1 Computer Networks

Overview

Part 2
Protocols and Architecture

1
 Protocols
A Protocol can be defined as a set of
rules governing the exchange of data
between two entities.

 Used for communications between entities

in a system
 Two entities have to speak the same
language to successfully communicate

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 2

 Protocols
 Entities: anything capable of sending and receiving
information

User application programs

e-mail facilities

file transfer packages

terminals
 Systems: physically distinct object that contains
one or more entities

Computer

Terminal

Remote sensor
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 3
 Protocols: Example
A human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Howzit TCP connection

req.

Howzit TCP connection

reply

Got the
Get http://duck.cs.und.ac.za/science/index.html
time?

1:15 <file>
time

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 4

 Layered Protocols
 Networks are complex and consist of
many “pieces”: How can we

hosts reduce the
design

routers complexity?

switches

links of various media

applications

protocols

reliability

connection type

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 5

 1
Layers

 Number of layers
 Name of each layer differs from
 Contents of each layer network to network
 Function of each layer

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 6

 2
Layers
 Layer N uses the services of layer N-1
 Layer N provides a service to layer N+1
 Implementation-specific interface between layer N and
layer N-1
 Entity at layer N implements the layer N protocol
 Well-defined protocol between layer N entities
 Peer entities comprising the corresponding layers on
different machines

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 7

 Layers, Protocols and Interfaces
A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture

Host 1 Host 2
Layer 5 layer 5 protocol Layer 5
layer 4/5 interface
Layer 4 layer 4 protocol Layer 4
layer 3/4 interface
Layer 3 layer 3 protocol Layer 3
layer 2/3 interface
Layer 2 layer 2 protocol Layer 2
layer 1/2 interface
Layer 1 layer 1 protocol Layer 1

virtual
physical Physical medium
modified after Tanenbaum (1996) Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 8
 Philosopher-translator-secretary architecture
Location A Location B
I like Message J’aime le
rabbits lapins
3 Philosopher 3

Information for
L: Dutch the remote L: Dutch
Ik hou Ik hou
translator
2 van
Translator van 2
konijnen konijnen

Information for
Fax #--- the remote Fax #---
L: Dutch secretary L: Dutch
Ik hou Ik hou
van Secretary van
1 konijnen konijnen 1

modified after Tanenbaum (1996)

 Protocol Data Units (PDU)
To control the handling of data from one layer to the next,
control information, as well as the data, must be transmitted

 At each layer, protocols are used to

communicate
 Control information is added to user data at
each layer

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 10

 Protocol Data Units (PDU)
Headers and Trailers
Source machine Destination machine
Layer 5 protocol
5 M M

Layer 4 protocol
4 H4 M H4 M

Layer 3
protocol
3 H3 H4 M1 H3 M2 H3 H4 M1 H3 M2

Layer 2
protocol
2 H2 H3 H4 M1 T2 H2 H3 M2 T2 H2 H3 H4 M1 T2 H2 H3 M2 T2

1
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 11
 Protocols - Characteristics

 Direct or Indirect
 Monolithic or Structured
 Symmetric or Asymmetric
 Standard or Nonstandard

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 12

 Protocols - Characteristics
Direct or Indirect
Communication between two entities may be direct or indirect.
 Direct

Systems share a point to point link or

Systems share a multi-point link

Data can pass without intervening active agent
 Indirect

Switched networks or

Internetworks or Internets

Data transfer depend on other entities
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 13
 Protocols - Characteristics
Direct or Indirect - Examples

Direct
Point-to Point

Indirect
Switched network
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 14
 Protocols - Characteristics 1
Monolithic or Structured

 Communications between entities on different

systems is sometimes too complex to be
handled as a single unit

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 15

 Protocols - Characteristics 2
Monolithic or Structured
 Monolithic

the whole logic (e.g. breaking up mail
into packet size chunks, or request a
virtual circuit) are implemented in a
single protocol

Whole packet must be modified if there
is a single change

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 16

 Protocols - Characteristics 3
Monolithic or Structured

 Structured

Set of protocols that exhibits a layered or
hierarchical structure

Structured design breaks down problem
into smaller units

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 17

 Protocols - Characteristics
Symmetric or Asymmetric
 Symmetric

Most protocols we are looking at are
symmetric

Symmetric protocols involve
communication between peer entities
 Asymmetric

Dedicated to the logic of an exchange
(Client/server process)

