KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING
CE313 CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III – LECTURE NOTES (SEMESTER ONE 2013/2014)

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 BUILDING RULES
Building Rules are provided for in The Public Health Act 2000 & The Occupational Safety
and Health Act 2006. For proper field practice, other Acts such as The Physical Planning Act,
Land Act other laws that regulate construction should be looked into.
For the purpose of this course, we shall look at Health, Welfare and safety at work place as
provided for in these Acts.

Safe Place at Work Place

The general duty is to ensure a safe place of work and a safe means of access to and from the
work place. It requires that reasonable steps should be taken to provide for safety and then
ensure that risks to health are minimized. This means that the action to be taken should be
proportional to the risk involved

1.1.0 HEALTH
The measures outlined contribute to the general working environment and for the people and
the work place.
1.1.1. Ventilation. The work place needs to be adequately ventilated; fresh and clean air should
be drawn from a source outside the work place uncontaminated by discharges from fuels and
chimneys and other processes outlets. Ventilation should also remove and dilute warm humid
air and provide air movement which gives a sense of freshness without causing a drought.
Windows can provide sufficient ventilation where necessary and also mechanical ventilation
systems can be employed.
1.1.2. Temperature. In the in-door places, comfort depends on the air temperature, radiant
heat, air movement and humidity. Individual personal preferences make it difficult to specify a
thermal environment which satisfies everyone. Ideally, where there’s less activity such as
offices, the temperature should be higher than where the activity is higher and requires a lot of
movement (physical effort).
1.1.3. Working in a Hot or Cold Environment. The risk to health of workers
increases as conditions move far from those generally accepted as comfortable such as
the risk of higher heat stress arise when working in high heat temperature and cold
stress may arise when working in a cold environment.

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 Assessment of the risk to the workers’ health needs to consider two sets of data
I. Personal Data. These include body activity movement and type of clothing and
donation of exposure
II. Environment Factors. These include the ambient temperature and the radiant
heat for outside work such as the sun (working in a position looking direct to the
sun) and wind velocity
The assessment needs to consider
 Minimizing the risk of heat stress and cold stress such as providing
protective gear helmets and in coldness provide heating gadgets or
additional clothing.
 Restrict the effects of exposure by reorganizing the tasks or duties.
 Medical pre-selection of employees to ensure that they are to work in
this environment
 Train the workers on precautionary measures

1.1.4. Lighting. Should be sufficient to enable people work and move about safely. If
necessary local lighting should be provided at individual work stations and in places of
particular risks such as crossing points and traffic routes. Lights and light fittings should not
create any hazards such as shocks.

1.1.5. Cleanliness and Waste Material. Every work place, furniture and fittings should be
kept clean and it should be possible to keep the surface of floors, walls and ceilings clean.
Cleaning and removal of waste should be carried out by an effective method. Wastes should be
stored in suitable receptacles. A proper waste management system should be in place.
1.1.6. Room Dimension and space. The work place should have enough free space to allow
people to move about in place, at least 11m2 per person.
1.1.7. Work Station and Sitting. Work stations should be suitable for the people using them
and for the work people to be able to leave the work station swiftly in case of emergency. If the
work can or must be done while sitting, seats which are suitable for the people using them
should be provided.

Note: It should be noted always that in all work places, workers with special needs
MUST always be given special care.

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1.2.0 SAFETY
1.2.1. Maintenance. The work place and certain equipment devices and systems should be
maintained in an efficient working order (efficiency for healthy safety and welfare). Such
maintenance is required for mechanical ventilation systems, equipment and devices which
would cause a risk to the health, safety or welfare of the workers if a fault accrued.
1.2.2. Floors and traffic routes. Traffic routes means a route for pedestrian traffic which are
both and includes any stairs, fixed ladders, door way, gate way, loading bay or ramp. They
should be of sufficient width and head room to allow people and vehicles to saturate safely with
ease. Flow and traffic routes should be sound and strong enough for the loads placed on them
and the traffic expected to use them. The surface should not have holes and should be kept free
of obstacles. Restrictions should be clearly indicated. Where sharp or blind bends are
unavoidable or vehicles need to reverse, measures such as visibility mirror should be
considered. Speed limits should be set (say 10km/hr). Screens should be provided to protect
people who have to work where they should be at risk from exhaust fumes or to protect people
from materials likely to fall from vehicles. Additional measures need to be taken where
pedestrians have to cross or share vehicles routes. This may include making of roads, provision
of crossing points, bridges, sub ways and barriers. Where the road is to be tipped into a pit or
similar place and the vehicle is liable to fall into it, barriers or portable wheel stops should be
provided at the end of the traffic route. Loading bay should have at least one exit or a refuge
should be provided to avoid people being struck by vehicles

1.2.3. Falls and Falling Objects.

Falls: Consequences of falling from a height or into dangerous substance are so serious that a
height standard of protection is required. Se cure fencing or other measures should be provided
to prevent people falling from edges and objects falling on people. Fixed ladders should be of
sound construction, properly maintained and securely fixed. Rungs should be horizontal and
give adequate foot hold. Fixed ladders of over 2.5m high at a pitch greater than 75 0 should be
fixed with safety hooks or permanently fix fall arrest system. Slips and trips which are minor
ground level may result to fetal accidents. When on a roof precaution should be taken where
there is a risk of fall of or through the roof and this too may necessitate a fall arrest system.
People should avoid as far as possible climbing on top of vehicles or theirs loads. If this can be
possible effective measures such as providing fencing should be taken to provide for falls.
When going up or down between levels, the edge should be fenced as far as possible and secure
hand rails should be provided where necessary.
Falling objects: Materials and objects need to be stored and stacked in an such a way that they
are not likely to fall.

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1.2.4. Storage, Racking and Shelving. These need to be of adequate strength and stable for the
loads to be placed on them. It’s better for them to be made of lighter weight material.

To ensure that racking and stacking are in good working conditions:

I. Check them regularly to indentify damage and take the necessary action.
II. Encourage employees to report any damage so that the necessary action is taken.
Fix maximum road notes and adhere to them strictly.
Appropriate precautions in stacking and storage include:
I. Safe stacking on sound pallets.
II. There must be raping to prevent individual particles or objects from falling.
III. Set limits to maintain the height of stacks in order to achieve stability.
IV. Regular inspection of stacks to detect and remedy any unsafe stack.
V. Instructions and training of employees in stacking.
VI. Special arrangement for object/materials which may be difficult to store.

1.2.5. Transparent or Translucent Windows, Doors and Gates or Walls.

Windows: These should be made of safely materials or be protected against breakage for
reasons of health. If there is a danger of people coming into contact with them it should be
marked or incorporate features that make it apparent. Windows should be capable of being
opened, closed and cleaned or adjusted safely and when open they should not be dangerous.
This should include sky lights and ventilators
Doors and Gates: They should be suitable constructed and fitted with safety devices if
necessary. Those which swing both ways and conventional hinge doors on main traffic routes
should have a transparent viewing panel. Power operated doors and gates should have the
safety features to prevent people from being stack or trapped. And where necessary they should
have a readily identifiable and accessible control switch or device so that they can be stopped
quickly in an emergency. Upon opening doors or gates should be fitted with an effective
opening device to prevent them from falling back.
1.2.6. Escalators and Moving Hoists. They should function safely and be equipped with any
necessary safety devices and be fitted with one or more emergency stop controls which are
easily indentified and readily accessible.

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1.3.0 WELFARE
1.3.1 Sanitary Convenience and Washing Facilities. Suitable sufficient sanitary convenience
and wash facilities should be provided and readily accessed places. They and the rooms
containing them should be kept clean at all times and should be adequately ventilated and lit. If
required by the type of work showers should be provided. Men and women should have
separate facilities unless each facility is in a separate room with a lockable door and is for use
by only one person.
1.3.2 Drinking Water. This should be provided for all the workers using the various sources of
supply such as refillable enclosed containers which are used on dispensers or bottled water.
1.3.3 Accommodation for Clothing and Facilities for Changing. Adequate suitable and
secure space should be provided to store the workers own clothing and special clothing. This
facility should be able to allow for drying of the clothes. Changing facilities should also be
provided for workers who change into special working clothing and it should ensure privacy of
the user. The facility should be readily accessed from the working space. Proper washing
facilities should also be provided. Separate facilities for gents and ladies are a MUST.
1.3.4 Facilities for Rest and Eating Meals. Suitable and sufficient readily accessed resting
facilities should be provided. The rest areas or rooms should be large enough with the
necessary furniture (tables and chairs) for the number of workers likely to use them any time.
The eating area can also be used for resting facilities provided there is no obligation to buy
food.
N.B - Suitable rest facilities should be provided for pregnant women and nursing mothers.
- Non smokers should also be protected from the discomforts caused by tobacco smokers

For the purposes of this chapter one reference should be made to “THE OCCUPATIONAL
SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT, 2006” therein attached as Annex 1

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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 SITE VISITS
A site is a place where a building, road, farm, town, city, school, church, mosque or any
structure of any kind was, is or will be located. A site visit occurs when such structures are
visited for the sole purpose of getting usable information depending on the detail of the
information. Site visits are not time bound in that they start when an idea of the structure is
born and they run through the structures life time to even when the structure is no longer in
existence. The pyramids of Egypt are an example of structures which are visited long after their
construction. Different bodies and professional do site visits at different stages of the structures
life time. The most common professionals to mention here are; Architects, Structural
Engineers, Health Officers, Physical planners, Surveyors and Quantity Surveyors.
For the purpose of this course we shall look at site visits of building sites in their preliminary
stages. Subsequent visits shall be covered in their respective chapters and in sister course units

2.1.0 BUILDING SITE

Classification of a site is made on the basis of free space available to the builder for his/her
operations, accommodation and storage.

These classifications are:-

I. Open field. This is where there is a plenty of space available for the building operations
(this kind is always found in the rural areas where land is not an issue)
II. Restricted site. In this case, the building takes up the majority of space or there is some
other obstruction ( usually in small towns and town councils and high density
population)
III. Very restricted site. This is usually located in urban area surrounded by building with
the new works occupying the whole area or surrounded by public roads ( Mapeera
House, Church House and Mabirizi Complex on Kampala are example in this class)

2.1.1 Site Selection. A number of factors would be looked at in the selection of a building site,
these include;

i. Accessibility
ii. Terrain or topography of land
iii. Nature of soil (important for selection of foundation type e.g swampy area – Pile)
iv. Surrounding development – nearby buildings, types of buildings around.
v. Availability of services – water, power, schools, hospitals, roads and communication
systems
vi. Size of land and proposed building
vii. Shape of land and proposed building
viii. The function of the building

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 ix. The cost of the building
x. The National Physical plan and Zoning of the area.

Whereas different individuals have different reasons for their site selections, the following
requirements are a must on very site:-

 Healthy and safety- the site should be laid to ensure the health and safety of the work
 Need of access roads for transportation of materials
 Storage – temporary structures for storage of materials such as cement, lime, aggregates
e.t.c
 Movement corridors

These have to be planned in advance and ensure the presence of water and power.

2.2.0 SITE INVESTIGATIONS

For new works, the basic objective of site investigation is to collect systematically and record
all the necessary data which will be needed or helpful in the design or construction processes of
the proposed works. The collected data should be presented in the form of fully annotated and
dimensioned plans and sections. Anything on adjacent sites which may affect the proposed
works or conversely anything appertaining to the proposed works which may affect the
adjacent site should be recorded.
Fig 2.2: Sketch of typical data collected in a preliminary site visit. ( To be done on site)

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 A. Boundary hedges and or fencing
B. Property boundary lines and location of the site
C. Trees and building adjacent to the site
D. The details of above ground obstructions in transmission lines
E. Existing building on site
F. Restrictions on the proposed building structure
G. Establish where to put bench mark
H. Establish full data as to size, depth and location of all services such as gas, water,
drains, electricity and telephones.
Investigate subsoil data of soil types and properties together with ground water conditions.
2.2.1 Purpose of site investigation. This is primarily to obtain subsoil samples for
identification, classification and ascertaining the subsoil extensions and properties. Trial pits
and augured holes may also be used to establish the presence of any geological faults and the
upper or lower limits of the water table.
Site investigation is an all embracing term covering every aspect of site under investigation.

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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 SITE LAYOUT
3.1.0 The objectives of site lay out.
The main objectives of site lay out are:-
i. Plan and manage site efficiently
ii. Transform what is on paper onto the ground
iii. Select, design inspect temporary works
iv. Understand the regulations that govern construction
v. Appreciate the techniques of construction materials available
vi. Appreciate the trend of mechanization

3.2.0 The factors to be considered during site layout.

Before any work is commenced on site, the contractor must consider various preliminary items
which will inevitably influence all future operations. The major factors to be considered are:-
i. Access
ii. Storage – damage protection, reduce on transportation cost – theft function
iii. Plant and movement of plant
iv. Temporary site accommodation
v. Services
vi. Fencing and hoarding
vii. Safety and health conditions and
viii. Site security
The layout of the site must be studied in advance of operations such that the flow of materials
and work will be orderly and will involve the minimum movement of operatives and materials
and the least double handling of materials during the progress of the work.
A satisfactory flow line relationship between materials, work and plant must be achieved; e.g.
aggregates, concrete mixer and the building should be so related that the aggregates and cement
are feed directly into the mixer on one side and the concrete is discharged on the other side
towards the building, so that the shortest route with no obstructions of stacking materials has to
be travelled in its transportation to the final position on the job.
A good road way is essential to permit easy delivery of materials to stacking areas which
should be correctly positioned relative to their place of use on the job.
The layer out of every site may be divided into an administrative area and a construction area.

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In the administrative area, we have stores, offices sub-contractors huts, canteens and similar
accommodation if this is provided for.

The construction area will be the actual site of the building to be constructed and will have
consumable stores e.g. cement adjacent to the various buildings and all the equipment required
for construction purposes.
The layer out of these areas forms an essential part of the early planning of every contract. The
neglect of which will lead to the delay of the initial progress of the job. The tying up of more
capital in the materials is a financial loss on the side of the contractor. Proper access and
departure routes for Lorries should be provided and they should be clearly signposted in
determining the position of all main services e.g. water and power or telephone and to drains
and excavations.
Temporary roads must be positioned with sufficient distance between them to allow for the
movement or positioning of all mechanical plant and in relation to the positioning of the future
buildings.

3.3.0 Administrative Area. It should be located to give quick access to that area of the site
which will require maximum labour control and the main storage area, sub-contractors huts and
canteens should be so located that accessibility for unloading materials is good so that they are
a minimum distance from the construction area.
The site office should be sited on the route into the administration area and with as good view
as possible of the construction area. The size of the office depends upon the accommodation to
be provided and also on the size of the contract. It should provide accommodation for all or any
of the following:- An Agent, General Foreman, Quantity Surveyor, Store Keepers, Clerk of
Works, Resident Engineer, a small lockup store and a Conference room. All contracts of any
size require adequate telephone services for the general site community, enough power and
lighting for offices and heating in temperate climates.
The store area should be situated near the site office and will consist of covered buildings for
variables or un-weather proof material (e.g. paints and iron-mongery) and a lockable pen for
large variable stores which are weather proof (e.g. windows, metal window/door frames, pipes
and the like)
Where possible the moving of the administrative area to another part of the site during the
course of the contract should be avoided by carefully initial site planning. Where it has to be
done because of the nature of the size of the job, a farther site layout plan should be prepared
for each move required.
3.4.0 Construction Area. Should contain the minimum practical quantities of materials and of
necessary equipment and they should be so positioned that handling and movement is kept to

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 a minimum. As the positioning of equipment particularly mixers, hoists and cranes will
affect/effluence the positioning of materials such as aggregates and bricks. The positions of all
plants should be planned before that of materials. Materials arrive on site in the order decided
at the planning stage or according with instructions issued from site and sufficient area must be
provided to accommodate the size of the batch ordered. In addition, overflow area should be
allocated. Consideration must also be given to the excavation stages as these may seriously
restrict proposed storage areas.

3.4.1 Site allocation of material storage factors

i. Distance of building and store
ii. Position of plants to use in relation to the building
iii. Nature of materials
iv. Nature of site
v. Size of site
vi. Accessibility

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CHAPTER FOUR
3.0 SUBMISSION AND APPROVAL OF PLANS
One of the regulations governing the submission of plans in this country is “The Statutory
Instrument 281-1. The Public Health (Building) Rules, Laws of the republic of Uganda (in
force on 31st December, 2000)” herein attached as Index II.
The act empowers the Local Administrative Authorities and councils to regulate and central
developments in their areas, irrespective of ownership, divide their area into zones e.g.
residential, commercial, recreation and industrial.
3.1.0 The Submission Process.
Having done all the site visits and all necessary site investigations over, the client’s Architects
and Engineers make the architectural, structural, electrical and mechanical plans ready for
approval. These plans must bear the stamps of registered architects and engineers for their
respective plans.
The act requires 4 copies of the relevant plans to be submitted to the authorities for approval
together with soil investigation reports from Ministry of Works for the KCCA plans.
Submission may be done by the client or his/her representative in this case an architect or an
engineer. A site location plan should be submitted also to help the authority carry out site visits.

Approval fees (usually charged per m2) are paid in at this stage

3.2.0 The Approval Process

Upon the receipt of the 4 copies of the building plans by the authorities, these plans under go
several checks by different departments headed by different professionals. All the checks are
under taken to ensure the safety of the public.
A site visit is always done by the authority to check the suitability of the site, its access and any
other information that the authority needs to help it in the approval process.
The key professionals to mention here are:-
I. The Health Officer. This office is mainly concerned with the health aspect of the
building occupants and the health of the construction team. This is the officer concerned
with what we handled in chapter one (Health, Safety and Welfare). He/she checks that
the following aspects conform to the minimum required standards: Ventilation, lighting,
water and sanitation.
II. Engineers. In here we have structural, mechanical and electrical engineers. The
structural engineer is of the greater concern in this area as he/she ha to look at the
structural soundness of the building. Mechanical and electrical engineers also check
their respective plans.
III. Physical Planner. The physical planner works hand in hand with the land office which
looks at the true ownership of the land whose plans are to be approved. The physical
planner has the physical plan of the area to be developed. He/she checks that the

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 building function must be in conformity with the zoning of the area and the physical
plan of the area. He also checks the layout of the external walls and boundary walls,
access roads and the structures visibility and the obstructions it may cause.
IV. Architect. The architect is believed to be the one that knows the building well. He/she
has to vet the building to see that the size and layout of the rooms are proper. The
checks mainly the architectural plans.

