of food and its constituents, with oxygen and light. These causes can act together to increase
the rate of food spoilage.

TOPIC 1: SALT AS A PRESERVATIVE

Salting – involves introducing salt into the flesh of fish or meat to extend its shelf-life.
Salt has the ability to reduce water activity in food through a process called Osmosis. Water activity refers
to the amount of free or non-chemically bound water in food that is available for microbial growth.
Osmosis is the movement of water or other solvents from a region of low solute concentration to a region
of high solute concentration. As such, when salt is introduced, the free or unbound water in meat or fish
moves out and bonds with salt. Due to the loss of water, the growth of microbes slows down and leads to
its eventual death.

THREE METHODS OF SALTING

1. Dry salting – involves directly rubbing salt against the meat or fish. Dry salting is often done to
prepare fish when making daing and tuyo.
2. Brining – type of curing that submerges meat or fish in brine solution. In salting, the brine solution
consists of salt and water. Meanwhile, brine solution in curing and pickling may differ.
Preparing Brine Solution
Ingredients
12 cups Water
Salt
Tray
Mixing container
Ladle
1. In a mixing container, pour 12 cups of water
2. Add 1 cup of salt for every 4 cups of water
3. Stir the mixture using a ladle until the salt has dissolved
4. Pour the solution onto the tray of fish and set aside
5. Recommended time for brining fish is 30 minutes

Paste Coating Method – traditional method of salting egg among Asian countries. Clay from
termite mound is added to salt and water. This method increases the rate of dehydration in duck
egg as well as the release of fat and oil which makes salted egg savory.

Topic 3: Product

Salted egg is a popular salted product among Filipino households

Ingredients:
6 pieces duck eggs
3 kg clay mud or punso
3 kg salt
1L water

Procedures:
 1. Mix clay mud salt in a container
2. Gradually add water while mixing clay mud and salt
3. Submerge the egg in the mixture. Make sure the mixture covers the whole egg
4. Put eggs in a carton or plastic drum and set aside for atleast 18 days
5. Wash the eggs, make sure the mud is scraped from the eggshells
6. Boil for atleast 30 minutes
7. Optional: Soak in food coloring

LESSON 2: CURING

Curing – involves the application of salt and other ingredients to draw moisture out and introduce
flavor to food. Salting is an example of curing.
FOUR WAYS OF CURING:
1. Pumping pickle – method of curing that injects the mixture into the meat. One advantage of
this method is that it takes lesser time for the curing mixture to reach the center of the meat.
Another is that it increases yield by adding weight to the product.
2. Cover pickle – submerges the meat in the prepared mixture. The mixture usually consists of
salt, curing agents, seasoning, extenders, and additives dissolved in chilled water or a liquid
ingredient
3. Dry curing – a dry cure mixture is prepared using preferred curing ingredients. The dry cure
mixture is then rubbed into the meat by hand.
4. Combination curing – in combination curing, either dry curing and pumping pickle or cover
pickle and pumping pickle methods can be applied.

TOPIC 1: Common Ingredients in Processing Food by Curing

Salt is the world’s oldest food preservative. Salt has several qualities which makes it a staple
ingredient in food processing:
1. Enhances flavor
2. Improves texture
3. Reduces water activity
4. Causes microbial cells to undergo osmotic shock and lose water, resulting to retardation of
growth
5. It causes electrolyte imbalance within microbial cell walls which cause bacterial death.

However, salt as an ingredient must be monitored because too much salt in the diet of consumers can
lead to a number of health conditions including increased blood pressure linked to cardiovascular
diseases, chronic kidney diseases, osteoporosis, and stomach cancer.

Sugar is a carbohydrate primarily used in curing for its characteristic flavor. Sugar can be added to:
1. Counteract the harshness of salt
2. Provide energy for bacteria that changes nitrate to nitrite
3. Reduce water activity

Water is a tasteless and odorless liquid that dissolves curing agents and acts as a dispersing agent for
nitrites

Curing agents – sodium or potassium nitrate and sodium or potassium nitrite – gives meat products the
unique and distinctive properties of cured meat products
 Nitrites – responsible for cured meat color, flavor, flavor protection, and bacterial inhibition
 Nitrates – used for meat that undergo longer curing processes such as dry sausage and dry-
cured hams. Nitrate acts as a reservoir of nitrite during the extended curing time
 Phosphates are the salts of phosphoric acid used in food processing for its properties such as
emulsification, stabilization, water retention.
Seasoning such as herbs and spices are added to enhance the flavor of meat. Herbs come from leaves of
plants meanwhile spices can come from the root, stem, bark, seed, fruit, or flower of a plant. Herbs are
often consumed in their fresh form while spices are consumed in dried form.