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 18

 Protocols - Characteristics
Standard or Nonstandard

 Nonstandard protocols

One protocol built for specific computers and
tasks

K sources and L receivers leads to K*L
protocols and 2*K*L protocol implementations
 Common (standard) protocol

K + L implementations needed

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 19

 Protocols - Characteristics
Use of Standard Protocols
Nonstandard Standard
K*L = 4*3 = 12 protocols 1 protocol
2*K*L = 24 protocol implementations K+L = 7 protocol implementations
S1 S1

D1 D1

S2 S2

D2 D2

S3 S3

D3 D3

S4 S4
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 20
Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 21
 Protocols - Functions
Encapsulation
 Encapsulation: Addition of control
information to data
 Three categories of control information:

Address information
Application data

Error-detecting code

Protocol control
Transport Transport
header header

Network Network
header header
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 22
Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 23
 Protocols - Functions 1
Fragmentation (Segmentation)

 Fragmentation  break up of data into

blocks of smaller blocks

Application layer messages may be large

Network packets may be smaller
 Block of data exchanged between two
entities via a protocol  Protocol Data Unit
(PDU)

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 24

 Protocols - Functions 2
Fragmentation (Segmentation)

 One reasons for fragmentation: networks

may only accept data blocks of a specific
size

ATM blocks (cells) are 53 octets long

Ethernet blocks (frames) are up to 1526 octets
long

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 25

 Protocols - Functions 3
Why Fragmentation?
 Advantages

More efficient error control, because fewer bits need to
be retransmitted if PDU error occurs.

More equitable access to network facilities

Shorter delays

Smaller PDU  smaller buffers needed
 Disadvantages

The smaller the blocks the greater the overheads

Each PDU generate an interrupt  increased interrupts
at receiver

More processing time because of smaller numerous PDUs
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 26
 Protocols - Functions
Reassembly

 Counterpart of fragmentation
 Segmented data must be reassembled into
messages appropriate to the application
level
 Can be complicated if PDUs arrive out of
order

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 27

Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 28
 Protocols - Functions 1
Connection Control
 Connectionless data transmission

PDUs are transmitted independently from one entity to
the other

e.g. use of datagram

 Connection-oriented data transmission


preferred if stations want a lengthy exchange of data
and/or certain protocol details must be worked out
dynamically

e.g. virtual circuit
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 29
 Protocols - Functions 2
Connection Control
 Logical connection must be established in
connection-oriented data transfer

Connection establishment

Data transfer

Connection termination
 More sophisticated protocols may include
connection interruption and recovery
phases to cope with errors and other
interruptions
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 30
 Protocols - Functions 3
Connection Oriented Data Transfer
Howzit, is it you?
Connection request

Howzit, yes its me Connection accept

My message, connection-
oriented data transfer uses
sequence numbers to
support three main
functions. Data

Thanks for the Multiple

information Acknowledgement exchanges

See you
Terminate-connection request

Bye time
Terminate-connection accept
 Protocols - Functions 4
Connection Control

 Connection-oriented data transfer uses

sequence numbers to support three main
functions:

Ordered delivery

Flow control

Error control

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 32

Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 33
 Protocols - Functions
Ordered Delivery
 PDUs may arrive out of order,
 because PDUs may traverse different
paths through network
 Sequentially number PDUs to allow for
ordering in connection-oriented-protocols
 Maximum sequence number must be
greater than the maximum number of
PDUs that could be outstanding

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 34

Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 35
 Protocols - Functions
Flow Control
 Done by receiving entity
 Function to limit amount or rate of data
sent by a transmitting entity
 Simplest form: stop-and-wait procedure
 More efficient protocols: Credit systems

Sliding window
 Needed at application as well as
network layers

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 36

Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 37
 Protocols - Functions 1
Error Control

 Guard against loss or damage of data and

control information

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 38

 Protocols - Functions 2
Error Control
 Error control is implemented as two separate
functions:

Error detection

Sender inserts error detecting bits

Receiver checks these bits

If OK, acknowledge

If error, discard packet

Retransmission

If no acknowledge in given time, re-transmit
 Performed at various layers of protocol
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 39
Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 40
Protocols - Functions 1
Addressing