Each of the above professionals recommends the plan for approval if they are satisfied with the
plans. Finally the plans are approved and stamped by the town clerk or the CAO (Chief
Administrative officer) and one copy is handed over to the owner.
The building owner has to notify the authority when he/she is to commence construction as
some times approvals are needed to allow some major excavations.

Approval of Building Plans by Kampala City Council (KCC)

Stage 1: Submission and Approval of Plans

• Obtain four sets of submission forms from the Area Building Inspector of your respective
Division;
• Submit four sets of the duly filled forms to the Area Building Inspector at your divisional
offices accompanied by : Four sets of architectural drawings ; and a sketch of the location plan
drawn to scale of 1:2500
• The submitted documents are distributed by the Area Building Inspector to: Medical Officer
of Health – for Public Health requirements such as ventilation, sanitation etc.; Chief Town
Planner – for such as accessibility, density of buildings and people, user activity in relation to
zoning, plot coverage and ratio, skyline, etc.; City Engineer – for structural details especially in
cases of storied buildings; and Land Officer – for verification of title/ownership of land.
After approval by the Council, the plans are stamped and one copy is availed to the developer.

Stage 2: Construction Phase

• The developer should give notice to the Chief Town Planner, specifying the date and time of
commencement. The information should be forwarded through the respective Area Building
Inspector at the Divisional Headquarters. The developer must obtain a job card from the Area
Building Inspector at the Division offices.

Stage 3: Occupation Phase

• On completion of construction, the developer/owner or his Architect shall duly complete
applications forms applying for a certificate of occupation or occupation permit.
• Inspection fees – paid by the occupant.
The Principal Building Surveyor recommends to the Chief Town Planner to issue a written
permit of occupation.

3.3.0 Disapprove of plan

The local authority shall disapprove of any plans on any of the following grounds:-

(a) That they show a contravention of, or do not comply with, building Rules;

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(b) That the system of drainage of the plot upon which the building is to stand does not
conform to the provisions of building Rules or of the Public Health (Drainage and Sanitation)
Rules, or any rules amending or replacing them;
(c) That sufficient facilities for access for sanitary purposes are not, in the opinion of the local
authority, shown;
(d) In the case of a building to be erected on a plot on which a building or buildings already
stand, that no scheme of subdivision has been sanctioned, or that the building is not in
conformity with a scheme of subdivision which has been sanctioned;
(e) That the site upon which it is proposed to build is unfit for human habitation;
(f) Where servants quarters are considered necessary by the local authority, that no provision or
inadequate provision is shown for them;
(g) That they do not adequately provide for the strength and stability of the building, or the
sanitary requirements of the building;
(h) that the works proposed by the plans will cause a breach of any covenant contained in the
title deeds of the property;
(i) that the proposed building fails to comply with the requirements of the local authority in
regard to siting, design, elevation, size, shape, materials or structure;
(j) That the plans are not correctly drawn or omit to show information required under building
Rules; or
(k) That the proposed building is to be used for any purpose which might be calculated to
interfere with the convenience or comfort of neighbouring occupiers; except that the person
whose plans are returned on this ground may appeal to the Minister, who shall thereupon either
confirm the decision of the local authority or direct it to issue approval.

If the local authority disapproves of the erection of any building for which application has been
duly made as aforesaid, or of any portion or detail of it, by reason that it will contravene some
provision of building Rules, the local authority shall, by written notice, intimate to the person
who made the application its disapproval and the reason for the disapproval.

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KCCA - BUILDING PLANS SUBMISSION CHECK LIST

Physical planning & surveying documents

1 KCCA Application Form fully filled by client, Client contact (phone number)
2 Copy of land title(s)
3 Search statement addressed to the Director Physical Planning within a period of three
months from date of issuance
4 Validated receipt(s)
5 Old approved plans for extensions and alterations or submission of as built drawings
6 From Drawing Office KCCA : 1) Recent cadastral print 2) Topographical map
7 Survey report from registered Surveyor (open boundaries, verify location & access,
check encroachment, show road reserve)
Architectural documents
8 4 copies of Architectural Drawings stamped and signed by a Registered & Practicing
Architect & Architect’s contact number, client signature
9 ARB [Architect’s Registration Board] Return Form
10 Project Brief by Project Architect **
Engineering documents
11 Certificate of good structural practice
12 2 copies of structural drawings stamped and signed by registered Structural Engineer for
storeyed building or structures such as swimming pools, retaining walls, etc, Engineer’s
contact number, client signature
13 Signed Structural Calculations [additionally for high rise structures i.e. 6+ storeys,
include lateral loading design i.e. earthquake & wind]
14 Geotechnical report for 1) Low rise, 1-3 storeys, in low lying areas.2) Medium and High
rise developments
15 Excavation plan [where required ]
16 Traffic Impact mitigation plan **
17 Structural integrity report for extensions and alterations or submission of as built
drawings. Attach Engineer's Certification
Environmental documents
18 Environmental Impact Assessment report**, Neighborhood consent
19 Storm Water Management Plan **
Public Health documents
20 Mechanical drawings **
21 Electrical drawings **

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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SETTING OUT BUILDINGS
5.1.0 Setting out the building outline. This task is usually under taken once the site has been
cleared of any debris or obstructions and any reduced level excavation work is finished. It is
usually the responsibility of the contractor to set out the building using the information
provided by the designer or architect. Accurate setting out is of paramount importance and
should therefore only be carried out by competent persons and all their work thoroughly
checked, preferably by different personnel and by a different method.
The first task in setting out a building is to establish a base line to which all the setting out can
be related. The base line very often coincide with the building line which is a line, whose
position on site is given by the local authority, in front of which no development is permitted.

Fig 5.1. Setting out a building out line (R. Chudley, 1998)

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5.2.0 Setting out Trenches. The objective of this task is twofold. Firstly is must establish the
excavation size, shape and direction and secondly it must establish the width and position of the
walls. The outline of building will have been set out and using this outline profile boards can be
set up to control the position, width and possibly the depth of the proposed trenches. Profile
boards should be set up at least 2m clear of trench position so they do not obstruct the
excavation work. The level of the profile crossboard should relate to the site datum and fixed at
a convenient height above ground level if a traveler is to be used to control the depth of the
trench. Alternatively the trench depth can be controlled using a level and staff related to site
datum. The trench width can be marked on the profile with either nails or saw cuts and with a
painted band if required for identification.

Fig 5.2. Setting out trenches (R. Chudley, 1998)

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5.3.0 Setting out a Framed Building. Framed buildings are usually related to a grid, the
intersections of the grid lines being the centre point of an isolated or pad foundation. The grid is
usually set out from a base line which does not always form part of the grid. Setting out
dimensions for locating the grid can either be given on a drawing or they will have to be
accurately scaled off a general layout plan. The grid is established using a theodolite and
marking the grid line intersection with stout pegs. Once the grid has been set out offset pegs or
profiles can be fixed clear of any subsequent excavation work. Control of excavation depth can
be by means of a traveler sighted between sight rails or by level and staff related to site datum.

Fig 5.3 Setting out a Framed Building (R. Chudley, 1998)

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5.4.0 Setting out Reduced Level Excavations. The overall outline of the reduced level area
can be set out using a theodolite, ranging rods, tape and pegs working from a base line. To
control the depth of excavation, sight rails are set up at a convenient height and at positions
which will enable a traveler to be used.

Fig 5.4 Setting out Reduced Level Excavations ( Chudley, 1998)

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CHAPTER SIX
6.0 TEMPORARY WORKS DESIGN.
Temporary work refers to any construction activity which is not a permanent part of the
structure. These are works which are carried out as a means or process of executing the
permanent work. It can also be called ‘false works’.

6.1.0 Scaffolds
This is a temporary structure which provides access on or from which persons work or that is
used to support materials or equipment.

Basic requirements
Where work cannot be safely done from the ground level, any part of the permanent structure,
scaffolds can bear on the ground, anchored on the permanent structure from up down wards or
cantilevered

Objectives

 You should be able to identify the different members of a scaffold

 Know the types of scaffolds
 Know how to erect and strip a scaffold
Characteristics of false works

 False works are normally designed for short term loading

 Has no visual requirement
 Often dismantled under load
 The materials can be second hand
 Does not need much skill in erecting
 Made up of numerous small components usually assembled by simple connections
 Alterations are inevitable.

Problems associated with scaffolds:

 It often overturns due to light weight members

 Usually unstable
 Has a high windage surface on the top
 Scaffolds are given scan attention

Types of scaffolds
Independent scaffold
Builders or put-log scaffold
Towers

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Independent scaffolds: An independent scaffold stand on its own without getting support from
the structure being constructed.

guard
rail
ledgers

boarded platform standard

toe board

cross braces

transom transom

base plate 150x150 base plate 150x150

sole plate sole plate

independent scaffold buider's scaffold

Figure 6.1 Independent scaffolds and Put-log scaffold

When assembling metallic props fittings and couplers are used. The members tying them
horizontally are called laces.
Standard: This is a vertical or near vertical tube that transmits loads to the foundation (base
plate) and onto a sole plate. It is usually of size 48.3mm and 4mm thick.
Ledger: It is a longitudinal tube normally fixed parallel to the face of the building in the
direction of the larger dimension of the scaffolds. It acts as a support for the put logs and
transoms and frequently for the tie tubes and ledger braces. They are usually joined to adjacent
standards.
Braces: This is a tube fixed diagonally and with a tolerance of 25mm in 2m. They should not
be fitted to touch the grounds. It prevents lateral movements. They are fixed diagonally with
respect to the vertical and horizontal members to accord stability. They are usually cross and
longitudinal bracings.

Tie or tie assembly

This is a system of tubes attached to anchorage on buildings or framed around part of it or
wedged or screwed into it with a tie tube; used to secure the scaffold to the structure

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 bridle

A tie assembly through a wall. A tie assembly through a

window

Figure 6.2 Tie assembly

Care must be taken to ensure the wall above is in compression or it should have a beam to
support the tie system otherwise the wall might collapse outwards.
Bridle: This is a horizontal tube fixed across an opening or parallel to the face of a building to
support the inner end of a put log, transom or a tie tube.
Guard rail: A member incorporated into the scaffolding system to prevent the fall of a person
from a flat form or access way.
Most scaffolds should be atleast one board (300) from the building

Buttresses: These are used to add on lateral rigidity and especially when the height is going
higher for independent scaffolds.
Ladders: These are used to access the scaffolds and should always go above the working plat
form atleast 1070mm to enhance easy climbing
Lift: This is the distance from a ledger to ledger and should always be atleast 2.0 to
accommodate a person working.
Bay length: This is the centre to centre of standards and are usually 1.5 to 1.5m

Nets, fans or sheets should always be incorporated to prevent particles from flying off and
disrupting the pubic from normal operation around the site and also allow operatives to
concentrate.
Independent tied scaffolds are sometimes called double scaffolds and can be classified into
three according to their use.
The working platform: This is where workers stand to execute the works. It is where the
materials for the days work are also kept. Platforms for walkway is usually 630wide, for
materials and walkway 830mmwide (4boards) and if barrows are used then add 200 to the four
boards. It is usual to use 5boards

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 Types of scaffolds Purpose

For painting or cleaning faces of

buildings. Only one platform used at
Light duty a time.

To provide upto four working

platforms in use at any one time.
Maximum load per platform is
180kg/m2
General purpose

Heavy duty Has two heavy duty platforms& two

working platforms with maximum
load of 290kg/m2

guard rail

toe board

transom longitudinal bracing

ledger
base plate
standard

sole plate

This is called longitudinal bracing. The angle of the raker

should be at 45 degrees and up to full height of the scaffold

Figure 6.3 Elevation showing the different components

The load on the standards needs to be spread over a sufficient area of ground to avoid
settlement. This is achieved by using a scaffolding fitting called a base plate and a timber sole
plate as seen from the above figure.
A builder’s scaffold is usually made up of a single line of standards; as a result it gets its
support from the structure being erected as seen from the sketch.

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It is important to introduce members called laces at some intervals on the standards to reduce
the effective heights.

Safety considerations when using scaffolds

 After the erection, the scaffolds should always be checked for any false like missing
components, settlement etc.
 Materials should not be thrown down or up
 Materials should be heaped close to the standards
 If any member is to be dismantle temporarily, it should first be braced
 The loading should always be axially done
Hoist: This is a power operated means of delivering or transporting workers and materials to
the work points
A hoist is composed of:

 A gate at every platform

 Lift
 A cage were workers and materials are loaded for transporting

Differences between a temporary work and permanent works

Temporary works Permanent works

Short term loading Permanent loading

No visual beauty is required Appearance very important

Dismantled under load Needs skilled labour

Second hand materials No part can be dismantled under load

Does not require skilled labour Materials are usually first hand

Alterations are inevitable

Read about:
1. Tower scaffolds
2. Cantilever scaffolds
3. Trussed scaffolds

6.2 Formworks
Definition: A formwork is a container within which in-situ concrete is cast. The purpose is to
contain freshly placed concrete until it has gained sufficient strength to resist superimposed

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loads, frost damage and mechanical damages. Formwork also helps to produce the desired
shape and finish to the concrete member

The principle of construction of formworks must revolve around the following requirements
1. Strength: Formwork must be sufficiently strong to support the loads imposed during
placing and curing concrete. These loads will be dead load of the fresh concrete and the
dead load of formwork. It should also contain the live loads due operatives, mechanical
compaction and tools and equipment. Formworks should be tight fitted and to the required
tolerance. These tolerances are usually given in the specifications for the work. Economics
dictates that the shapes of the members be the same allowing the formwork to be reused.
The sequence of re-using formwork is as below:
I. Position steel reinforcement or position formwork
II. Check for alignment, plumb and tolerance
III. Concrete member
IV. Cure concrete
V. Support until concrete achieves required strength
VI. Strike formwork
VII. Clean and re-use.
2. Durability: It should withstand adverse conditions for the expected period of use
3. Impermeability: The material should be impermeable to avoid the lost of water.
4. Surface finish: The finish required to the concrete can affect the cost considerably.
Formwork should be able to produce the desired finish on the surface. There is direct
finishing after formwork is removed, indirect finishing where some portions of the concrete
is removed to say expose coarse aggregates as desired and secondary finishing where
concrete is added say by rough casting after striking formwork.
5. Cost: Cheapness must be in consistence with quality and this can be achieved by re-use of
standard stock.
6. Economy: Consider the re-use value without cutting unnecessary waste.
7. Ease of fixing and striking: consider the problem of striking without damaging the
concrete and the formwork. Formwork must be easy to assemble and dismantle
Materials from which formworks are made:
Timber, steel, plastics, rubber, plywood, fibre glass, plaster of Paris, aluminium, iron sheets

Timber formwork
This is the most commonly used and is divided into hardwood and softwood.
Softwood is the most commonly used for formwork because it is cheaper than hardwood. The
softwoods used are kirundu, Cyprus, pines, etc. Besides being cheap they are soft and hence
easily worked.
Formwork to columns:

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 chemical releasing agent
coated on sheeting

adjustible props

starter bar

softwood 50mm conc kicker

framing

wt of conc. + vibration
trnasfered to sheeting

plan of column
column elevation

Figure 6.4 Column Formwork

The weight of wet concrete plus the equipment and vibration load has to be supported.
Column forms are often subjected to a much greater lateral pressure than wall forms because of
their comparatively small cross-section and relatively high rates of placement. It is therefore
necessary to provide tight joints and strong tie support. Some means of accurately locating
column forms, anchoring them at their base, and keeping them in a vertical position are also
prime considerations. Where possible a clean out opening should be provided at the bottom of
columns so that debris may be removed before pouring begins. Windows are often built into
one side of tall column forms to allow the placing of concrete in the bottom half of the form
without having to it from the top. Columns may be square, rectangular, round, or irregular, and
forms may be of wood, steel or fibreboard

Factors which influences the pressure of concrete on the formwork:

 Density of concrete
 Depth of concrete
 Workability of the mix
 Rate of placing
 Concrete temperature
 Height of lift
 Section of the formwork
 Type of cement used
Positioning the formwork:
The starter bars usually go through the slab, but should not be used for alignment. A concrete
kicker is first cast and then the formwork is erected tight up to the kicker. Before the formwork

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is erected the release agent is applied either by brush or spray. To keep the formwork tight
together to prevent shape distortion and loss of cement slurry a steel cramp can be used. The
columns should be kept plumb and this is done by the use of steel adjustable props or pull-push
props. A tie piece can also be used. A tie has the following functions:

a) It fixes two sides together

b) Holds two parts away from each other
c) Anchor one side only
d) Provides anchorage for the next lift
e) Resist shear stresses.
There are two types of ties: Non-recoverable and Recoverable tie. A yoke can also be used to
do the same thing.
The weight of the concrete will depend on the rate of pour. In columns we normally fill the
concrete to column full height, whereas in a wall we would fill or pour the concrete in lifts.
Column formwork should always be checked for tightness, alignment and plumb prior to
concreting. The steel reinforcement should always have sufficient concrete cover of atleast
20mm.

Curing concrete: Concrete hardens by a process called hydration. As water evaporates voids
are created in the setting concrete. It is the extent to which these voids are filled with silicate
gel that determines the strength, durability and density of concrete. As active hydration takes
place in the first few hours after placing fresh concrete, it is important for water to be retained
during an extended period, this is called curing.
The rate of evaporation from unprotected area will be higher when; the relative humidity, Wind
speed and the concrete temperature is high or not uniform

Generally concrete curing refers to the act of controlling the concrete temperature and water
content in the concrete for a definite period of time after placing. The time for curing concrete
depends on:
a. Air temperature
b. Shuttering material
c. Concrete temperature
d. Thermal insulation of the curing material
e. Size of pour
Optimum concrete temperature is 200c
The length of hydration of the cement and therefore the rate of hardening of the concrete
depends on temperature and moisture available. The duration of controlled curing is important.