Herbs: parsley, cilantro, basil, rosemary, thyme, dill, bay leaf

Spices: pepper, cinnamon bark, turmeric, cumin, paprika, garlic powder
Some herbs and spices have antioxidant and bacteriostatic properties.

Extenders are optional high-protein sources added to cured meat to reduce cost

Food-grade colorants are added to cured meat to make it more attractive and appealing. It compensates
color loss due to moisture and storage conditions. However, there are only a few that are suitable for
meat products.

Categories of Food Colorants

1. Colors derived from plants or animals
a. Carotene from orange and yellow vegetables
b. Beet red from beef plant
c. Carmine from Cochineal insect
2. Colors derived from other natural sources
a. Caramel from sugar
b. Titanium white from Titanium dioxide
3. Artificial colors
a. Tartrazine
b. Ponceau 4R
c. Red 2G

Additives are substances added to food to enhance the flavor or quality

Example: Vitamin C, liquid smoke

TOPIC 2: PREPARING CURING SOLUTIONS AND MIXTURES

Mise-en-place = French culinary phrase that means “to put everything in place”. It means having all the
ingredients prepared-cleaned, thawed, cut mixed, measure, etc. – before cooking. The purpose of mise-
en-place is to allow the chef to cook efficiently without delays.

In curing, a big part of mise-en-place is preparing curing solutions and mixtures.

THREE WAYS OF CURING

1. Dry cure mixture is a cure mixture that has no water or liquid ingredient. This method of curing
covers the meat with the cure mixture by direct rubbing. A basic dry mixture consists of salt and
nitrites/nitrates. Additives and seasoning may also be combined with the mixture.

Dry curing is the easiest method to follow yet it produces high-value products such as Prosciutto,
Salami, PaPAncetta, and Pepperoni. Dry curing can also be done to meat prior to smoking.

Procedures:
1. Mix curing ingredients in a bowl
2. Tub onto the meat of choice
3. Refrigerate for a number of hour or days depending on the size and thickness of the meat.

PUMPING PICKLE
Pumping pickle is a method of curing that injects the mixture into the meat. One advantage of this method
is that it takes lesser time for the curing mixture to reach the center of the meat. Another is that it
increases yield by adding weight to the product.

By injecting, you are able to control the concentration of flavor unlike in cover pickle and dry cure
mixtures. Pumping pickle injection also compensates for moisture loss when cooking at high
temperatures.

Curing with pumping pickle mixture is ideal for ham, bacon, and slabs of meat products

Procedures:
1. In a mixing container, pour all dry ingredients
2. Add the water and stir the mixture
3. Suction the curing mixture with a syringe
4. Inject as evenly as possible onto the meat of choice

COVER PICKLE
Is a method of curing that submerges the meat in the prepared mixture. The mixture usually
consists of salt, curing agents, seasoning, extenders, and additives dissolved in chilled water or a liquid
ingredient.

Once submerged, the meat absorbs the mixture. The meat tries to be at equilibrium with the
concentration of salt in the mixture (osmosis). Therefore, there is a uniform concentration of flavor and
salinity throughout the meat.

Cover pickle mixture is ideal for ground meat and smaller cuts of meat. Tocino and longganisa are
examples of products that use cover pickle mixture.

1. Combine curing ingredients and dissolve them in water.

2. Add to the meat of choice and set aside
3. Combine seasoning ingredients and add to the cured meat. Mix until tacky.

TOPIC 3: PRODUCTS

A. Fish longganisa
10 kg fresh tilapia
Pig casing
1 cup soy sauce
½ cup vinegar
2 tbsp. black pepper
½ kg fresh garlic
1 tbsp paprika
1 tbsp vit. C
½ cup brown sugar
2 tbsp salt

1. Clean the fish (remove scales, guts and gills)

2. Wash thoroughly
3. Cut the head and fillet the fish
4. Wash thoroughly
5. Using grinder, grind the fish
6. Mix all ingredients thoroughly
7. Stuff into pig casing
8. Tie according to the desired size
9. Pack and weigh
10. Pack in vacuum machine
 11. Freeze

SKINLESS LONGGANISA

1 kg ground pork

Curing ingredients
1 tbsp refined salt
½ teaspoon curing salt
1 tsp phosphate
¼ tsp sodium erythorbate or 1 tablet Vit. C 500 mg
¼ cup cold water

Seasoning:
9 tbsp refined sugar
2 tbsp chopped garlic
2 tbsp pineapple juice
2 tbsp anisado wine
1 tbsp ground black pepper
¼ tsp MSG
½ tsp. meat enhancer