 Addressing level
 Addressing scope
 Connection identifiers
 Addressing mode

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 41

 Protocols - Functions 2
Addressing: Addressing level

 Level in architecture at which entity is named

 Unique address for each end system
(computer) and each intermediate system
(router)
 Network level address

IP or internet address (TCP/IP)

Network service access point or NSAP (OSI)
 Process within the system

Port number (TCP/IP)

Service access point or SAP
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 42
Protocols - Functions 3
Addressing: Address Concepts
Host A Host B
Port or
Service Access Point (SAP)
App Y App Y
App X App X

Logical connection
TCP (TCP connection)
TCP
Global network
address
IP IP

Network access Network access

protocol 1 protocol 1

Physical Router X Physical

Subnetwork attachment IP on
point address e c ti it )
nn cu
l c o l c ir
a a
g ic v ir tu
NAP 1 NAP 2 o
L g. ,
(e .
Network 1 Network 2
Phy 1 Phy 2
 Protocols - Functions 4
Addressing: Addressing Scope
 Global nonambiguity

Global address identifies unique system

There is only one system with address X
 Global applicability

It is possible at any system (any address) to
identify any other system (address) by the global
address of the other system

Address X identifies that system from anywhere on
the network
 e.g. MAC address on IEEE 802 networks

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 44

 Protocols - Functions 5
Addressing: Connection Identifiers
 Connection oriented data transfer (virtual
circuits)
 Allocates a connection name during the transfer
phase
 the advantages are:

Reduced overhead as connection identifiers are
shorter than global addresses

Routing may be fixed and identified by connection
name

Entities may want multiple connections - multiplexing

State information
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 45
 Protocols - Functions
Addressing: Addressing Mode
 Usually an address refers to a single system

Unicast address

Sent to one machine or person
 May address all entities within a domain

Broadcast

Sent to all machines or users
 May address a subset of the entities in a
domain

Multicast

Sent to some machines or a group of users
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 46
Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 47
 Protocols - Functions
Multiplexing
 Supporting multiple connections on one
machine
 Mapping of multiple connections at one
level to a single connection at another

Carrying a number of connections on one
fiber optic cable

Aggregating or bonding ISDN lines to gain
bandwidth

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 48

Protocols - Functions
 Encapsulation
 Fragmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 49
 Protocols - Functions
Transmission Services
 Priority

e.g. control messages
 Quality of service

Minimum acceptable throughput

Maximum acceptable delay
 Security

Access restrictions

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 50

 Open System Interconnection
OSI – The Model
 Not a network architecture, because it does not specify
the exact services and protocols to be used in each layer
 formally defines and codifies the concept of layered
network architecture
 Each layer describe what happens at each stage in the
processing of data for transmission
 Layers help to reduce complexity
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more
primitive functions
 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
 Changes in one layer should not require changes in other
layers
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 51
 OSI as Framework for
Standardization
peer layer = corresponding layer
Layer 7
(Application)
Service to
. layer N + 1
.
.
Total protocol
communication Layer N Layer N with peer
function entity layer N
• Decompose .
into modules .
• information . Service from
hiding layer N - 1
Layer 1
(Physical)

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 52

 The OSI Environment
Host A (sending) name of unit Host B (receiving)
exchanged

AH User data Application APDU Application AH User data

PH A-PDU
Presentation PPDU Presentation PH A-PDU

SH P-PDU Session SPDU Session SH P-PDU

TH S-PDU
Transport TPDU Transport TH S-PDU

NH T-PDU
Network packets Network NH T-PDU

LH N-PDU LT
Data link frames Data link LH N-PDU LT

DL-PDU Physical bits Physical DL-PDU

Physical Medium
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 53
 OSI Layers: Physical
Application layer (7)
 responsible for transmitting raw
bits over a communication path
Presentation layer (6)

Session layer (5)

 concerned with issues such as

mechanical interfaces, e.g. design
Transport layer (4)
of a network connector
Network layer (3) 
electrical interfaces, e.g. voltage
Data Link layer (2) level of bits
Physical layer (1)

procedural interfaces, e.g. whether
transmission may proceed
simultaneously in both directions
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 54
 OSI Layers: Data Link
 Responsible for the transfer of
Application layer (7)
data between the ends of a
Presentation layer (6) physical link
Session layer (5)  Provides for error detection,
Transport layer (4) "framing", and flow control
Network layer (3)
 Resolves problems due to
Data Link layer (2) damaged, lost, or duplicate frames
Physical layer (1)
 Formatted messages are referred
to as frames rather than packets