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 100x50timber bearers
Formwork
Brace wall(200x25)

Cleat

Gravel

Forming top of a trench simple footing form

Form braced against excavtion

Figure 6.5. Footing Forms

There are usually two factors of prime importance to consider in the construction of footings.
One is that the concrete must be upto specified strength and the other that the footings be
positioned according to plan.
A certain amount of tolerance is allowed in footing size and thickness, but reinforcing bars and
dowels must be placed as specified. Concrete is can sometime be cast against the excavation,
but care must be taken that this does not give inferior results, caused by the earth absorbing
water from the concrete or by pieces of earth falling into it.
In cases where wall footings are shallow, lateral pressure is small and the forms are simple
structures as seen in the figure above. When the soil is firm, the form can be held in place by
stakes and braces. If the soil will hold stakes, the forms may be secured by bracing them
against the excavation sides only.

Formwork for beams

spacer
form side ledgers
kicker
brace (Shore)
100x50stud
bearer
sofit
prop

Formwork for a beam

Figure 6.6. Section through a beam formwork

Form treatment, care and removal
In nearly all types of building construction, formwork constitutes a significant part of the cost
of the building. In order to keep this cost at a minimum, forms are often made reusable, either
wholly or in part. They must therefore be designed so that removal is simple and can be

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accomplished without damage to the form sections. Care must be taken in handling and storing
these units so they will not be broken or damaged and will be available for re-use. In order to
facilitate removal, form faces must be treated to prevent concrete from adhering to them. A
number of materials are available for this purpose usually consisting of liquids which are to be
brushed or sprayed on the form. Wooden forms must be treated to minimize absorption of
water. Oil is one material used for this purpose. Form sealers which coat the surface of the form
with an impervious film are also used for this type of treatment. Form removal must be carried
out without damaging either the forms or the structure being stripped. Levers should not be
used against the concrete to pry forms away because green concrete is relatively easy to
damage.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS, BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
7.1.0 Construction of Roads. Within the context of building operations, roads works usually
consist of the construction of small estate roads, access roads and driveways together with
temporary roads laid to define site circulation routes and/or provide a suitable surface for plant
movements. The construction of roads can be considered under three headings:-
I. Setting out.
II. Earth works
III. Paving construction
7.1.1 Setting out Roads. This activity is usually carried out after the top soil has been removed
using the dimensions given on the layout drawing(s). The layout could include straight lengths,
junctions, hammer heads, turning bays and intersecting curves.
Straight Road Lengths. These are usually set out from centre lines which have been
established by traditional means. Fig 7.1.1
7.1.2 Earth works. This will involve the removal of topsoil together with any vegetation,
scraping and grading the required area down to formation level plus the formation of any
cuttings or embankments. Suitable plant for these operations would be tractor shovels fitted
with a 4 in 1 bucket, graders and bulldozers. The soil immediately below the formation level is
called the subgrade whose strength will generally decrease as its moisture content rises
therefore if it is to be left exposed for any length of time protection may be required. Subgrade
protection may take the form of a covering of medium gauge plastic sheeting with 300mm laps
or alternatively a covering of sprayed bituminous binder with a sand topping applied at a rate of
1 litre per m2. To preserve the strength and durability of the subgrade it may be necessary to
install cut off subsoil drains alongside the proposed road.
7.1.3 Paving Construction. Once the subgrade has been prepared and any drainage or other
buried services installed the construction of the paving can be undertaken. Paved surfaces can
be either flexible or rigid formation. Flexible or bound surfaces are formed of materials applied
in layers directly over the subgrade (Fig 7.1.2) whereas rigid pavings consist of a concrete slab
resting on a granular base. Fig 7.1.3

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Fig 7.1.1 Setting out straight roads, junctions and hammer heads ( Chudley, 1998)

Fig 7.1.2 Flexible paving detail

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Rigid pavings. These consist of reinforced or unreinforced insitu concrete slab laid over a base
course of crushed stone or similar material which has been blinded to receive a polythene sheet
slip membrane. The primary objective of this membrane is to prevent grout loss from the insitu
slab.

Fig 7.1.3 Rigid paving details

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Joints in Rigid Pavings. Longitudinal and transverse joints are required in rigid pavings to:-
I. Limit size of slab
II. Limit stress due to subgrade movements
III. Provide for expansion and contraction movements.
The main joints used are classified as expansion, contraction or longitudinal, the latter being the
same in detail as the contraction joint different only in direction. The spacing of road joints is
determined by:-

I. Slab thickness.
II. Whether slab is reinforced or unreinforced.
III. Anticipated traffic load and flow rate.
IV. Temperature at which concrete is laid.

Fig 7.1.4 Joints in Rigid Pavings

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Roads – Footpaths

Fig 7.1.5 Roads Footpaths

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 7.2.0 Bridges.
This is a structure built over a river, railways, roads trucks, a road or some other obstacles.
They allow people or vehicles to cross from one side to another.
Bridges are structures used by people and vehicle to make crossing areas easier in travel. They
must be built strong enough to safely support their own weight as well as the weight of people
and vehicles that pass over them.
Bridges must also withstand the nature occurrences i.e weathering, earth quakes, strong winds,
freezing etc
Materials used for constructing bridges

 Timber
 Concrete ( prestressed or reinforced)
 Steel
 Masonry
 Aluminum

7.2.1 Types of Bridges. There are five main types of bridges in common use; the beam bridge,
arch bridge, suspension bridge, cantilever bridge and the cable stayed bridge.

I. A beam bridge.
Consists of a horizontal beam supported at each end by piers.

Piers

Fig 7.2.1 A beam bridge

They are usually not more than 80m long.
They are generally in the form of plates, girders, box girders, frame or trusses. In all cases the
common construction method is to build the beam away from the final position and
sliding/lifting it into place as a complete unit.

Advantages

 It rests simply on the supports and so the effect of thermal expansion and movement of
the ground are fairly easily sustained.

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  It may be built away from the final position and lifted slowly to the final place with
minimum traffic interruption

Disadvantages

 The beam maintains its shape by means of the opposed tension and compression and by
the shear forces. This means that the beam contains forces which are much larger than
the load thus it needs to be massive.
II. Arch Bridges.
Building an arch bridge is not easy since the structure is completely unstable until the
two spans meet in the middle.
Centering is used in which a wooden form supports both spans until they are locked
together at the top.
They can be constructed out of masonry where we use bricks ( voussoirs – bricks wedge
shaped). They can also be built in concrete supported in a similar way in which case the
centering will support the formwork into which the concrete is poured. They can also be
constructed in steel.

Fig 7.2.2 Arch bridge

Advantages of Arches

 Since the entire arch is in compression, the compression is transferred to the abutments
and ultimately resisted by the tension in the ground under the arch.
 The absence of tension in the arch means that it can sustain much greater spans than
beams can achieve and it can use materials that are not so strong in tension such as
masonry and cast iron.
Note: There are now fewer arches built in masonry and non in cast iron. Masonry is labour
intensive and for the shorter span over railways and roads, its often cheaper and simpler to lift
the whole beam and cantilever into position.

Disadvantages of arch bridges

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  It cannot stand until its complete, thus it must either rest on the false work (centering)
until its complete or the 2nd half must be cantilevered from the springing. The csntiliver
method cannot work for the masonry arches or concrete arches.
 The thrust of a big arch has a horizontal component which the abutment must with stand
without significant movement.
 When spanning over road or railway, the round arch must be winder than the road or
railway in order to maintain the clearance according to the loading gate.

III. Suspension Bridge

They can span 700m to 2000m way far than any other type of bridge.

Types of suspension bridge include the following:

Simple suspension bridge: the earliest known type of

suspension bridge, and usually a footbridge. The deck is
flexible and lies on the main cables, which are anchored to
the earth.

Underspanned suspension bridge: an early 19th-century

descendant of the simple suspension bridge. The deck is
raised on posts above the main cables.

Stressed ribbon bridge: a modern descendant of the

simple suspension bridge. The deck lies on the main
cables, but is stiff, not flexible.

Suspension bridge: the most familiar type. Though

technically all the types listed here are suspension bridges,
when unqualified with adjectives the term commonly
refers to a suspended-deck suspension bridge,. This type is
suitable for use by heavy vehicles and light rail. The main
cables are anchored to the earth. The deck is carried
below the main cables by "suspenders" and usually is stiff.

Self-anchored suspension bridge: a modern descendant

of the suspension bridge, combining elements of a cable-
stayed bridge. The main cables are anchored to the ends

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of the decks.

A pure suspension bridge is one without additional stay cables and in which the main cables are
anchored in the ground. This includes most simple suspension bridges and suspended-deck
suspension bridges, and excludes self-anchored suspension bridges.

Main cable Tower

Hangers

Anchorage Deck

Pier

Water

Fig 7.2.3 Suspension bridge

Functions of parts
Tower:
It holds up the cables. Have to be rigid enough to act as struts between the down forces from
the cables and the upward forces from the foundation but the modern cables are fixed to the
towers and saddles so that there is no movement.

Thus the lowest part of the cable has to be flexible enough to allow the increase in length due to
live loads and temperature changes.

Anchorage:
They hold the ends of the cables against the enormous tension either by shear weight or by
taking the tension into the ground at the time of construction.
They have to include means of adjust.ing the cable.

Hangers:
They connect the deck to the main cable.

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They hold up the deck and the traffic via. They have to be strong enough to do this without
undue stretching.

They have to withstand vibration and be resistant to corrosion and dust.

Deck
The deck carries the traffic. It has to be as light as possible but rigid enough to prevent a dip as
each vehicle passes. It must be stable on winds of any possible magnitude and direction.

Why are the suspension bridges the longest bridges in the world?
Apart from the towers which are in principle simple struts, all the most highly stressed parts of
a suspension bridge are in tension. A cable though flexible is very stable and only needs to be
thickened up to with stand the tension with a factor of safety.

Advantages of suspension bridges

 Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridges.
 Less materials may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve
leading to a reduced construction cost.
 Except for the installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from below
is required during construction e.g allowing a water way to remain open while the
bridge is built above.
 They may be better to withstand earthquake movements than can heavier and more rigid
bridge.

Disadvantages of suspension bridges

 Considerable stiffness or aerodynamics profiling may be required to prevent the bridge

deck vibrating under high winds.
 The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other types of bridges makes it more
difficult to carry heavy real traffic where high concentrated live loads occur.
 Some access below may be required during construction to lift the initial cables or to lift
deck units. This access can often be avoided in cable stayed bridge construction.

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Fig 7.2.4 The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan, world's longest
span bridge. Main span is 1,991 meters long

Pedestrians, bicycles, livestock, automobiles, trucks,

Carries
light rail

7.2.5 The double-decked George Washington Bridge, connecting New York City to Bergen
County, New Jersey, USA, is the world's busiest suspension bridge, carrying 102 million
vehicles annually

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IV. Cantilever bridge.
A cantilever bridge is built using cantilever structures that project horizontally into space
supported on only one end.
They are generally carried by two beams each supported at one end, unlike a simple beam
bridge supported at both ends, the cantilever must resist tension in its upper half and
compression in its lower half.
A cantilever differs from the arch and beam bridges in that the attachment parts are its rather
like a bracket projecting out into space.
Most cantilever bridges have two cantilevers with a beam suspended between their free ends.
The largest cantilevers are made of steel although medium sizes are sometimes made of
prestressed concrete.

Fig7.2.4
In common variant, the suspended span, the cantilever arms do not meet in the centre, instead
they support a central truss bridge which rests on the ends of the cantilever arm. The suspended
span may be built off site and lifted into place or constructed in place using special travelling
supports.

Advantages of Cantilever bridges

 Building out from each end enables construction to be done with little disruption to
navigation below.
 Span can be greater than that of a simple beam bridge because a beam can be added to
the cantilever arms. Cantilever bridges are very common over roads.
 Because the beam is resting simply on the arms thermo expansion and ground
movement are fairly simple to sustain. The supports can be simple piers because there
are no horizontal forces. Cantilever arms are very rigid because of their depth.

Disadvantages of Cantilever bridges

 They maintain their shape by opposing large tensile and compressive forces as well as
shear forces and so they are relatively massive.

V. Cable stayed bridge.

A cable stayed bridge is a bridge that consists of one or more columns (normally referred to as
towers or pylons) with cables supporting the bridge deck.

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Fig7.2.5 Prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge over Yangtze river

There are two major classes of cable stayed bridge:-

 Harp design. The cables are made nearly parallel by attaching cables to various points
on the towers so that the height of attachment of each cable on the tower is similar to
the distance from the tower along the road way to its lower attachment.
 Fan. The cables all connect to or pass over the top of the tower. Compared to other
bridge types, the cable stayed bridge is optimal for the spans longer than typically seen
in cantilever bridges and shorter than those typically requiring a suspension bridge.

Advantages of Cable stayed bridges

 They can be built out systematically from the towers though long spans are more/rather
flexible until the close of time.
Note: The cables used are on high tensile steel towers are often made in concrete
although steel can also be used.
 The two halves can be cantilevered from each side.
 There is no need for anchorages to sustain strong horizontal forces because the spans
are self anchorages.
 They can be cheaper than a suspension bridge for a given span.
 Any number of towers may be used. The bridge form can be as easily built with a
single tower as with a pair of towers, however, suspension bridge is usually built only
with a pair of towers.

Advantages of Cable stayed bridges

 In the longer sizes the cantilevered halves are very prone to wind induced oscillation
during construction.
 The cables require careful treatment to protect them from corrosion (use of
anticorrosive tape)

7.3.0 Tunnel Construction

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A tunnel is an artificial underground passage. The premium now being placed on urban space
coupled with the increased awareness of environmental issues. This has forced the designers
and engineers to turn away from tradition surface structures and focus their attention towards
underground engineering and these need to use tunneling.

Fig 7.3.1 Entrance to a tunnel for cars, in Guanajuato, Mexico 7.3.2 Underground for
heating
pipes between Rigshospitalet and Amagerværket in Copenhagen, Denmark

Fig 7.3.3 Underground railway tunnel Fig 7.3.4 Southern portal of the 421 m
long Taiwan.

7.3.5 The Big Dig road vehicle tunnel in Boston

7.3.1 Uses of tunnel.

i. For pedestrians and cyclist.
ii. For road traffic or motor vehicles only.

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 iii. Rail traffic.
iv. Canals.
v. Aqueducts.
vi. Hydro electric purposes.
vii. Sewers.
viii. To carry other services such as telecommunication cables.
ix. Some secret tunnels have been made as a method of escape or entry into an area.
There is growing awareness that urban railway network, vehicles by pass, car parks, power
cables, waste storage deposits etc are candidates for being built under ground. Some times
tunnels are referred to as subways.
The development of trenchless technology is also a big blessing and opportunity.
Most underground structures can also be considered to be tunnels.

While constructing tunnels:-

 A study of the proposed route is necessary.

 A good knowledge of the geology of the ground is essential.

Both this help for the economic and smooth establishment of the tunnel to be constructed.

7.3.2 Factors to be considered in tunnel construction.

i. Ground classification i.e soft ground, rock, water table etc.
ii. The condition of the ground classified as poor ground or good ground.
Poor ground characteristics are:-
 Short stand up time after excavation.
 May require components to be installed like supporting, grouting and anchoring.
Good ground characteristics are:-
 Long stand up time after excavation.
 Fewer components to be installed required.

7.3.3 Shapes of tunnels.

i. Circular. They are mechanically easier to bore and good for water because of good
hydraulic properties.

ii. Horse shoe

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 iii. Elliptical

iv. Square/ Rectangular

Shapes are usually chosen to minimize the amount of excavations

Care must be taken to ensure:-

 The required shape.

 The required size.

Common examples of tunnels in Uganda are sub ways tunnels e.g Sub way near crested towers
etc

Design and construction techniques

Methods of tunneling vary with the nature of the materials to be cut through.
When soft earth is encounted, the excavation is timbered for support as the work continues. The
timbers are sometimes left as permanent lining for the tunnel.

Another method is to cut two parallel excavations in which the side walls are constructed first.
The arches connecting them are then built as the materials between them are extracted.

Fig 7.3.1
Portions of the unexcavated center left temporary for support may be removed later.
A tunnel cut through a rock frequently requires no lining. The hard rock is usually removed by
blasting.
In constructing tunnel under rivers, the ordinary methods can be used as long as there is a
stratum of impermeable material layers between the tunnel and the river bed.

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In all cases however, pumping equipment must be installed.
Where mud, quick sand or permeable earth is present in under water tunneling, it becomes
necessary to provide some means of holding back the water while the enclosing sections of the
tunnel are placed in position.
River crossing tunnels are also constructed by dredging a trench in the river bed and then
lowering prefabricated tunnel sections through the water into the trench where they are
connected to each other. The trench and tunnel are then covered over. Often to speed
construction, work is started at both ends. This poses no problem with the cut and the cover
method. But when the tunnel is bored from within it must be ensured that the tubes meet in the
center. Modern methods accomplish this with high precision.
Tunnels are dug in various types of materials from soft clays to hard rocks and the method of
excavation depends heavily on the ground conditions.

Construction of tunnels
Tunneling is a cycle/repetitive operation, and needs a lot of very expensive and special
equipment.