1. Prepare the curing mixture

2. Combine curing ingredients and dissolve in 1/8 cup of water
3. Add to the meat of choice and set aside
4. Prepare the seasoning
5. Combine seasoning ingredients and add to the cured meat. Mix until tacky
6. Chill for an hour
7. Wrap on paperlyne according to the desired size
8. Allow to cure in the refrigerator for 3 days before transferring to the freezer

QUICK-CURED HAM

Ingredients:

Meat – 1 kg pork pique, shoulder, or kasim

Pumping pickle or injecting solution

1 tbsp refined salt
1 tbsp sugar
1 tsp phosphate
½ tsp curing salt
¼ tsp sodium erythorbate or ½ tablet Vit. C 250 mg
1 tbsp ham spice
Tbsp isolate
½ cup cold water
Rubbing ingredients
1 ½ tbsp. refined sugar
2 ½ tbsp. refined salt
¼ tbsp. phosphate
¼ tsp Vit. C powder
Cooking mixture (per kg of ham)
1-2 cups pineapple juice
2-3 cups brown sugar
½ cup anisador wine or dark beer
1-2 pcs laurel leaves
 3-5 pcs cloves
1 tsp cinnamon powder
1 med. Bottle 7-up or Sprite
2-3 cups chilled water
Enough water to cover the mixture

1. Select good quality raw material, remove the skin and bone. Weigh.
2. Prepare the injecting solution
3. Inject the solution into the lean portion of meat, 1 inch apart
4. Rub the pork with the rubbing mixture, massage slightly
5. Cure for 1 to 2 days at room temperature or 5 days on the refrigerator
6. Wash off excess salt several times then drain
7. Tie with abaca twine to achieve a pear or round shape
8. Cook in the prepared cooking mixture until tender

LESSON 3: SMOKING

Smoking
In smoking, fish or meat is exposed to smoke from burning wood. Smoke from burning wood
contains compounds that inhibit bacteria, while heat from fire causes drying. Aside from extending shelf-
life, smoking is done to achieve a distinct flavor.

There are two ways of smoking - hot smoking and cold smoking. The main difference lies in the range of
temperature and the result of smoking.

Hot Smoking – is done at temperatures 63-104C. Products experience radical moisture loss and come
out cooked.

Cold smoking – is usually done at temperatures 20-30C. Cold smoked products come out uncooked and
flavored. Curing is particularly recommended for cold-smoked items to ensure microbial death even if it
comes out uncooked.

Cold smoking is sometimes preferred over hot smoking produces polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
which are linked to cancer and cardiovascular diseases.

Cold smoking Hot smoking

Time required Days, weeks Hours
Temperature Below 30C 63-104C
Salt Yes, a large amount Little, just for flavor
Method of preserving (killing Salt plus drying to remove High temperature to kill bacteria
bacteria) moisture
Product shelf life Long Short
Texture Firm Soft
Taste Good Very good
Curing Prolonged heavy salting Of little significance
Cooking none Yes
Smoke penetration In all areas of meat Surface areas only

Smoking fish is a major fish processing enterprise in the Philippines. Its major product – the tinapa – is a
favorite delicacy among households. Tinapa is usually hot smoke but other species of fish can be cold
smoked. Smoked salmon is a cold smoked product and one that is very profitable.

Cold smoking fish

In cold smoking, fish is smoked for 1 to 5 days at 26C or lower. Cold smoking does not cook the
moisture content over a prolonged period.
A brine solution of at least 15% concentration is required to prevent microbial growth
Cold smoked fish is considered raw meat. It holds well together and can be sliced thinly unlike hot
smoked fish.

HOT SMOKING
In hot smoking, fish is exposed to temperatures of 64-104C or higher which simultaneously cooks and
adds smoke flavor to the fish.

While there are prescribed temperatures and duration for hot smoking, you may use your own judgement
and experiment. Some adjust temperatures every hour, some rotate the position of the fish in the
smokehouse.
The fish is considered cooked when an internal temperature of 63C is reached and maintained for 30
minutes.

The Fish is Done When

- Internal temperature has reached 63C
- When a fork or knife is inserted into the thickest part and twist, and the flesh flakes;
- When the belly fin can be removed easily
- When the belly flesh appears white and not glassy;
- Dark-colored fish becomes darker
- Light colored fish becomes yellow or light brown
Tips in Smoking
- Smoke is inhibited by the skin and the scales
- Smoke is inhibited by the fat, lean fish smokes faster
- The more air available to wood for smoking, the higher the temperature
- Burning sawdust results in the lowest temperature, and the densest and dirtiest smoke. A lot
of soot is produced.
- Hardwoods produce the cleanest smoke.
- Evergreen coniferous and needle type trees are rich in resin and produce low quality,
turpentine flavor smoke
- Dry wood should be used for cold smoking
- Soaked wood chips may be used for hot smoking
- Wet wood produces smoke that is rich in vapor, soot, and many unburned particles. The
smoke is dark, heavy consisting of large particles.