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 55

 1
OSI Layers: Network
 Responsible for the source to
Application layer (7)
destination routing
Presentation layer (6)
 Addresses and resolves all
Session layer (5)
inherent problems related to
the transmission of data
Transport layer (4)

Network layer (3)

between heterogeneous
Data Link layer (2)
networks
Formatted messages are
Physical layer (1) 

referred to as packets
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 56
 2
OSI Layers: Network
 In broadcast networks the
Application layer (7)
network layer is often thin or
Presentation layer (6)
nonexistent, because of easy to
Session layer (5)
solve routing problems
Sometimes no need for a
Transport layer (4) 
Network layer (3)
network layer if using point-to-
Data Link layer (2)
point link
Physical layer (1)

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 57

 OSI Layers: Transport
 Provides for error-free delivery of
Application layer (7)
data
Presentation layer (6)  Accepts data from the session
Session layer (5) layer and splits data into smaller
Transport layer (4) packets if necessary
Network layer (3)
 passes these packets to the
Data Link layer (2)
network layer, and ensures that
packets arrive in sequence, with no
Physical layer (1)
losses or duplications, at their
destination
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 58
 OSI Layers: Session
 Provides for coordination between
Application layer (7)
communicating processes between
Presentation layer (6) nodes.
Session layer (5)
 Manages dialog control (e.g. Can
allow traffic to go in both direction
Transport layer (4)
at the same time, or in only one
Network layer (3) direction at time.)
Data Link layer (2)  Responsible for synchronizing the
Physical layer (1)
flow of data, and reestablishing a
connection in the event a failure
occurs.
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 59
 OSI Layers: Presentation
 Provides for data formats, and
Application layer (7)
code conversions
Presentation layer (6)  Concerned with syntax and
Session layer (5) semantics of data being
Transport layer (4) transmitted
Network layer (3)
 Encodes messages in a form that
Data Link layer (2)
is suitable for electronic
transmission
Physical layer (1)
 Data compression and encryption
is done at this layer
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 60
 OSI Layers: Application
Application layer (7)

Presentation layer (6)  Consists of protocols that

Session layer (5) define specific user-oriented
Transport layer (4) applications such as e-mail,
Network layer (3) file transfer, and virtual
Data Link layer (2) terminal
Physical layer (1)

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 61

 ISO/OSI functions: file transfer
Sender Receiver
7 Send file Application Receive file 7
6 Presentation 6
5 Open dialogue Session Close dialogue 5
4 Segment file Transport Reassemble file 4
Send M1 Network Receive M1
3 Send M2 Receive M2 3
Send M3 Receive M3
2 Data Link Data Link 2
1 Physical Physical 1

Physical Media Physical Media

 Application (7)
Provides user-application services and procedures
Presentation (6)
Structures data in a mutually agreed format; concerned Application or
with the issues such as how to code and format data; Service-Oriented
includes data encryption Layers
Software
Session (5)
Controls process communications; responsible for
segmenting, buffering, and synchronization
Transport (4) Delivery and
Provides end-to-end control; responsible for partitioning Verification
and reassembling messages Services
Network (3)
Provides routing services for transferring data across the
network; performs network management, packet
formatting
Communication
Data Link (2)
Hardware or Network-
Organizes data into frames; provides flow initialization,
Oriented layers
flow control, link termination, and error control
Physical (1)
Transfer bits across link, defines physical characteristics
of media
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TCP/IP Protocol Suite (1)
 Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network (ARPANET)
 Used by the global Internet
 No general agreement about TCP/IP model
usually described as a four- or five-layered
model

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 64

 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TCP/IP Protocol Suite (2)

 Formal protocol suite mainly based on two

sub protocols: TCP (OSI layer-4 protocol)
and IP (OSI layer-3 protocol)
 Dominant commercial protocol architecture
 Specified and extensively used before OSI

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 65

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
5 layer model 4 layer model
Application layer Application layer
Host to host Host to host
or transport layer or transport layer
Internet layer Internet layer