Basic Activities
i. Excavation
 Excavation in soft ground
 Boring – vertical/horizontal
 Drilling and blasting
ii. Remove excavated materials using conveyors or wagons and rails.
iii. Control ground water from entering the tunnel
iv. Provide services
 Lighting
 Ventilation
 Access (cage, stairs, etc)
v. Tunnel support and lining
 Steel
 Concrete (precast or insitu)

Setting out of tunnel

Setting out of tunnels can be done:-

 Using conventional methods

 Using lesser or
 Using a Global Positioning System (GPS)

Methods of construction
1. Cut and cover method. It is referred to as trenching. It’s the oldest form of tunnel
construction and the cheapest form of tunnel construction. It’s a simple method of

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 construction for shallow tunnels where a trench is excavated and roofed over, strong
supporting beams are necessary to avoid the danger of the tunnel collapsing.
Back
filling

Ground
Cut
Position Tunnel Tunnel

Proposed Tunnel Excavation Construction Then Cover

Fig 7.3.2
Its cycle is simple and requires very little in the way of experience or specialist plan.
Cut and cover method is not appropriate:-

 To depth greater than 6m.

 Where ground condition water exists (ground water) and
 In built up areas.

It’s very particular

 For shallow excavations in rural areas

 Where the right of way are easy to obtain

For deeper or more hostile geological conditions the following will be needed.

 A long reach back hoe fitted with a pneumatic hammer

 Sheet piling and
 Steel braced stays (support)

2. Trust boring
Pipes are forced into the subsoil by means of a hydraulic jack. Excavation is carried out as
driving proceeds from within the pipes by hand or machine according to site conditions.
The leading pipe is usually fitted with a steel shield to aid the driving process (a cutting edge)
It’s a very safe method of excavation and has no restrictions in the surface or underground
surfaces.

The pipe is pushed through until it comes through and it becomes a shield and a permanent
lining, size of pipe 150mm – 3600mm.
It’s used for short tunnels which are less than 1km long.
NB. There would be problems when the shield encounters a rock.

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 Pipes

Tunnel Tunnett

Hill or Mountain

Fig 7.3.3 Trust Boring

3. Drilling and Blasting.
Before the advent of the tunnel boring machine (TBM) drilling and blasting was the only
economical way of excavating long tunnels through hard rock where digging is not possible. In
this method, explosives are used to fragment the ground.

The face of the tunnel is initially drilled with closely grout holes.

They may not be charged with explosives if the ground is heavily fractured
NB. The final shape is important and the blast vibrations must be kept to the minimum.
The perimeter or outside edge of the face is drilled with a series of holes as close as 100mm
centre.
These holes should not weaken the ground but encourage a predetermined shape to be obtained.
The remainder of the area is drilled with increasing widely spaced holes radiating out of the
center.
It’s a specialized operation involving the use of a computer aided program which helps in
automatic positioning and drilling.

The operator sites in a sound proof cabin which isolates the noise, dust and also the discomfort
associated with facing the drilling machine.
The computer aided program marks out on the computer monitor where each hole should be
and any extra hole to avoid manual marking of the tunnel face.

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Manual marking of the tunnel should be avoided once the drill rig has been set up, the laser
survey positioning equipment takes over thus condensing the operator’s job into moving the
drill rig to and from the face to be drilled.
Once the rig position is accurately established with a tunnel laser, tunnel contour and drilling
pattern is displayed on the systems monitor.

Cycle
i. Move the drill ridge forward to the face and mark drill holes.
ii. Drill the holes.
iii. Withdraw the drill ridge and load holes with explosives.
iv. Blast
v. Ventilate tunnel and move in shift plant (wagons)
vi. Remove the materials.
vii. Remove the wagon shift plant and go back to the start of the cycle.

4. Immersed Tube

Excavation
Sea bed

Sea bed restored

Dredged trench Foundation pads

Fig 7.3.4 Immersed Tube

The method is popular especially where busy water ways have to be traversed. It involves
building a closed tunnel section or element e.g 85m, 100m etc long in a purpose built dry dock.
The dry dock is flooded and the element floated out.

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During a controlled thinking, the element is positioned within a specially dredged trench (it
rests on two preinstalled foundation slabs).

This operation is repeated a number of times with each element being butted against the
previous placed element until the whole stretch between the specially built portals reach the
(doors or entrances into the building).
The element are then covered over by infilling the trench and the river/sea bed restored to its
original status. The element bulk heads are removed and the tube is internally finished off with
road surfaces and trucks, railways e.t.c

5. Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)

A TBM consists of a shield (large metal cylinder) and trailing support mechanisms.
At the front end of the shield a rotating cutting wheel is located. Behind the cutting wheel there
is a chamber where depending on the type of TBM the excavated soil is either mixed with
slurry of left as is. Systems for the removal of the soil or the soil mixed with slurry are also
present.
Behind the chamber there is a set of hydraulic jacks supported by the finished part of the tunnel
which are used to push the TBM forward.

Once a certain distance has been excavated approximately 1.5km, a new tunnel ring is built
using the erector.
The erector is a rotating system which picks up precast concrete segments and places them in
the desired position.
Behind the shield inside the finished part of the tunnel, several support mechanisms which are
part of the TBM can be found e.g dirt remover, slurry pipe lines if applicable, control segments
etc

7.4.0 Choice of tunnels verse bridges

i. For water crossing a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge.
However, navigational considerations may limit the use of high bridges when
intersecting with shipping channels at some locations necessitating the use of a
tunnel.
ii. Bridges require a large foot print (a base) on each shore than tunnels. In areas with
particularly expensive land, this is a strong factor to favour tunnels.
iii. For aesthetic reasons (i.e preserve the above ground view, land shape and scenery).
iv. For weight capacity reasons, it may be more feasible to build a tunnel than a
sufficiently strong bridge.

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CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS
8.1.0 Sound
8.1.1 Sound.
Sound is the vibration of air which is registered by the human ear. All sounds are produced by a
vibrating object which causes tiny particles of air around it to move in unison. These displaced
particles collide with adjacent air particles setting them into motion and in unison with
vibrating objects.
This chain causes a sound wave which travels in air until it’s hard by the human ear.

8.1.2 Noise.
Noise is unwanted sound reaching the ear.

Types of noise
i. Indoor noises. This can be in the same room.
ii. In adjacent rooms noise. This can be conversation of occupants, banging of doors,
shifting of furniture, footsteps, operations of cisterns, playing of radios etc
iii. Outdoor noise. We have road traffic, aeroplanes, railway, speakers e.t.c
Sounds are either

 Impact (caused with direct contact with an object) or

 Airborne (caused by sound which moves through the air)

8.1.3 Sound Insulation.

Sound insulation is the reduction obtained when sound passes from one room to another or
from inside of the wall, floor, roof etc to the other side. It’s a measure by which transmission of
sound from inside to outside and from outside to inside is prevented
8.1.4 Objective of Sound Insulation.
To reduce sound transmission to an acceptable level. The growth of the road and railway sector
has placed demand on the sound insulation and these include.

 Erecting barriers such as the Lugogo indoor stadium wall barrier.

 Selecting the correct surfacing such as glass.

8.1.5 How to Achieve Sound Insulation

i. In Walls.
 The thickness. The wall must be of adequate thickness. This relays on mass.
 Cavity wall construction.
 Masonry between isolating panels.

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 Panel Framing
Walling
Panel

 Timber framed wall

Ply wood

Timber stand

Fig 8.1.1 Sound Insulation in walls

ii. Floors
There are sound insulation is attained in two ways
 Concrete floor (soft covering)
Soft covering e.g carpet
Screed
Floor slab

 Concrete floating floor (with a floating layer)

Screed
Mesh on top of resilient material to
Protect resilient material from screed

Resilient material
Concrete floor
Fig 8.1.2 Sound Insulation in floors

iii. Ceiling
Soft covering
Concrete floor slab
Joists
Absorbent material eg sand
Ceiling of soft boards

Fig 8.1.3 Sound Insulation in ceiling

iv. Doors
There are two sound problems with doors
 Sound transmission through the door its self and
 Sound transmission through the edges.

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 These are difficult to solve because sound absorption of an element is directly
proportional to mass. But increasing the mass of the door to an amount which
would provide a standard which is equal to the adjoining wall would make it
very difficult to move and open the door.

Sound insulation in doors is achieved by introducing compressible seals

Floor seal Door
Bottom rail rounded

Jamb
Door

Seal rebated in stop

Fig 8.1.4 Sound Insulation in doors

v. Windows
Double glassing

Outer glass Inner glass

Fig 8.1.5 Sound Insulation in windows

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8.2.0 Fire
With today’s development and increased population, space for constructing buildings is
reduced day by day with the construction of high raised buildings and electro fittings. These
factors greatly increase the chances of fire in buildings.
Some of the combustible materials when stored carelessly also cause fire.
Today’s Architects and Engineers design plans and orient buildings in such a way that safety of
the users of the buildings is assured against fire outbreak.
There are three essentials requirements for fire

 Fuel (organic material)

 Heat (the correct temperature to promote combustion of fuel)
 Oxygen to support combustion.

If you remove any of the above essentials, combustion cannot take place.
Therefore, these essential requirements of fire provide the basic protection for;-

 Fire prevention
 Fire protection and
 Fire fighting
There is no material especially amongst the building materials which may be considered fire
protective. All that can be done is to improve fire resisting within reasonable limits by adopting
such materials in construction that are:-

 Comparatively more resistant to fire

 Showing the construction details
The international fire prevention congress (1903) recommended the use of the term resistance
in the place of fire proofing. Fire proofing is neither possible nor required.
Fire resistance is measured in times as follows:-

 Temporary fire resistance – 30minutes

 Normal fire resistance - 2hours
 Good fire resistance – 4 hours
 Exceptional good fire resistance –8hours
Fire resistance enables the evacuation of people from the building, protects life, goods
(property) and activities in the building.

8.2.1 Factors to consider when designing for fire.

i. It’s costly to render all the building protected against fire. This is because the
amount spent for making the structure fire resisting should be relative to the loss
that might occur in case of fire.
ii. It’s not always true that non combustible materials posses more power to resist fire
e.g timber and unprotected rolled steel joists.

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 iii. The degree of fire resistance required depends on the use of the building e.g town
hall, cinema hall, theatres e.t.c require greater degree of fire resistance than a ware
house or store.
8.2.2 Measures for limiting the spread of fire
i. Firefighting equipment. Fire extinguishers, fire hydrants, sprinklers (they detect
smoke), sand buckets e.t.c
ii. Selective use of construction materials
iii. Protection of openings
iv. Means of escape for private, public and individuals.
v. Subdivision of buildings into blocks.
vi. Avoid vertical openings.

8.2.3 Fire resistance construction

I. Load Bearing Walls
 In construction of Load Bearing Walls, already burnt clay bricks should be used
in preference to stones.
 Increased wall thickness also increases the fire resistance properties of the wall
 The surfaces walls should be plastered with fire resistant mortar (cement plaster-
Gypsum plaster)
 If the walls are made of concrete, we use light weight concrete rather than dense.

II. Partition Walls

 The height of the partition has to go up to the ceiling
 The materials to be used may include but not limited to: reinforced concrete,
metal lath and plaster, asbestos cement boards and hollow clay blocks.
 If one is to use timber use metal lath and plaster.
III. Floors
Timber floors. Use timber joists spaced at a greater distance but reinforced concrete is
preferred to all other floors with hollow pot construction.
IV. Common Walls
 The thickness of the walls should not be less than 2bricks.
 The wall should be raised above the roof level by about 900mm.
V. Protection of Opening
Doors and window openings should be kept to minimum standards.
VI. Doors
Doors should be stable and integral. Doors set 30/20 resists collapse in 30minutes but
allows flames or hot gases to leave out in 20 minutes. The thickness of the timber
shutters of doors should not be less than 40mm. steel plates 6mm thick and iron sheets
3mm thick give an additional resistance and makes the classification of doors as
superior fire resistance or inferior fire resistance.

Doors must be tested in conjunction with its frames (door set) because fire or smoke or
both may escape through the door frame yet there has to be a gap between the door and
the door frame to allow the door to open.
This is achieved by using heat activated ceiling system and the common one in use is
the Intumescent strip where one or two strips are fitted to the door frame. These swell
when they reach a temperature of 200-2500c

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 Points of weakness for the door are:
 Hinges and latches or locks. In this case Hinges have to be of narrow blade so
that the Intumescent strip is not covered and the others may be paited or
covered with Intumescent paint or paste.
 The gap between the frame and brick jamb. This gap should be accurately filled
and fixed. The gap should be filled with mortar, mineral wool or Intumescent
strip.

The area of fire resting door should not be greater than 6m2

6mm wire glass 1 coat Intumescent paint

Intumescent paste

Intumencent strip

Jamb 4mm plywood facing

Flax board core

44mm

Soft wood frame

8mm hard wood lipping
Fig 8.2.1 fire protection on doors

VII. Windows

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 Fire resistant windows consist of 6mm reinforced glass panels. As far as possible
windows should have metal frame with steel shutters.
VIII. Ceiling
It should be made fire resistant by fixing
 Fibre boards
 Metal lath and plaster
 Asbestos cement to the frame work of the ceiling
IX. Roofs
Flat roofs are preferred to pitched in case of fire resistant structures.
X. Means of Escape
Doors and windows for single stored buildings should be properly positioned and
having the right direction of opening.
Stairs and lifts should be wisely location and their walls should be given high class fire
resistant treatment
XI. Alarm Systems
It gives information to occupants and it sends the information of fire to the nearest
control room
XII. Internal Hydrants
A number of hydrants may be located in the premise of the building so that water may
be easily accessible to short reaches for fire fighting.
Sprinklers/automatic fire extinguishers are used in hotels, textile mills, and public
places e.t.c. Over head pipes of 20-25mm are provided with in the structure and the
pipes have small perforations.
The entire system is connected to a heat activated device (sprinkler heads) at regular
intervals. The sprinkler heads are fitted with fusible plugs and in case of fire the fusible
plugs melt and the water starts pouring on the source of fire.

8.3.0 Heat
8.3.1 Thermal insulation: the primary objective of thermal insulation is to reduce the rate of
heat loss through the external fabric of the building. This reduction in the rate of heat loss will
result in a lower total heat input into the building thus saving fuel and power. It will also give to
higher thermal comfort for the occupants of the building.
Building regulations are concerned with the conservation of fuel and power and applies to
dwellings mainly exceeding 30m2. The rules gives maximum allowable thermal transmittance
coefficient or U values of different construction materials as seen in fig 8.3.1

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Fig 8.3.1

8.3.2 Thermal insulation to roofs: this is required in most roofs to reduce the heat loss from
the interior of the building which will create a better internal environment reducing the risk of
condensation and give a saving on heating costs.

Part L of the Building Regulations and Approved Document L gives maximum U values of
roof materials as seen in fig 8.3.2

By Paddy Ahimbisibwe +256-702-550045 [email protected] Page 58

Fig 8.3.2

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8.3.3 Thermal insulation to walls: the minimum thermal performance standards for exposed
walls set out in Approved Document L to meet the requirements of Part L of Building
Regulations can be achieved in different ways. The usual methods require careful specification,
detail and construction of the wall fabric, insulating materials and/or applied finishes. Fig8.3.3

Fig 8.3.3

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8.4.0 Cavity Floors and Walls
The diagram below shows a cavity in all of its glory. Not all of this goes into each cavity, but
we have put everything into one to make it easier to understand.

Fig 8.4.1 Cavity Wall

The cavity wall was introduced into buildings because it is the greatest of all damp
precautions, water cannot travel across a void. Most masonry is porous to some degree, and
sooner or later, especially with weak, or incorrectly constructed joints, that masonry will let in
water. Without a barrier of some kind, there is a chance that water will work its way indoors,
however thick the wall. By inserting a cavity, that scenario is impossible. For a number of
reasons that we will explain below, the cavity has to be bridged. That is the two leaves, or

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skins, of the wall have to be connected. We will start of the bottom of the diagram and explain.
At the bottom of every cavity is a foundation of some kind, this will be dealt with in another
project which will include a ground floor slab construction.

Wall Ties:
The first thing we see as we go up the cavity is a wall tie, this is necessary to "tie" the two
halves of the wall together and stop one moving independently of the other.
An important function, but from a damp point of view, sometimes a dangerous one as this can
form a bridge. If the wall tie, which is built into the joints of the masonry, is placed so that it
slopes down toward the inner skin of the building, water can run down it and soak into the
inside wall. To counteract this, firstly it is important they are installed "on the level" or even
sloping toward the outside of the building. Secondly, the wall ties themselves have a kink, twist
or tail, which allows water to form on this part of the tie and, given that water cannot run uphill,
drip off the lowest point.

Fig 8.4.2 Wall Ties

Four types of wall tie. All wall ties should comply with BS. 5628 1978 The specification for
metal ties for cavity walls excepting conditions where severe exposure may occur. In that case,
stainless steel or non ferrous ties should be used . Severe exposure is defined in the BS, but to
be on the safe side, almost all ties these days are made from stainless steel or are galvanised.
These ties should be placed at 900mm centres horizontally, and 450mm vertically. At any
openings, the ties should be placed with at least one tie, for every 300mm of height and within
225mm of the opening. This does not apply if the cavity skins are bonded together. A cavity
must be between 50mm and 75mm wide, with these figures as a minimum and maximum
width. The exception to this is when vertical twist ties (second from the left) are used and
spaced at 750mm horizontally. The cavity can then be enlarged to 100mm. Both skins of the
wall must be at least 90mm thick for this.
Cavity Insulation:
Clipped onto the wall tie in the diagram, is an insulation retaining clip. Insulation can be placed
in cavities in two ways. Either it can fill the cavity completely, or it can be a partial fill, as in
the diagram, allowing a free air flow of 50mm for the remainder of the cavity for the reasons of
moisture penetration. The clips will stop the insulation "leaning" over and bridging the cavity.

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If a complete cavity fill is required, the fill must be of a composition which will totally deny the
penetration of water and give it access to the inner skin. Please check with your architect, or the
building control department of your local council for the correct cavity insulation for your
project. Two types are shown here, the wool, or dry on the left, and polystyrene on the right.

Fig 8.4.3 Wall Ties

Next up the cavity is an air vent. These are found below dpc to a large degree, where a hollow
floor (normally of a timber construction) needs to be ventilated. However, they are placed
above damp proof courses where additional ventilation is required in a room. These bridge the
cavity as a continuous duct must join the inlet and outlet of the openings. Plastic proprietary
ducts can be purchased, which will, in a telescopic way, expand or retract to suit the width of
the wall. The construction of this air passage can be made in individual components and some
of these are shown below.