LESSON 3: SMOKING

Smoke is a mixture of air and gases emitted by a material undergoing combustion. Combustion or
burning is a chemical reaction between oxygen, fuel, and an ignition source. Fuel refers to anything that
combusts to release thermal energy e.g. wood. The ignition source refers to fire while oxygen is an
element present in the air.

The strength of smoke flavor depends on its density and duration. And the flavor of smoke depends on
raw materials such as wood.

RAW MATERIALS FOR SMOKING

Wood chippings/shavings – when burnt, it becomes the source of the smoke flavor. Traditionally, sawdust
or kusot is used. In high-end plants, wood chips from Hickory, Apple Wood, and Oak are preferred for
their distinct flavor.

Some soak their wood chips prior smoking. While this does not add to smoke density, it is a great way to
add flavor to the smoke. Soaking, however, slows down the rate of combustion.
When choosing wood, go for any hardwood except for evergreen trees like pine. The resin gives the meat
or fish a turpentine flavor. Also, do not use commercial wood because they undergo chemical treatment
which can be toxic for food.

Examples of wood: cherry, alder, pecan, walnut, apple, maple, oak

EQUIPMENT FOR SMOKING

Smokehouse – a chamber where meat or fish is exposed to smoke for a duration of hours. Commercial
smokehouses are designed with temperature and humidity controls while traditional smoker oil drums do
not. For starters, traditional smoker oil drums are cheaper but are less efficient.

Being able to control temperature and humidity greatly affects smoking.

Temperature directly affects fire behavior. The higher the temperature, the less effort you need to sustain
the fire in your smokehouse. But if it is too high, it can cause excessive drying. Controlling the
temperature is crucial to both cold smoking and hot smoking.

Relative humidity refers to the amount of moisture in the atmosphere. Moisture dampens the fire; so the
higher the relative humidity, the lower the rate of combustion. The lower the relative humidity, the higher
the rate of combustion. A lower rate of combustion produces more soot and unburned particles than can
stick to the product and give it an undesirable taste.

Humidity is different from wind. Wind supplies oxygen while humidity supplies moisture. Wind supplies
oxygen while humidity supplies humidity supplies moisture. Wind strengthens the fire while humidity
dampens it.

COMMON TYPES OF A SMOKEHOUSE

Box smoker – looks like a vault. The burner provides fire to the charcoal box which will heat up along the
water pan and release smoke and vapor into the meat laid on the racks and hung on the hooks.

Smokehouse (outdoor) – usually made of wood and resembles a big cabinet. Most of the time, the
firebox is made of concrete, and larger chunks of wood are used. Outdoor smokehouses are typically
known for smoking meat with dry air emanating from a slow hardwood fire. The water pan is not built in
this type but can still be placed on top of the heat source.

Smoker oil drum – are improvised smoke chambers. It has air vents at the bottom side of the drum while
the firebox is positioned in the center bottom. A perforated tray is placed above the firebox to serve as the
heat diffuser. Meat racks are hooked on to the lids of the oil drum. A metal lid or plywood is used to cover
the drum while smoking is ongoing.

TOPIC 2: PRODUCTS

Tinapa (Galunggong, Tamban, Bangus)

Ingredients and Raw Material:

1 kg tamban, galunggong, or bangus
Salt
Sawdust

Procedures:
1. Wash, clean, and gut the fish.
2. Soak in a light brine solution of 1 cup salt and 4 cups water for 30 minutes.
3. Strain using a colander
4. Prepare a 10% brine solution and bring to a boil
 5. Dip fish in boiling solution until the color of the eyes turn white.
6. Sprinkle with water to remove the excess salt.
7. Arrange fish in a wooden strainer or rack, sundry or airdry for 1 to 2 hours before smoking.
8. Arrange fish in smoking trays and place them inside the smoker (or oil drum). Temperature
should be at 70-80C.
9. Smoke for 1 to 2 hours or until golden brown.

Meat hooks – for hanging large cuts of meat, racks/trays for fish or meat to sit on while smoking

Water pan - Placed above the heat source in water smokers. It maintains moisture inside the smoker to
make the meat tender.

Cold smoke generator - A specialized wood shaving compartment used in cold-smoking. The burning of
the sawdust is controlled.
Burner - Provides consistent fire to the wood/charcoal box in hot smoking