Network access layer

or link layer
Network Interface
Physical layer

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 66

 TCP/IP: Physical Layer
 Physical interface between
data transmission device (e.g.
Application layer
computer) and transmission
Host to host
or transport layer medium or network
Internet layer  Specifies characteristics of
Network access layer transmission medium
or link layer
Physical layer
 Specifies nature of signals
 Specifies data rates
 etc.
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 67
 TCP/IP: Link Layer

Application layer
 Exchange of data between
Host to host end system and network
or transport layer
Internet layer
 Provides destination address
Network access layer
 Invokes services like priority
or link layer
Physical layer

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 68

 TCP/IP: Internet Layer (IP) (1)

 Transfers user messages from

Application layer
source host to destination host
Host to host
or transport layer  Uses Internet or IP addresses
Internet layer as a road map to locate a host
Network access layer
or link layer within the Internet
Physical layer  Systems may be attached to
different networks

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 69

 TCP/IP: Internet Layer (IP) (2)

Application layer
 Routing functions across
Host to host
or transport layer
multiple networks
Internet layer
 Internet protocol (IP) is used
Network access layer to provide routing function
or link layer
Physical layer
 Implemented in end systems
and routers

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 70

 TCP/IP: Transport Layer

Application layer
Host to host
 Defined by two protocols
or transport layer 
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Internet layer 
Transmission Control Protocol
Network access layer
or link layer (TCP)
Physical layer

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 71

 TCP/IP: Transport Layer
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 Is a connectionless protocol
Application layer  Provides unreliable datagram
Host to host
or transport layer
services (no end-to-end error
Internet layer detection or correction)
Network access layer
or link layer
 Does not retransmit any
Physical layer unreceived data
 Requires little overhead

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 72

 TCP/IP: Transport Layer
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Is a connection-oriented protocol
 Provides reliable data transmission
Application layer via end-to-end error detection and
Host to host correction
or transport layer  Guarantees data are transferred
Internet layer across a network accurately and in
Network access layer proper order
or link layer
 Retransmits any data not received
Physical layer
by destination node
 Guarantees against data duplication
between sending and receiving
nodes
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 73
 TCP/IP: Application Layer
 Similar to OSI application layer
Application layer  Serves as communication
Host to host
or transport layer interface by providing specific
Internet layer application services
Network access layer
or link layer
 Examples include e-mail,
Physical layer virtual terminal, file transfer,
WWW

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 74

 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture Model

Transmission
System
Transmitter Transmitter
Source Destination

Application Application
TCP TCP
IP IP
Network Access Network Network Access
Physical Physical

Source System Destination System

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 75

 PDUs in TCP/IP
Application
User data
byte stream

TCP TCP
header segment

IP IP
header
datagram

Network Network-level
header packet or frame

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 76

 OSI v TCP/IP (1)
 TCP/IP development proceeded OSI
model
 TCP/IP never intends to be a
international standard
 TCP/IP was not specifically designed
with layers like OSI  doesn't fit neatly
into the seven OSI layers

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 77

OSI v TCP/IP (2)
Conceptulized TCP/IP layers

Application

Transport
Host-to-Host

Internet

Network
Acces or Link

Physical
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 78
 OSI v TCP/IP (3)
Application SNMP FTP
TFTP Telnet
Presentation NFS Finger Application
DNS SMTP
Session
BOOTP POP
Host-to-Host
Transport UDP TCP
Transport
Network IP Internet
Network
Data Link Network Interface cards
Access Network
Interface
Physical Transmission media Physical
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 79
 Network Standards
 Required to allow for interoperability between
different hardware
 Advantages

Ensures a large market for equipment and software

Allows products from different vendors to communicate
 Disadvantages

Freeze technology

May be multiple standards for the same thing

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 80

 Standards Organizations
Standard Organizations can be classified into four
major groups:
 National Standards Organizations

ANSI, BSI, AFNOR, DIN
 Regional Standards Organizations

CEPT, CEN, ECMA
 International Standards Organizations

ISO, ITU, ITU-T (former CCITT), ITU-R
 Industry, Trade, and Professional Standards
Organizations

EIA, TIA, IEEE, IETF
Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 81
Further Reading

 Recommended Texts
 Web sites for IETF, IEEE, ITU-T, ISO

Part 2 – Protocols and Architecture 82