Air Bricks

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 Clay air duct

Insect grill
These ducts must be inserted with a fall toward the outer skin of the wall.

Brickwork 3

Fig 8.4.4 Bricks

Cavity Trays:
Above the air vent in the diagram, is an in situ, cavity tray damp proof course. This can be built
into walls as work progresses. The object is simple, any water in the cavity will be directed, due
to the slope on the dpc, to the outside wall. It will be allowed to escape via a weep hole. This
weep hole is, in its simplest form, a vertical joint (perp) void of mortar or any other jointing
compound. The membrane used to form this "tray" is very often a plastic dpc, but you should
check with your building inspector as to the composition of the dpc you should be using. A 4
inch wide roll of plastic dpc is shown below, and these can be purchased in a number of widths
to suit your project. Also shown are purpose made plastic weep vents, which are built into the
void joint to allow easier passage (on a smooth surface) out of the wall.

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 Fig 8.4.5

An in situ cavity tray should always be inserted where it is not possible for the cavity to extend
at least 150mm below the lowest level of the damp proof course. This will occur if the walls are
built from a slab on, or just below the surface of the ground, or, if the walls are built on a
concrete ring beam supporting the property. In all other cases the cavity must extend to a
minimum of 150mm below dpc. Weep holes must be provided at regular intervals to allow any
moisture collected by the cavity tray to escape. 450mm is the recommended distance between
weep holes.
You will see a lean to roof on the diagram. When a roof abutment is added to a cavity wall
(extension etc), unless the sides below the roof are open, the wall below the roof has changed
from being an outside wall, to an internal one. There are very specific rules which apply to the
protection of this wall from damp.
At a minimum distance of 75mm, and preferably 150mm, above the roof line of an abutting
roof (flat or pitched) a cavity tray must be installed. Sometimes this is done in lead and this is
acceptable, but these days, proprietary products are available which make this job so much
easier. The whole length of the abutting roof, plus at least 150mm either side must be protected
from water being able to enter the cavity and run down the wall which is now within the
building below it. Different types of cavity trays are available for all manner of roofs and
abutments. The diagram below shows how cavity trays must be stepped down a pitched roof.
Weep holes must be provided and a lead flashing, as indicated on the first diagram, must also
be provided. Once again, proprietary products cater for this, with cavity trays and flashing
combined.
When installing cavity trays above a roof line, the bricks must of course be removed. This is
done in sections with a section built up before another is exposed. The cavity trays are inserted
through the hole. It is better if the back of the cavity tray touches the inside skin of the wall, but
its not required. As long as the tray is at least 50% of the way across the cavity, it will function
correctly. Most moisture in a cavity accumulates on the inside face of the outside skin, and will
run down onto the cavity tray successfully. In this position it will also catch drips from the twist
in the wall ties.

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 Fig 8.4.6

Lintels:
The next thing up is a lintel. Lintels need to be inserted over every opening in a wall where the
wall would be weakened by that opening. The principle is that by inserting a lintel, the weight
above it is transferred to either side of it. This is why a minimum of 150mm bearing must be
allowed for the lintel to sit on the masonry either side of the opening. The lintel in the picture is
a cavity lintel, there are many kinds, and they are all different shapes and sizes. To insert a
lintel in a load bearing wall you are making a structural alteration and permission for this must
be sought from the building control department of your local council. Yes, we know it is your
house, but it needs to be safe. If you do not get permission for structural alterations, and
something goes wrong, your home insurance may not cover you and any future buyer may
reject the property on a surveyors advice.
Insulation is provided within a cavity lintel to stop what is called "cold bridging" . This is the
transference of outside temperatures to inside walls leading to cold spots and subsequently
increased condensation on those spots. (See our condensation project)
Cavity lintels, for the most part, are designed to carry any water in the cavity to the outside
skin, again through weep holes, but where a cavity tray dpc is used in conjunction with lintels,
as must me the case with reinforced concrete, or box lintels, the dpc must extend 150mm either
side of the end of the lintel.

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Click on the images to buy lintels.

Cavity lintels Reinforced concrete

lintels

Box cavity lintels

Lintels can be bought to suit all standard size openings, they can be made to suit non-standard
openings or larger ones can be cut down. Click on the images to buy lintels.

Double skin 9inch lintel

Internal 4inch wall lintel

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 Box lintel

Fig 8.4.7
Closing Cavities:
Above the purpose made cavity tray, you will see a piece of slate that closes the cavity.
Cavities must be closed at all points where there is a risk of fire spreading to another part of the
building. In the most part, this must be done with a non combustible material or at least one
(where specified by an architect) that has a 30 minute fire protection rating. Cavities are closed
at the termination of the wall at roof height, at the sides and head of any opening, doors,
windows, meter boxes, (the head is generally protected by the lintel, but where two concrete
lintels are used, the gap between them must contain a fire barrier). Purpose made cavity barriers
are available for this work.
Where a cavity is closed vertically, it is most often done by using the bricks or blocks that the
wall is built from. This would of course bridge the cavity and a vertical damp proof coarse must
be installed. Diagram drawn from above.

Fig 8.4.8
8.5.0 Suspended Ceiling
A suspended ceiling is defined as ceiling hung at a distance from the floor or roof above and
not bearing on the walls.
The method of construction may vary widely, from a jointess ceiling constructed on a
foundation of expanded metal, or a PVC sheet stretched between bearers, to a ceiling of small
infill panels of suitable building boards supported on a light weight metal frame. Ceiling frame
work can be constructed in timber or metal works. The ceiling may incorporate lighting,
heating or ventilation services as a part of the construction.

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The functional requirements of suspended ceiling construction are considered under the
followings: access, weight, acoustic properties, fire properties and cost.

8.5.1 Access
The space between the suspended ceiling and roof or floor over is used as a horizontal service
duct where heating pipes, water and waste pipes and all types of wiring and cable work can be
easily and freely run. Thus the question of easy access to the duct for maintenance purposes is
of primary importance. A modular panel, which can be removed over the all area of the ceiling,
thus becomes the easiest and the most complete means of access. The consideration of the
direction of the services and the amount of access required will help to determine the type of
suspended ceiling most suitable. Narrow strips which can be removed over certain areas will
give access to parallel service runs; whilst jointless ceiling will be satisfactory where one or
two pre-determined access points are acceptable.
A ceiling system which gives full access may lead to an uneconomic design of the service runs.
There is also the risk that the ceiling may be damaged if too many panels are removed.

8.5.2 Weight
By the definition, the ceiling is suspended from the main structure, it is important to keep the
weight of the construction to a minimum. The jointless ceilings using traditional techniques and
finished by a skin coat of plaster is the heaviest form of suspended ceiling, weighing between
20 to 50 kg/m2. The panel and frame construction will be much lighter, most proprietary
systems weighing between 5 and 15kg/ m2. The construction must be strong enough to support
the weight of lighting fittings, and this loading should always be calculated for each individual
scheme.

8.5.3 Acoustic properties

These are concerned with both sound absorption and sound insulation. Suspended ceilings will
act as a sound absorbent surface provided that absorbent or perforated panels are used. The
sound insulating properties of a suspended ceiling system are not usually very high and unless
partitions are carried up to the structural floor above, sound will pass over the partitions from
room to room. The structural floor is the main sound barrier in this context, although the space
between the ceiling and structure contributes in some measure to the sound insulation of the
whole construction. There is a wide range of sheet material available which are suitable for use
as infill to the frame as panel ceilings. Usually the sheets are textured, perforated or embossed
to increase sound absorbency, but re-decoration by painting will reduce the acoustic properties
of such a material over a period of time.

8.5.4 Fire properties

The surface of the ceiling can constitute a considerable fire hazard in respect of the spread of
flame

8.5.5 Cost

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The comparative installation costs, costs in use and subsequent maintenance cost for the
systems under examination must be considered at the design stage of a project.

8.5.6 Methods of construction

1. Jointless:
a). lath and plaster supported and suspended on metal framework and hangers.
b). PVC membrane stretched over a frame

c). Plastered and skim, or suitable building board with cover strips supported on timber
frame work and suspended from the floor above, by timber (or more usually) by metal or
wire hangers
Jointless ceilings, with the exception of the PVC membrane type, are usually non-
proprietary and rely on traditional materials and methods. They are relatively low cost and
give a good fire resistance. The slowness of the wet construction where plastering is used is
however a disadvantage.
2. Frame and panel: Infill panels of fibre building board tiles; asbestos tiles, mineral wool
tile; metal trays or plastic tiles dropped to a suspended framework of metal angles and tees.
There are various methods of securing the panels and framing. The erection of a frame and
panel ceiling is speedy and clean, and this type of ceiling is usually easily dismountable.
3. Strip ceiling:
a). profiled aluminium strips
b). PVC strips on metal cores
4. Service ceiling: Suspended ceiling in which the services form an integral part of the
construction fall in to the following categories:
(a). Fully illuminated ceilings, having infill panels of translucent plastic which form the
diffusers for the light fittings suspended above them. The diffusers may be plain face, three
dimensional, corrugated, and embossed or ‘egg box’ construction. This type of construction
should not be confused with the use of modular light fittings, which fit into the grid spacing of
the panel, and frame type ceiling type.
(b). Ceiling panels which incorporate low temperature heating elements, or small bore hot
water circuits, usually in conjunction with sound absorbing panels.
(c). Ceiling in which the whole of thee space above is used as a plenum chamber for the
circulation and direction of hot or cold air.
(d). A fully ‘service’ integrated ceiling which gives an element of construction providing heat,
light and absorption. This arrangement, though expensive, permits the ultimate in flexibility of
use of space below.

Construction details

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 600x600
access door
RC slab
hangers

m.s channel main

grid 1200c/c metal lathing

m.s secondary channel plastered

300C/C expanded
lath

Figure 8.5.1 Construction of a plastered ceiling

A suspended plaster ceiling of the type shown in figure 4.1 using vermiculite plaster 15mm
thick will way 20kg per square metre, including the suspension, with a fire rating of 2 to 4
hours, depending on the thickness of plaster.

Jointless PVC
An example of the application of the se of a PVC foil membrane, stretched to form a
suspended ceiling is as shown in the figure below. This type of ceiling can be installed in one
sheet 0.2mm thick, forming a panel upto 7.5 x6.0 metres nom. The method is adoptable to any
shape of room and will accommodate any size of access panel or light fitting.

The finish of the PVC foil is semi-mat, and does not require decoration. Where a higher degree
of sound absorption is required, a special perforated foil with a loose backing of absorbent quilt
is used.

Frame and panel ceilings

The method of suspending the ceiling membrane is similar with each type of panel and consists
of:
1. Hangers; Metal straps, rods or angles which hang vertically from the main floor or roof
construction to support and level up the suspension system.
2. Bearers: these are the main supporting sections connected to the hangers and to which
the subsidiary horizontal runner supports are fixed. The use of bearers enables the
hangers to be at wider centres than the basic ceiling module.
3. Runners: These are the supporting members which are in contact with the ceiling
panels. They are usually of aluminium T or Z sections. The runners span in the opposite
direction to the bearers.
4. Noggings: These are subsidiary cross members which span in the same direction as the
bearers but in the same plane as the runners in order to complete the framework.
Runners and noggings can be concealed or exposed.
Fixings:
Typical methods of securing the ceiling panel into the suspension system are as shown in
the figure below

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 a). Exposed fixing; Here the ceiling panel or tile drops into the suspended framework
formed by the extruded aluminium T section. Unless there is a risk of the panels being
lifted by wind pressure (say in an entrance hall) they can be left loose and are thus very
easy to remove where the void above is used as a duct. Where they require to be held
down, a wire or spring metal clip is slotted into the web of the T to hold the panel down
from above.

b). Concealed fixing: This is a concealed type of fixing since the method of support is not
visible from below. The diagram shows the grooved tiles slotted into the Z section runner.
c). Clip fixing: In this detail a special runner is used which holds the metal tray in position.
The tray will be perforated and will probably have an infill of mineral wool or similar inert,
sound absorbent material.
d). Screw fixing: this detail shows two alternative forms of securing the ceiling panel by
direct screw fixing.

timber bearer screwed

to the wall plug

cover mould PVC foil

membrane
stretched in
position

Figure 8.5.2 PVC membrane ceiling

bearers at
1200c/c
spring clip
hanger at 1200
c/c
bearer
tile runners at
T-runner 300 c/c

plan layout of suspended ceiling

Figure 8.5.3 Exposed fixing of suspended ceiling

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 hangers nailed to roof
trussess
100 x 50 Bearers

75 x100 Nogings
600 c/c
100 x 50 TimberJoist
600 c/c

Figure 8.5.4 Brandering in timber to receive metal lath or ceiling boards

Bearers at
1200 c/c

spring clip
hanger at 1200 T-runner
c/c
bearer
tile
tile
T-runner

Figure 8.5.5 Concealed suspended ceiling

8.6.0 Curtain Walling

8.6.1 Introduction
A curtain wall is a term used to describe a building façade which does not carry any dead load
from the building other than its own dead load. These loads are transferred to the main building
structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. A curtain wall is designed to
resist air and water infiltration, wind forces acting on the building, seismic forces, and its own
dead load forces.
Curtain walls are typically designed with extruded aluminum members, although the first
curtain walls were made of steel. The aluminum frame is typically infilled with glass, which
provides an architecturally pleasing building, as well as benefits such as day lighting. However,

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parameters related to solar gain control, such as thermal comfort and visual comfort are more
difficult to control when using highly-glazed curtain walls. Other common infills include: stone
veneer, metal panels, louvers, and operable windows or vents.
Curtain walls differ from storefront systems in that they are designed to span multiple floors,
and take into consideration design requirements such as: thermal expansion and contraction;
building sway and movement; water diversion; and thermal efficiency for cost-effective
heating, cooling, and lighting in the building.
8.6.2 background of curtain wall construction
Prior to the early-20th Century, buildings were constructed with the exterior walls of the
building supporting the load of the entire structure. With the advent of the structural concept of
shear walls and building cores, the exterior walls of buildings no longer had to support high
dead loads and could be designed as much lighter and more open than the brick and steel
facades of the past. This gave way to increased use of glass as an exterior façade, and the
modern day curtain wall was born. In structural engineering, a shear wall is a wall composed of
braced panels (also known as shear panels) to counter the effects of lateral loads acting on a
structure.
The first curtain walls were made with steel mullions, and the plate glass was attached to the
mullions with asbestos or fiberglass modified glazing compound. Eventually silicone sealants
or glazing tape were substituted. Some designs included an outer cap to hold the glass in place
and to protect the integrity of the seals. The first curtain wall installed in New York City was
this type of construction. Later the use of aluminum became widespread for mullions.
Aluminum offers the unique advantage of being able to be easily extruded into nearly any
shape required for design and aesthetic purposes. Today, the design complexity and shapes
available are nearly limitless. Custom shapes can be designed and manufactured with relative
ease.
Similarly, sealing methods and types have evolved over the years, and as a result, today’s
curtain walls are high performance systems which require little maintenance.
8.6.3 Methods of construction
8.6.3.1 Stick systems
The vast majority of curtain walls are installed long pieces (referred to as sticks) between floors
vertically and between vertical members horizontally. Framing members may be fabricated in a
shop environment, but all installation and glazing is typically performed at the jobsite.
8.6.3.2 Unitized systems
Unitized curtain walls entail factory fabrication and assembly of panels and may include
factory glazing. These completed units are hung on the building structure to form the building
enclosure. Unitized curtain wall has the advantages of: speed; lower field installation costs; and
quality control within an interior climate controlled environment. The economic benefits are
typically realized on large projects or in areas of high field labor rates.
8.6.3.3Rainscreen principle
A common feature in curtain wall technology, the rainscreen principle theorizes that
equilibrium of air pressure between the outside and inside of the "rainscreen" prevents water
penetration into the building itself. For example the glass is captured between an inner and an
outer gasket in a space called the glazing rebate. The glazing rebate is ventilated to the exterior
so that the pressure on the inner and outer sides of the exterior gasket is the same. When the
pressure is equal across this gasket water cannot be drawn through joints or defects in the
gasket.

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8.6.4 Design

Curtain wall systems must be designed to handle all loads imposed on it as well as keep air and
water from penetrating the building envelope.
Loads
The loads imposed on the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure through the
anchors which attach the mullions to the building. The building structure needs to be designed
and account for these loads.
8.6.4.1 Dead load Dead load is defined as the weight of structural elements and the permanent
features on the structure. In the case of curtain walls, this load is made up of the weight of the
mullions, anchors, and other structural components of the curtain wall, as well as the weight of
the infill material. Additional dead loads imposed on the curtain wall, such as sunshades, must
be accounted for in the design of the curtain wall components and anchors.

8.6.4.2 Wind load

Wind load acting on the building is the result of wind blowing on the building. This wind
pressure must be resisted by the curtain wall system since it envelops and protects the building.
Wind loads vary greatly throughout the world, with the largest wind loads being near the coast
in hurricane-prone regions. Building codes are used to determine the required design wind
loads for a specific project location. Often, a wind tunnel study is performed on large or
unusually shaped buildings. A scale model of the building and the surrounding vicinity is built
and placed in a wind tunnel to determine the wind pressures acting on the structure in question.
8.6.4.3 Seismic load
Seismic loads need to be addressed in the design of curtain wall components and anchors. In
most situations, the curtain wall is able to naturally withstand seismic and wind induced
building sway because of the space provided between the glazing infill and the mullion. In
tests, standard curtain wall systems are able to withstand three inches (75 mm) of relative floor
movement without glass breakage or water leakage. Anchor design needs to be reviewed,
however, since a large floor-to-floor displacement can place high forces on anchors.
8.6.4.4 Snow load
Snow loads and live loads are not typically an issue in curtain walls, since curtain walls are
designed to be vertical or slightly inclined. If the slope of a wall exceeds 20 degrees or so, these
loads may need to be considered.
8.6.4.5 Thermal load
Thermal loads are induced in a curtain wall system because aluminum has a relatively high
coefficient of thermal expansion. This means that over the span of a couple of floors, the
curtain wall will expand and contract some distance, relative to its length and the temperature
differential. This expansion and contraction is accounted for by cutting horizontal mullions
slightly short and allowing a space between the horizontal and vertical mullions. In unitized
curtain wall, a gap is left between units, which are sealed from air and water penetration by
wiper gaskets. Vertically, anchors carrying wind load only (not dead load) are slotted to
account for movement. Incidentally, this slot also accounts for live load deflection and creep in
the floor slabs of the building structure.
8.6.4.6 Blast load

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Accidental explosions and terrorist threats have brought on increased concern for the fragility
of a curtain wall system in relation to blast loads.
Since the curtain wall is at the exterior of the building, it becomes the first line of defense in a
bomb attack. As such, blast resistant curtain walls must be designed to withstand such forces
without compromising the interior of the building to protect its occupants. Since blast loads are
very high loads with short durations, the curtain wall response should be analyzed in a dynamic
load analysis, with full-scale mock-up testing performed prior to design completion and
installation.
Blast resistant glazing consists of laminated glass, which is meant to break but not separate
from the mullions. Similar technology is used in hurricane-prone areas for the protection from
wind-borne debris.
8.6.5 Infiltrations
8.6.5.1 Air infiltration is the air which passes through the curtain wall from the exterior to the
interior of the building. The air is infiltrated through the gaskets, through imperfect joinery
between the horizontal and vertical mullions, through weep holes, and through imperfect
sealing. The limit is expressed in cubic feet per minute per square foot of wall area at a given
test pressure. (Currently, most standards cite less than 0.6 CFM/sq ft as acceptable).
8.6.5.2 Water penetration is defined as any water passing from the exterior of the building
through to the interior of the curtain wall system. Sometimes, depending on the building
specifications, a small amount of controlled water on the interior is deemed acceptable. To test
the ability of a curtain wall to withstand water penetration, a water rack is placed in front a
mock-up of the wall with a positive air pressure applied to the wall. This represents a wind
driven heavy rain on the wall. Field tests are also performed on installed curtain walls, in which
a water hose is sprayed on the wall for a specified time.
8.6.6 Deflection
One of the disadvantages of using aluminum for mullions is that its modulus of elasticity is
about one-third that of steel. This translates to three times more deflection in an aluminum
mullion compared to the same steel section. Building specifications set deflection limits for
perpendicular (wind-induced) and in-plane (dead load-induced) deflections. It is important to
note that these deflection limits are not imposed due to strength capacities of the mullions.
Rather, they are designed to limit deflection of the glass (which may break under excessive
deflection), and to ensure that the glass does not come out of its pocket in the mullion.
Deflection limits are also necessary to control movement at the interior of the curtain wall.
Building construction may be such that there is a wall located near the mullion, and excessive
deflection can cause the mullion to contact the wall and cause damage. Also, if deflection of a
wall is quite noticeable, public perception may raise undue concern that the wall is not strong
enough.
Deflection limits are typically expressed as the distance between anchor points divided by a
constant number. A deflection limit of L/175 is common in curtain wall specifications. Say a
given curtain wall is anchored at 12 foot (144 in) floor heights. The allowable deflection would
then be 144/175 = 0.823 inches, which means the wall is allowed to deflect inward or outward
a maximum of 0.823 inches at the maximum wind pressure.
Deflection in mullions is controlled by different shapes and depths of curtain wall members.
The depth of a given curtain wall system is usually controlled by the area moment of inertia
required to keep deflection limits under the specification. Another way to limit deflections in a
given section is to add steel reinforcement to the inside tube of the mullion. Since steel deflects
at 1/3 the rate of aluminum, the steel will absorb much of the system’s deflection at a lower
cost or smaller depth.

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Stress
Contrary to popular belief, stress is not related to deflection; it is a separate criterion in curtain
wall design and analysis. For example, the advantage of some curtain wall designs is the ability
to span more than one floor (commonly known as twin-span or multi-span, as opposed to single
or simple span). Multiple floor spans significantly reduce the required area moment of inertia
for a mullion. The stresses in the mullion, however, are significantly increased in a multiple
span, giving way for a higher required section modulus (S, expressed in cubic inches) in the
mullion.
As mentioned above, the deflection of aluminum is three times greater than an equivalent steel
shape under the same load. However, the allowable stress in that same aluminum member may
be roughly equivalent to or higher than its steel counterpart. This means that aluminum
mullions can be as strong as or stronger than steel members.
Thermal criteria
Relative to other building components, aluminum has a high heat transfer coefficient, meaning
that aluminum is a very good conductor of heat. This translates into high heat loss through
aluminum curtain wall mullions. There are several ways to compensate for this heat loss, the
most common way being the addition of thermal breaks. Thermal breaks are barriers between
exterior metal and interior metal, usually made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These breaks
provide a significant decrease in the thermal conductivity of the curtain wall. However, since
the thermal break interrupts the aluminum mullion, the overall moment of inertia of the mullion
is reduced and must be accounted for in the structural analysis of the system.
Thermal conductivity of the curtain wall system is important because of heat loss through the
wall, which affects the heating and cooling costs of the building. On a poorly performing
curtain wall, condensation may form on the interior of the mullions. This could cause damage
to adjacent interior trim and walls.
Rigid insulation is provided in spandrel areas to provide a higher R-value at these locations.

8.6.7 Infills

Infill refers to the large panels that are inserted into the curtain wall between mullions. Infills
are typically glass but may be made up of nearly any exterior building element.
Regardless of the material, infills are typically referred to as glazing, and the installer of the
infill is referred to as a glazier.
8.6.7.1Glass
By far the most common glazing type, glass can be of an almost infinite combination of color,
thickness, and opacity. For commercial construction, the two most common thicknesses are 1/4
inch (6 mm) monolithic and 1 inch (25 mm) insulating glass. Presently, 1/4 inch glass is
typically used only in spandrel areas; while insulating glass is used for the rest of the building
(sometimes spandrel glass is specified as insulating glass as well). The 1 inch insulation glass is
typically made up of two 1/4-inch lites of glass with 1/2 inch (12 mm) airspace. The air inside
is usually atmospheric air, but some inert gases, such as argon, may be used to offer better
thermal transmittance values. In residential construction, thicknesses commonly used are 1/8
inch (3 mm) monolithic and 5/8 inch (16 mm) insulating glass. Larger thicknesses are typically
employed for buildings or areas with higher thermal, relative humidity, or sound transmission
requirements, such as laboratory areas or recording studios.
Glass may be used which is transparent, translucent, or opaque, or in varying degrees thereof.
Transparent glass usually refers to vision glass in a curtain wall. Spandrel or vision glass may
also contain translucent glass, which could be for security or aesthetic purposes. Opaque glass

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is used in areas to hide a column or spandrel beam or shear wall behind the curtain wall.
Another method of hiding spandrel areas is through shadow box construction (providing a dark
enclosed space behind the transparent or translucent glass). Shadow box construction creates a
perception of depth behind the glass that is sometimes desired.
8.6.7.2 Stone veneer
Thin blocks (3 to 4 inches (75-100 mm)) of stone can be inset within a curtain wall system to
provide architectural flavor. The type of stone used is limited only by the strength of the stone
and the ability to manufacture it in the proper shape and size. Common stone types used are:
Arriscraft (calcium silicate);granite; marble; travertine; and limestone. The stone may come in
several different finishes, which adds many more options for architects and building owners.
8.6.7.3 Metal Panels
Metal panels can take various forms including aluminum plate; thin composite panels
consisting of two thin aluminum sheets sandwiching a thin plastic interlayer; and panels
consisting of metal sheets bonded to rigid insulation, with or without an inner metal sheet to
create a sandwich panel. Other opaque panel materials include FRP (fiber-reinforced plastic)
and stainless steel.
8.6.7.4 Louvers
A louver is provided in an area where mechanical equipment located inside the building
requires ventilation or fresh air to operate. They can also serve as a means of allowing outside
air to filter into the building to take advantage of favorable climatic conditions and minimize
the usage of energy-consuming HVAC systems. Curtain wall systems can be adapted to accept
most types of louver systems to maintain the same architectural sightlines and style while
providing the necessary functionality.
8.6.7.5 Windows and vents
Most curtain wall glazing is fixed, meaning there is no access to the exterior of the building
except through doors. However, windows or vents can be glazed into the curtain wall system as
well, to provide required ventilation or operable windows. Nearly any window type can be
made to fit into a curtain wall system.

Fire safety

Fire stopping at the edges of the slab between the floor and the backpan of the curtain wall is
essential in slowing the passage of fire and combustion gases between floors. Spandrel areas
must have non-combustible insulation at the interior face of the curtain wall. Some building
codes require the mullion to be wrapped in heat-retarding insulation near the ceiling to prevent
the mullions from melting and spreading the fire to the floor above. It is important to note that
the firestop at the perimeter slab edge is considered a continuation of the fire-resistance rating
of the floor slab. The curtain wall itself, however, is not ordinarily required to have a rating.
This causes a quandary as Compartmentalization (fire protection) is typically based upon
closed compartments to avoid fire and smoke migrations beyond each engaged compartment. A
curtain wall by its very nature prevents the completion of the compartment (or envelope). The
use of fire sprinklers has been shown to mitigate this matter. As such, unless the building is
sprinklered, fire may still travel up the curtain wall, if the glass on the exposed floor is
shattered due to fire influence, causing flames to lick up the outside of the building. Falling
glass can endanger pedestrians, firefighters and firehoses below. An example of this is the First
Interstate Bank Fire in Los Angeles, California. The fire here leapfrogged up the tower by
shattering the glass and then consuming the aluminium skeleton holding the glass. Aluminium's
melting temperature is 660°C, whereas building fires can reach 1,100°C. The melting point of

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aluminium is typically reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Sprinkle ring of each floor
has a profoundly positive effect on the fire safety of buildings with curtain walls. In the case of
the aforementioned fire, it was specifically the activation of the newly installed sprinkler
system, which halted the advance of the fire and allowed effective suppression. Had this not
occurred, the tower would have collapsed onto fire crews and into adjacent buildings.

8.6.8 Maintenance and repair

Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize service life. Perimeter
sealants, properly designed and installed, have a typical service life of 10 to 15 years. Removal
and replacement of perimeter sealants require meticulous surface preparation and proper
detailing.
Aluminum frames are generally painted or anodized. Factory applied fluoropolymer thermoset
coatings have good resistance to environmental degradation and require only periodic cleaning.
Recoating with an air-dry fluoropolymer coating is possible but requires special surface
preparation and is not as durable as the baked-on original coating.
Anodized aluminum frames cannot be "re-anodized" in place, but can be cleaned and protected
by proprietary clear coatings to improve appearance and durability.
Exposed glazing seals and gaskets require inspection and maintenance to minimize water
penetration, and to limit exposure of frame seals and insulating glass seals to wetting.

8.7.0 Underpinning

In construction, underpinning is the process of strengthening and or stabilizing the foundation

of an existing building or other structure. It refers to the introduction of support under an
existing structure. Underpinning may be necessary for a variety of reasons

 The original foundation is simply not strong or stable enough, e.g. due to decay of
wooden piles under the foundation.
 The usage of the structure has changed.
 The properties of the soil supporting the foundation may have changed (possibly
through subsidence) or were mischaracterized during planning.
 The construction of nearby structures necessitates the excavation of soil supporting
existing foundations.
 There is need to increase on more loads (e.g. floors)above

Underpinning is accomplished by extending the foundation in depth or in breadth so it either

rests on a stronger soil stratum or distributes its load across a greater area. Use of micro piles
and jet grouting are common methods in underpinning. An alternative to underpinning is the
strengthening of the soil by the introduction of a grout. All of these processes are generally
expensive and elaborate.

Underpinning may be necessary where P class (problem) soils in certain areas of the site are
encountered, these may be unidentified until the defects have occurred on the structure.

8.7.1 Temporary support to masonry

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Before carrying out the job of underpinning a structure it may first be safely supported to
relieve as much of the load as possible on the foundation to be underpinned. It may be possible
to support the floors and roofs by placing shoring close to the walls in such a manner that the
loads are carried down on the ground floor. Plates are provided at top and bottom of these
vertical shores to allow adequate spread of the load. The masonry wall is relieved of most of
weight of the floor and roof by this means.

Figure 8.7.7 Excavation and support for masonry underpinning

The masonry wall is now supported by inserting needles through the wall about 1.2 metres
apart. One end of the needle is supported on the floor, while the other rests on the ground. The
external end of the needle has to be well clear of the subsequent excavation work.
As the excavation work proceeds, the sides of the excavation must be supported by timbering.
Window openings in the building being underpinned should be lined with timber and strutted.
It is likely that movement will have occurred in a wall requiring underpinning, resulting in
cracking of the masonry. Tell-tale should be fitted across these to monitor any movement
during and after the underpinning exercise. Pieces of glass fixed across the cracks on mortar
dots will crack if movement occurs

8.7.2 Temporary support for framed structures

The weight to be supported when a framed structure is to be underpinned is concentrated in the
column and is therefore usually greater than the distributed loads occurring in a masonry wall.

Once again, floor and roof loads can be relieved from the column by dead shoring. In the case
of reinforced concrete columns, grooves are cut in the sides of each column to accommodate a
pair of steel joists. These joists are bolted into position and extend equally on each side of the
column. The ends of the joists rest on other steel joists which are long enough to be clear of the
excavation work.

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The ends of these latter joists are supported on jacks resting on the floor or the ground. By
applying an upward force through the jacks, the load from the column and the foundation can
be temporarily supported. The excavation and underpinning can now proceed normally. The
various loads to be supported can be calculated and the sizes of joists that will be adequate to
support these loads are determined.

Figure 8.7.8. Support to concrete columns

8.7.3 Methods for masonry walls

Masonry walls usually rest on strip foundation and will need underpinning when the foundation
is affected by earth movement. The wall is supported to relieve the load on the foundation by
passing needles through holes made in it, the ends of the needles being supported on props and
plates clear of the excavation. Areas for excavation, about 1.2 metres wide, are selected. These
should be at least two widths (2.4 metres) away from any nearby excavation. As the excavation
proceeds under the foundation it is timbered to prevent collapse. The bottom of the excavation
must be suitable as a new stable base for the wall.

8.7.4 Underpinning using masonry

Brickwork is most convenient for this purpose. A new foundation is dug out and concreted at
the determined level, and then a new brick wall is built from this foundation up to the underside
of the old foundation. The space behind the wall is filled with concrete as work proceeds. The
final pinning up between the new wall and the old foundation is done with a very still concrete
grout.

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 Figure8.7. 9 Masonry underpinning

8.7.5 Underpinning using piling

Short lengths of concrete piling are jacked down into the ground, sections being added and
joined with a rod until a suitable bearing level is reached. The last section is located and
pinned up to the underside of the foundation. The piles are likely to be spaced apart a short
distance and the existing concrete foundation must be strong enough to span, say, 500 mm,
carrying the load of the wall.

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 Figure 8.7.10. Pile underpinning

8.7.6 Other methods of underpinning

1. Traditional continuous footing( strip concrete or masonry building)
2. Pynford stools ( modification of 1)
3. Mini-pile or conventional piling
4. Grouting and 5. Chemical ground freeing
Factors considered in the choice of the method to use

 Accessibility to the place (internal or external)

 Depth of foundation required
 Extent of damage of the existing structure
 The type of underpinning itself.
It should be noted that during unpinning provision of adequate support is necessary to avoid
accidents and damage to the structure. This can be done by shoring

8.7.7 Shoring for underpinning

Shoring is a method of providing temporary support for an existing structure, usually using
timber.
Shoring may be used in such situation as:

1. when carrying out alterations to an existing building

2. when underpinning an existing wall or column
3. when carrying out demolition work

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 4. when structure become unsafe

There are three typical types of shoring:

1. Dead shoring where the load is usually vertical
2. Raking shoring where there is a lateral force involved
3. Flying shoring where structures close to one another provide mutual support by a
system of horizontal members.

The stress in the shoring members is usually compressive, except in the case of the needless
used in dead shoring where there is a bending stress. Typical shoring conditions are illustrated.
Individual cases and calculations are given as below:

Dead shoring
There are two typical types of dead shoring used in building alteration work.

1. Where a wall is to be supported, horizontal members are passed through the wall to
support its weight. These are called needles. They are subjected to a point load and a
bending stress. At each end of a needle a vertical dead shore is provided which takes
the vertical reaction from the needle.
2. Where a floor or roof is to be supported, dead shores are erected with a head member
placed between the top of the shore and the soffit.
Both types of shore have a sole plate and folding wedges to tighten the structure. The
weights of the various materials to be supported must be decided upon by the measurement
and calculation, adding any superimposed load that may be applied during the work. The
sizes of needles and shores are then calculated, the spacing of the needles having been
decided and adequate working space allowed.
Holes are made through the wall to be supported and the needles inserted. The dead shores
are then positioned and the wedges tightened to take up the loads. When the shoring is
secure, the wall below the needles can be removed and the work of fixing the new beam
carried out. The needles support the wall by arching effect of masonry.

Design of dead shoring

Dead shoring consists of needles and props. The needles are subjected to a point load from
the wall they are supporting which should be as near as possible to the middle of the span.
The load of the structure is calculated using typical materials densities and by measuring
the thicknesses of the construction involved. Any estimates of the weight of the
construction should be on the high side where doubt exists and an allowance should be
made for any live loads.

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 5000

2500 500

225
1750
3070
4605

3000

Figure 8.7.11 : Shoring for underpinning

Thus:
1. Calculate the weight of the construction and add for live load.
WL
2. Use Bending moment (B.M) = for a central point load but use the moments for
4
eccentric loading.
3. The spacing of the needles may depend on the conditions but 1200 to 1500 mm is
typical.
4. The needles should be at least 125 mm wide (b) to provide a reasonable bearing for the
wall.
bd 2
5. The depth (d) is calculated as: B.M. = Zf  xf
6
The props support the load from the end of the needles. A suitable size for a prop will be about
100 mm x 100 mm or 150 mm diameter if a tree is used, but this must be checked by
calculation. In a long slender member such as dead shore, the permissible fibre stress is
reduced to allow for buckling stress. If the fibre stress in compression is 3.8 N/mm 2 for the
 h 
prop material, the stress limit for the prop length can be found from C r  C p 1  . if the
 50d 
fibre stress across the grain of the needle is 1.5 N/mm 2 , this stress must not be exceeded where
the prop meets the needle.

Design of shoring: needles at 1200mm centre

Needles

Loading from walls: 1700x1.750x1.200x0.215x10

= 7675N

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 900
Inner needle reaction: 7675 x  4605 N
1500
Maximum bending moment: 4605 x600 = 2763000

bd 2 xf
B.M = Zf = , f=5.2N/mm2, b = 125mm
6

6 x2763000
d=  159.70 needle size; 175x125
5.2 x125

Outer shore
Load = reaction = 4605N (use max load on a prop), d = least dimension
Assumed d = 100 and Cp =3.8N/mm2

 3000 
Then Cr  3.81    1.52 N / mm
2

 50 x100 

Use maximum fibre stress of 1.5N/mm2

Minimum area of shore 4605/1.5 =3070mm2
3070/100 = 30.7mm

But minimum dimension is 100mm, therefore prop size: 100x100

Inner shore
Roof load: 2100x0.02x3x1.2x10 = 1512N
Asphalt: 2306x0.05x3x1.2x10 = 4150N
Concrete: 2240x0.15x3x1.2x10 = 12096N
Screed : 1440x0.012x3x1.2x10 = 622N

Plaster : 1440x0.012x3x1.2x10 = 622N

Superimposed load = 19002N
Total load on shore; 19002

 3000 
Assumed d = 125, then C r  3.81    1.976 N / mm
2

 50 x125 

Lower stress; 1.5nmm2

Therefore area of shore = 19002/1.5 = 12668mm2
12668/125 = 101.344, thus prop size = 125x125

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8.8.0 Mechanisms of Door Openings
A door is a solid barrier to a doorway or opening that can be opened for access and closed to
deny access for privacy and security and serves as a thermal, acoustic and fire barrier as part of
an external wall.
A doorway is an opening in a wall or partition for access and a door frame or lining is the
timber or metallic or plastic frame or lining fixed in the doorway or opening to which the door
closes on hinges, pivots or runners

8.8.1 Functional requirements

The primary function of a door is to provide access.
The secondary functions as a components part of a wall or partition are:

 Strength
 Shape stability
 Privacy
 Security
 Thermal insulation
 Sound insulation
 Fire resistance
 Exclusion of wind and rain as a part of an external wall.
Means of access
The operating characteristics of a door to serve this function depend on the weight of the door
itself and the hardware such as hinges and locks and fitments such as door closers fixed to the
door and frame and draught stripping which cause operating difficulties.

Door(s) leaf
The traditional domestic door is of one leaf which is hinged on one side to open in one
direction for the convenient entry or exit of people. Double-leaf, double swing, sliding, and
sliding and folding doors are also used for both domestic and other purposes. The word leaf
refers to the opening part of a door.
Doors are made of timber, aluminium, steel and plastics just like the windows

Standard Doors

The standard size of door leaf are weight 2040, width 526, 626, 726, 826 and 926 for internal
doors and height 1994, width 806 and 906 for external doors and thickness 40 or 44. A door
set is a standard combination of door leaf with frame or lining and hinges and furniture packed
as a unit ready for fix.

Wood Doors:
Wood doors may be classified as:-

(i) Flush doors

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 (ii) Panelled doors
(iii) Match boarded doors.

top rail

brace
stile

middle rail

panel

bottom rail

panelled door matchboarded door flush door

Fig 8.8.1 Doors

The fashion in buildings has been for plain surfaces devoid of decorative mouldings that will
collect dust. Hence the use of flush doors which are surfaced with sheets of hardboard or
plywood fixed either to a cellular skeleton or solid core.

Cellular core flush doors:

These doors are made with cellular, fibreboard or paper core in a light softwood frame with
lockage blocks covered with plywood or hardboard both sides.
Skeleton frame flush doors:
In skeleton core flushed doors, a small section in timbers is constructed as illustrated above.
The main members of this structural core are stiles and rails, with intermediate rails.

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 soft wood frame core strips glued together

lock block lock block

ply wood or hardboard ply wood or hardboard

facing glued to frame facing glued to frame
& cellular core & cellular core

Cellular core flush Skeleton frame Solid core Flush

door flush door door

Fig 8.8.2 Flush Doors

Solid core flush doors:
Plywood and hardboard facings bonded to cellular or skeleton flush doors do not always remain
flat and waves on their surface may be apparent particularly if the door is painted with gloss
paint. A flush door with a solid core of timber, clipboard, flax board or compressed fibreboard
can be used for public buildings and other buildings with high levels of use externally and as
fire door. It has better thermal and acoustic properties than cellular core or skeleton core flush
doors.

Fire doors:

The term fire is used as a general description of all doors that serve to control the spread of fire
or the smoke and gases resulting from the fires in buildings. The term fire resisting is used
more specifically to describe a door, together with its frame, that has resistance to collapse,
flame penetration and excessive temperature rise for a stated period of time during fires.

Fire check door:

This most accurately describes the function of a fire door in checking the spread of fire for a
stated period of time.

Smoke control doors:

This accurately describes the purpose of fitting a door solely to check the spread of smoke:

Function

Most fires in buildings from small sources which develop quantities of smoke and other
combustion products in the early stage of the fire. Pressure differences may force smoke
through gaps around the door. As the fire develops and the temperatures rises on the effect of
the heat of the fire without collapsing and be capable of serving as a barrier to the spread of
excessive quantities of heat and hot gases

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Construction

A range of wood doors has been tested to give fire resistance from 30 to 60 minutes. These
include skeleton-core flush with a plasterboard core and solid-core flush door with solid timber,
compressed, straw, chipboard, flax board or compressed fibre board strips. The resistance of a
door set to the spread of smoke and fire depends on the door frame and the door and its fittings.

Use of Intumescent Strip:

This is a material that swells when heated by foaming and expanding. The material is used
with aluminium or PVC cover strips fixed in rebates to the edges of the door or frames so that
in fires the Intumescent material expands and seals the gaps between the door and frame as a
barrier to the spread of smoke and fire. The seals incorporate a neoprene draught strip that
serves as a smoke seal in the early stages of a fire and Intumescent material acts as a seal
against the spread of fire in the later stages.

Hinges, locks and door closers:

For a door to be effective as a barrier to smoke and frame, it must be held securely in position
on its hinges and firmly on the closed position by the latch and be self closing for the period of
minutes specified for stability and integrity. The purpose three steel hinges are generally
recommended. The latch must be strong and engage the latch plate at least 10 to maintain the
door in the closed position.

8.8.2 Panelled Doors

Panelled doors are framed with stiles and rails around a panel or panels of wood or plywood.
The stiles and rails are cut from timbers of the same thickness and some of the more usual sizes
of timber used are; stiles and top rails 10038 or 10050; middle rail 17538 or 17550,
bottom rail 20038 or 20050. Because the door is hinged on one side to open, it tends to sink
on the lock stile. The stiles and rails have to be joined to resist the tendency of the door to sink
and the two types of joint used are a mortice and tenon joint or a dovetail joint.

Mortice and tenon joint:

This is the strongest type of joint used to frame members at right angles in joinery work. The
panels are usually jilted into stiles, rails and cramped after gluing and wedging around the
panels. For economy and mass production dowel joints should always be used.

Panels:
Timber panels, more than 250 wide are made up from boards 150 wide that are tongued
together. The term tongued describes the operation of jointing boards by cutting grooves in
their edges into which a thin tongue or feather of wood is cramped and glued.

Plywood:
This is made from three, five, seven or nine piles or thin layers of wood firmly glued together,
so that the long grain of one ply is at right angles to the grain of the plies to which it is boarded.

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The most pronounced shrinkage in wood occurs at right angles to the long grain of the wood
and any shrinkage of the centre ply is resisted by the outer plies, hence the odd number of plies
used. Plywood does not shrink appreciably and because of the opposed long grains, it does not
warp or twist. The three plywood 5 or 6.5 mm thick is generally used for door panels.

Fixing panels:
This is done by fixing panel in the grooves cut in the edges of the stiles and rails. If any
shrinkage of the members of the door occurs, gaps will not appear around the panels. A panel
set in grooves to stiles and rails with square edges may leave an unfinished look which can be
modified by cutting mouldings on the edges of the members. An inferior method of fixing
panels is to plat nail timber beads each side of the panel.

Double swing doors

Doors are hunged to swing both ways to provide ready access to and from parts of buildings
used in common by the occupants and users at points where it is convenient to provide an
opening barrier, for example from halls to corridors, to provide some separation of the public
and the more private parts of the building. These doors, which are liable to heavy use, are
usually constructed as panelled doors with a glazed panel at eye level to prevent accidents due
to simultaneous use for each side. The door leaf is hung either on double action hinges or
pivoted on a double-action floor spring and top pivot

Sliding and sliding folding doors

Sliding doors are designed for intermittent use to provide either a clear opening or a barrier
between adjacent rooms or spaces to accommodate change use or function, and in narrow
spaces to avoid the obstruction caused by hinged leaf. They are also designed for intermittent
use to provide a larger opening than is practical with sliding doors, and to divide large spaces
into smaller by closing back to one by opening.

8.8.3 Matchboarded doors

Matchboarded doors are made with a facing of tongued, grooved and V-jointed boards fixe3d
vertically to either ledges and braces or a frame. These doors are used for cellars, sheds and
stores where the appearance of the door is not important.
Ledged Matchboarded door. Match boarding is nailed to horizontal ledges directly. The
direct nailing does not strongly frame the door which is liable to sinking and losing shape.
Ledged and braced Matchboarded: This type of door is strengthened against sinking with
braces between the rails and is fixed at an angle to resist sinking on the lock edge. The braces
are nailed to the boarding
Framed and braced Matchboarded door: the match boarding is fixed to a frame of stiles and
rails that are framed with mortice and tenon joints with braces to strengthen the door against
sinking.

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 matchboarding 25, T&G, V-joint
both sides matchboarding 25, T&G, V-joint
both sides
150
ledge 100x32 ledge 150x25

matchboarding
sitle 100x50
nailed to ledges
ledge 150x25

brace 100x25

ledge 150x32 ledge 150x25

ledge 150x32

Ledged martchboarded door Ledged & braced martchboarded door Framed, braced & martchboarded door

Fig 8.8.3 Framed and braced Matchboarded door

Hardware for doors

Hardware is the general term for the hinges, locks latches and handles for a door. Ironmongery
was a term used when most of these were made of steel or iron.
Examples of hinges are; pressed steel butt hinges, cast iron butt hinges, brass butt hinges, steel
skew butt hinges, hook and band hinges. Read about them

Latches and locks

The word latch is used to describe any wood or metal device which is attached to a door or
window to keep it closed and which can be opened by the movement of the latch operated by a
handle, lever or bar, a lock is any device of wood or metal attached to a door which can be used
to keep it closed by application of a loose key. Examples of locks are mortice locks, rim lock
and mortice dead lock.

8.8.4 Door frames and linings

A door frame is a surround in a door way or opening, to which the door is hung and to which it
closes, which sufficient strength in itself to support the weight of the door. A door lining is a
surround inside a door way or opening , as wide as the reveal of the opening, to which the door
is hung and closes, which is not in itself strong enough to support the weight of the door
without support from the surrounding wall or partition. Door frames and linings maybe made of
wood, metal or plastic.

Wood door frames

A door frame consists of three or four members which are either rebated 13mm deep for the
door or a wood stop 13mm is planted to the frame. A frame consists of two posts and a head
member and may also have the fourth member, a threshold or sill to assist in weather exclusion.

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 head 100 x 75

Ends of head project 100 as horns for

building in the wall
100

posts of frame 100 x 75 rebate

for door
50
13

40/44

section through the post

Fig 8.8.4 Wood door frames

Dowels
Door frames that do not have a threshold or sill are often secured to the floor by a mild steel
dowel, 12mm diametre and 50 long that is driven into the foot of the posts and set the concrete
floor.

Fixing door frames

Door frames are usually built in, which describes the operation of building walls or partitions
around the frame. The frame is secured onto the walls with L-shaped galvanized steel building-
in lugs which are screwed to the back of the frames. Frames are also fixed in by screwing in
through to wood plugs fitted in the walls during finishing

Threshold or sill
A wood sill to an external door is usually of some wood, such as oak, and the sill is joined to
the posts of the frame with haunced mortice and tenon joints. The sill is usually wider than the
frame and is rebated for the door 13 deep for an outward opening door and grooved for water
bar for an inward opening door and weathered and throated.

Standard wood door frames and door sets

There are no generally available standard wood door frames and linings for standard doors.
Manufacturers offer standard frames for standard doors of sections from ex. 104x64 to ex
89x64, rebated for doors with co-coordinating dimensions of frame, 900, 1000, 1200, 1500,
1800, 2100 wide and 2100 high.

Metal door frames

These are manufactured from mild steel strip pressed into one of the three standard profiles.
The same profile is used for head and jambs of the frame. The three pressed steel members are

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welded together at angles. Two loose pin butt hinges are welded to one jamb of the frame and
an adjustable lock strike plate to the other. Two rubber buffers are fitted into the rebate of the
jambs to which the door closes to cushion the impact sound of the door closing. Metal door
frames are built in and secured with adjustable metal building in lugs. The frames may be used
externally or internally.

Trial question
1. Discuss the factors considered in the design of doors, selection of materials to use and
door opening mechanism suitable
2. Illustrate any eight (8) different mechanisms of door opening sitting examples of where
they fit best,

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CHAPTER NINE
9.0 MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES.
9.1Definition of Terms
Maintenance: Maintenance comes from the word to maintain. That is to keep something
continuous. In construction it may be defined as a set of activities or procedures conducted to
return or keep an infrastructure system in a fully-functioning or operation condition.
In this respect, the deterioration of infrastructure assets represents and enormous drain on
national wealth and causes serious undermining of the development process. The financial
consequences of neglecting maintenance are often only seen in terms of reduced asset life and
premature replacement. However, neglecting maintenance also implies increased costs of
operating facilities and waste of related natural and financial resources.
Infrastructure: Infrastructure is “the basic system or structures which are necessary for the
operation of a country or an organization” (Longmans dictionary). Civil infrastructure refers
to public and private works, namely buildings, roads, bridges, and water and sewerage
facilities. Civil engineers are responsible for their planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance. A nation’s infrastructure system, both publicly – and privately funded, provides
for the delivery of essential services and a sustained standard of living. An efficient system of
infrastructure is fundamental to the well-being of a country and indispensable for the promotion
of productive activities and social development.
Efficiency: Efficiency is taken to mean the amount of input resources (usually in monetary
terms) per unit of service delivered. Appropriate examples include cost ton of garbage
collected, the cost per cubic metre of water produced of delivered. Efficiency can be very
useful for monitoring trends in a service area; comparing different service approaches and
establishing targets and standards for maintenance and service delivery. Care should be taken
in using efficiency measures to compare regions or cities, as many factors will greatly impact
of efficiency. Efficiency will vary greatly depending on the level of service provided, the
effectiveness of the service, the scale and may other factors.

Effectiveness: Effectiveness reflects the attainment of service delivery of maintenance goals.

The effectiveness of service delivery, or coverage, can be measured according to the percentage
of the population service, such as highway, water or sewerage coverage. The effectiveness of
maintenance activities may also be expressed in terms of equipment or service availability,
such as the percentage of operational road repair vehicles or operational garbage trucks
(availability).
Operations: Operations refer to activities involved in the actual delivery of services to users,
such as the collection and disposal of solid waste, cleaning of roads and the treatment of
distribution of water. In other words, “operations” is the use of the infrastructure for its
intended purpose. “Operations is distinguished from “maintenance” which refers to a set of
activities to ensure that the given infrastructural system is in such a state that it can be operated
correctly and with cost effectiveness. These two sets of activities are closely linked, since
operations will not continue for long without maintenance, and personnel conducting
operations also commonly conduct minor maintenance.
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This course deals primarily with maintenance as opposed to operations. However, for some
activities it is hard to draw the line between operations and maintenance. For instance, a brief
daily inspection of a garbage truck by the driver before setting out in the morning could be
considered maintenance, or it could be considered operations if it is viewed as an essential
activity to driving the vehicle. These distinctions are not of extreme importance. Both
operations and maintenance are essential to ensuring that the infrastructure systems constructed
provide long-lasting benefits.

9.2 Types 0f Maintenance

There are many types of maintenance, depending on the intent, timing or frequency of the
maintenance activities.

(i) Preventive Maintenance

This refers to systematic pre-scheduled activities or programmes of inspections and
maintenance activities aimed at the early detection of defects and implementation of actions to
avoid breakdowns or infrastructure deterioration. Preventive maintenance is “proactive” in the
sense that these activities are conducted before a defect occurs. Often the costs of many
preventive maintenance activities are low compared with corrective maintenance or
rehabilitation.

(ii) Corrective Maintenance

This refers to activities conducted as a result of breakdowns or noticeable infrastructure
deterioration. In simple terms it is making repairs, or even simpler, fixing something.
Corrective maintenance is inherently “reactive” in that it is carried out after some defect is
discerned, often because the system is not operating as intended. In some areas corrective
maintenance is known curative maintenance.
(iii) Routine Maintenance
This refers to preventive and corrective maintenance activities carried out more often than once
a year. Some of these activities can be defined on the basis of operating hours.

(iv) Periodic Maintenance

This refers to preventive maintenance activities carried out less often than once a year, such as
once very two or five years. These maintenance tasks are often programmed in predetermined
plans or schedules.

(v) Rehabilitation
This refers to activities carried out to correct major defects in order to restore a facility to its
intended operational status and capacity, without significantly expanding it beyond its
originally planned or designed function or extent. Rehabilitation should be distinguished from
construction which refers to the initial creation of the infrastructure, as well as from expansion
or extension which refer to the increasing of the capacity or geographical extent of a system of
infrastructure. Rehabilitation activities are generally more expensive than corrective
maintenance activities.

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9.3 Importance of Infrastructure Maintenance
Introduction:
The inadequacy of the operation of maintenance of infrastructure has serious consequences for
economic and social development. The ability to support productive public and private sector
economic activity is severely hampered by substandard service delivery and deteriorating
infrastructure caused by poor operations and maintenance. Inefficient maintenance waste
scarce financial resources and results in costly premature infrastructure replacement needs and
even complete loss of assets, thereby increasing fiscal expenditure and debt service in those
countries with heavy reliance on imported materials and equipment. Poor maintenance of
environmental infrastructure (water and wastewater treatment plants, and solid waste disposal
systems) can also have negative impacts on the environment and public health; and it is often
the urban poor and women who are the most adversely affected. The sections below review the
significance of maintenance, especially to developing countries, in terms of economic,
financial, technical, and social, health and environmental terms.

1. Economic and financial significance

Systems of infrastructure to satisfy the need for transport, water supply, sanitation, drainage,
solid waste management are indispensable to the day-today running of a country as well as to
overall national development. Infrastructure accounts for an extremely large proportion of
national investment. In developing countries, on average, investments in infrastructure along
account for one quarter of annual capital formation and close to half of overall national capital
stock. It is estimated that the rate of investment in the water supply and sanitation sectors alone
amounts to about $10 billion. Countries such as Djibouti, Ethiopia, Malawi, Uganda and
Zambia invest as much as 30 percent of their gross national product in developing
infrastructure facilities.
In most countries, more than half of the gross domestic product (GDP) is produced in urban
areas, and this share is increasing. At the same time, the population growth in developing
countries is highest in urban areas, increasing labour supply and boosting the demand for urban
services. Cities serve as increasingly important driving forces in regional and national
economies, but the cities’ ability to sustain efficient public and private-sector activities is
dependent upon well-maintained, efficiently operated infrastructure systems and urban service
delivery.

There are many significant economic and financial repercussions of inadequate maintenance,
namely:

 Direct economic inefficiencies and financial losses due to poor maintenance: For
example, neglect of maintenance in drainage can lead to excessive costs as a result of
floods as is often experienced in Kampala city, where failure to maintain stormwater-
catchment drains necessitates the allocation of resources for flood-relief operations.
 Deficiencies in one maintenance sector often raise costs in another. For instance,
lack of street sweeping or garbage collection can increase costs for road, sewer and
drain maintenance as accumulated material interferes with proper use or maintenance of
these facilities.

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  An aggravated balance of payments situation. Poor maintenance leads to waste of
imported materials, supplies, energy, parts and other commodities. For example, losses
in water supply networks waste imported chemicals and, in many cases, imported
energy supplies.
 Unnecessary investment in rehabilitation or new facilities. Infrastructure systems
which are not maintained will deteriorate faster, shortening their life, wasting scarce
investment funds and precluding effective cost recovery. Since many of these funds are
from credits, this can lead to worse balance of payments. Inadequate maintenance of
public facilities or infrastructure often forces the private sector to invest directly on the
provision of services which is not always the best solution form the overall city
development perspective.
 Lost job-creation. If effectively planned, the maintenance of infrastructure could be a
basis for promoting local contracting skills and also for generating employment
opportunities. There are many tasks of infrastructure maintenance within the
competence of small local contractors, opening the way for then to gain experience and
expand to large-scale operations. On average, infrastructure maintenance requires an
annual labour input equivalent to 20 percent of the total used in initial construction, but,
where maintenance is poor; little advantage is taken of this job-creation potential.

2. Technical significance

It is becoming increasingly evident that improvement of maintenance is a crucial strategy, in

fact, a required technical input to infrastructure and urban service delivery problems.
Despite the fact that the stock of infrastructure in most developing countries has been attained
by unprecedented capital investment and the stretching of resources to the limit, there is still a
generally inadequate provision of infrastructure services for effective national development. It
is likely that programmes of large-scale construction of infrastructure, which characterized the
initial process of nation-building, will give way to strategies for maximizing returns from
existing capital assets, by maintaining and renovating them for use at optimum efficiency.
Given the present world economic trends, the serious debt situation of many developing
countries, and changing donor priorities, it is clear that the massive investments sustained over
the past 30 years cannot continue at the same rate. Countries are beginning to realize that the
most important option for improving urban service delivery and infrastructure with limited
financial resources is through well-planned operations and maintenance. In addition, if
governments currently find it hard to finance new infrastructure, they will also find it difficulty
to be able to afford the massive rehabilitation of existing stock which will arise out of
continuous neglect of maintenance.

It should be kept in mind that maintenance expenditures could be relatively small. For
example, the routine maintenance of the road network, sewer, and drainage systems, could
sometimes require an annual expenditure of less than 5 percent of the replacement cost of the
facility.

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If maintenance in one sector is ignored, major technical problems can result in others. If roads
are not maintained, the ability of solid-waste vehicles to collect garbage can be severely
hampered. This in turn can result in blocked drains and impaired flood protection works. With
rains, lock flooding will develop, and when combined with waste material, can lead to
premature deterioration of the road surface, thus closing the pernicious cycle of infrastructure
decay. It becomes clear that maintenance is a technical imperative for all sectors of the urban
environment.
In several developing countries, the construction sector operates with many deficiencies, such
as a low level of construction skills, non-adherence to basic quality-control practices, and non-
conformity of construction materials to accepted standards, so that, often a facility is
predetermined to fail by virtue of pervasive incorrect design, construction or installation
practices. The effect of adequate infrastructure maintenance practices is, in these cases,
significant as a corrective measure to faulty design and construction practices. Yet even where
acceptable standards of construction are adhered to, infrastructure is still subject to one form of
deterioration or another and requires maintenance, simply to keep it in working order.

3. Social, health and environmental significance

Even though there is a general situation of unsatisfactory maintenance for infrastructure, the
problem is most significant for low-income settlement. A lack of attention to maintenance of
urban infrastructure can lead to significant impacts on human health.

 Increased prevalence of water-borne diseases, and increasing mortality and

morbidity due to poor maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems. A lack of
upkeep will lead to high leakage rates, low pressures, and service interruptions,
promoting infiltration of raw sewerage into water mains. Similarly, a lack of effective
solid-waste collection and disposal leads to the accumulation of refuse in streets, vacant
lots, and abandoned private and public land. As a result, adjacent communities suffer
from poor sanitary conditions and health problems. Disposal sites are often situated on
the urban fringes, where the poor are most likely to settle. Lack of solid-waste
collection can lead to clogged storm drains, creating short-term, localized flooding,
which can distribute sold and liquid wastes throughout the settled zones. Urban malaria
is still a significant problem, as the breeding of anopheles mosquitoes is made possible
by the water stagnating in urban neighborhoods due to a lack of sanitation, solid waste
collection and drainage. The scarcity and contamination of water supplies and the lack
of sanitation and appropriate sewerage disposal make diarrhea diseases one of the most
important health problems in poor urban areas.

 Negative impacts on the environment. The faulty maintenance of sewerage treatment

plants can lead to the discharge of poorly treated effluents, greatly degrading surface-

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 water quality. Aquatic life in lakes, rivers and streams can be completely disrupted by
oxygen depletion and high nutrient loadings form poorly or untreated sewerage.
Shallow aquifers can easily be contaminated from pit latrines or solid-waste dumps
which are not properly operated or maintained. These polluted water bodies are often
sources for other cities and towns, or even a future source of supply for the polluters
themselves, resulting in poorer water quality, or higher treatment costs for these
citizens. Similarly, the inadequate maintenance of drainage systems leads sometimes to
irreversible processes of soil erosion and the degradation of land resources for urban
uses.

9.4 Issues and Problems in Current Maintenance Practices

Introduction
The table below shows infrastructure services and pertinent public capital assets which require
operation and maintenance.

Main types of physical facilities which require operation and

maintenance

Basic Building Vehicles, plant,

Service infrastructure, structures mechanical and
sectors civil works, electrical equipment
underground
utilities

General Building-site areas, Office, stores, Mechanical, electrical

accessibility, workshops installations, transport
connections vehicles

Highways, access
roads, paved and Pavements, culvert,
Roads inlets,
unpaved
embankments

Water supply Water-supply Basins, treatment Pumps, deep wells,

facilities, plant structures, mechanical/electrical
transmission and water-pumping installations in treatment
distribution mains stations, reservoirs plants, valves, fire
hydrants, public faucets,
house connections, meters,
laboratory equipment.

Main drainage Drains canals, Pumping stations Pumps, gates, control

and flood culverts, dikes, equipment
protection

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works retention basins

Sewerage Pipes, access, holes, Basins, treatment- Pumps, mechanical

systems, low- oxidation ponds plant structures, electrical installations in
cost sanitation public latrines, treatment plants, vehicles
pumping stations for septic tank emptying,
other sanitation systems,
laboratories

Solid-waste Dump sites Stationary Collection vehicles,

collection and communal storage handcarts, containers,
disposal units, transfer standardized dustbins,
stations equipment at dump sites,
composting plants.

The table below shows an overview of common types of infrastructure operations and
maintenance work:

Service Operations Maintenance

sectors

Buildings Cleaning, collection of rent, Painting, clearing of drainage system,

operation of latrines rehabilitation

Grass cutting, drain clearing, culvert

maintenance, repairing potholes and
ruts, patching, sealing cracks,
regravelling shoulders, placement of
Roads Road sweeping
warning signs and diversion works,
resealing

Operation of pumps; operation Leak detection and repair; repair of

and control of treatment valves and fire hydrants and catchment
processes; macro and micro basins; structural maintenance of water
meter reading; connection and storage tanks and other structures;
Water supply
disconnection of consumers protective painting and external
surfaces; motor and pump maintenance.

Desilting of main drain channel;

cleaning of line drains and catchment
Main drains Operation of pumping stations; basins; structural maintenance of drain
and flood operation of warning and lining; cleaning and minor reshaping of
protection control equipment unlined drains; cleaning/clearing of
works culverts.

Sewerage Operation of control of Cleaning of sewer lines; structural

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systems and treatment processes; maintenance of sewers, replacement of
low-cost connection and disconnection sewer pipes; emptying of septic tanks,
sanitation of houses; operation of cutting and sludge removal from waste
communal latrines; night soil stabilization ponds.
collection

Solid-waste Door-to-door collection; street Structural maintenance of communal

collection sweeping; store clean-up; storage units, transfer stations, etc;
and disposal gully/pit emptying; transfer maintenance of drains and other
and haulage to disposal site; installations and disposal sites;
sanitary landfall; operation of maintenance of mechanical plant;
treatment plants. vehicle maintenance.

There are many problems and issues associated with current maintenance practices. These can
be classified into technical, institutional, management, financial and policy problems. The
sections below review these problems and issues in sequence. However, it must be realized
that in most cases the problems are interlinked. For example, often technical problems have
root causes in management and financial issues, and many authorities have significant financial
problems due to policy restrictions on local revenue generation. Thus, a full understanding of
maintenance problems requires a broad perspective on the interrelationship between the
different components of service management, as well as between the different infrastructure
sectors.

1. Technical problems

(a) Inappropriate design and systems

Many maintenance problems are predetermined by the design of the infrastructure itself. In
many countries, traditional engineering training and donor technical assistance programmes
lead to the adoption of norms and standards form developed countries, which are inappropriate
to the technical, economic and financial context into which they are placed. High capital cost,
and overly complex or sophisticated systems can create undue maintenance requirements from
the moment the capital asset becomes operational. Such inappropriate systems require skills
which are not present, parts and supplies which must be important, and financial sources
beyond the capacity of the users, and do not take advantage of the abundant labour and local
resources.

(b) Inappropriate/inadequate technologies

Even where the steps have been taken to provide correct designs to minimize avoidable
maintenance, there are still problems caused by errors in construction and installation on site.
Poor material also contributes to maintenance problems through rapid deterioration. Many
materials for roads or water lines are below standard due to poor quality and inadequate
handling and storage practices. In many countries material specifications are imprecise. In

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other cases, the materials used often do not conform to specifications, due to faulty fabrication,
absence of quality control, and inadequate construction or maintenance supervision. Typically,
the lack of foreign exchange restricts users to poor-quality alternatives.
Maintenance operations are often hampered by limited access to tools, equipment and vehicles.
In many cases, tools or equipment are simply not available due to the lack of foreign exchange
or financial resources. Planned maintenance activities cannot be conducted on schedule, or are
simply ignored, reducing programme effectiveness and frustrating staff. Bad management and
maintenance practices are, to a large extent, responsible for the unsatisfactory state of tools,
equipment and vehicles available to maintenance units. Tools and equipment are either over-
used, requiring replacement prematurely, or under-used, thus not making them cost-effective.

Many maintenance efforts are greatly complicated by a broad mix of different brands and
sources of electromechanical equipment, and vehicles. Due to “tie-aid” and weak procurement
practices, agencies end up with such a huge variety of equipment that spare parts availability
and performance of maintenance tasks become unnecessarily complex.

(c) Lack of skilled manpower

Improper performance of maintenance tasks is also a common problem with can be attributed
to poorly trained, under-paid, unmotivated staff; or a lack of oversight and standards
enforcement by and overtaxed management.

(d) Misuse/abuse of infrastructure

Finally the misuse of infrastructure can cause unnecessary demands for maintenance and
repairs. Poor enforcement of use-requirements and, to some extent, lack of user-involvement
by during project development contributes to much abuse of infrastructural facilities.

2. Institutional problems
Existing institutional arrangements often lead to a dispersion of responsibilities for design
construction, operation or use, and maintenance of a capital asset. Many large projects are
designed by national authorities, and are transferred to localities to operate without any input
form the local population or maintenance units on needs, design suggestions, or maintenance
and revenue generation capabilities. National agencies can thus saddle a local authority with an
unmanageable asset which does not meet local needs. Typically, the maintenance unit often
does not even have access to basic working drawings, to as-built drawings for buried
infrastructure and accessories and to operating manuals for installations and services.
In many cases, due to a multiplicity of intervening institutions, or weak policy directives, there
is a lack of clear institutional responsibilities. This produces gaps in jurisdiction, which in
extreme cases causes the exclusion form attention of whole sections of an infrastructural
network. Often, roles are so poorly defined that a number of agencies are responsible for the

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same tasks but non-perform it expecting others to do so. Such agencies are clearly not
accountable for the services they provide.

There is frequently a complete lack of interagency or interdepartmental communication or

collaboration even among agencies working in the same or related sectors. Many infrastructure
facilities, such as solid waste and drainage interact with others in such a manner that, if one is
poorly maintained, the operation of others is immediately affected. Another example of such
lack of coordination is the recurrent high frequency of street excavations and trenching for
utility repairs which are then poorly reinstated. Coordination between the utilities and street
maintenance crews would help eliminate duplication and disruption of service.
Many local authorities or maintenance units have staffing problems. There is hardly any
relationship between the staff assigned to a maintenance unit and the volume of work required.
Typically agencies are highly overstaffed at the lowest levels (semi-skilled and unskilled
workers) in an effort to combat unemployment, but are critically lacking at the middle and
upper levels (technical and management functions). A number of factors can be cited as
explanation:

 First, public agencies are constrained by low and rigid salary scales, making it hard to
attract competent, motivated staff, particularly in technical and management fields,
where the draw to the private sector is much stronger.
 Staff have few incentives to work or perform to the best of their abilities, leading to
poor morale. Maintenance is often a low-status position, even a professional backwater,
compared with the more glamorous high-investment areas of design and construction.

Very few local agencies have any staff training programmes. In addition, maintenance is not a
common subject for local engineering or management training. If discussed, the subject of
maintenance is normally treated in a superficial manner. Efforts to train individuals abroad in
an isolated and programmed manner have been unfruitful. A few training strategies, such as in-
service training and programmes geared to training entire institutions, have yielded good results
but are usually not widely applied. Areas of training that have received the least attention are
in overall maintenance management, especially needs assessment, quality-control practices and
financial management.

Local authorities are reluctant or poorly equipped to take advantage of possibilities for
contracting out certain maintenance activities. Many civil servants are biased against private
contractors, assuming costs will be exorbitant. Local contractors would often be cheaper, but
local authorities have little experience in contract development or monitoring. National
governments usually put little effort into assisting local agencies to introduce contracting.

National and local authorities are also often poor at mobilizing local community participation
and input in infrastructure projects. Not only would such efforts lead to projects which better

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serve real demand, but such “ownership” would greatly support for cost recovery as well as
direct participation in maintenance efforts.

3. Management problems

Many maintenance units in local authorities operate in a crisis-management atmosphere,

hurriedly running from one repair to the next. They are rarely sufficiently organized to perform
preventive maintenance tasks, so frequent repairs and breakdowns continue in a cyclic fashion.
The causes for this state of affairs are many. First of all, many agencies lack qualified and
experienced management staff, as noted above. Supervision is usually minimal; field
inspections too sparse, and their timing unpredictable; little if nay appraisal is made of work
done to guide staff as to what standards are expected of them; and job assignments are too
vague to inculcate a sense of duty and accountability. Daily activity reporting is not adequately
maintained, and communications between field staff and central offices are often not
expeditious.

Secondly, maintenance offices rarely conduct planning, programming and budgeting based on
an assessment of needs. Staff have not standards for the nature and timing of maintenance, nor
standards on how much effort or funds a given activity should require. These standards form
the basis of plans and budgets, but they are usually absent. Budgetary allocations are based on
ad-hoc repetitions of previous budgets, and rarely repetitions of previous budgets, and rarely
reflect actual needs.

Thirdly, few agencies have inventories or conditions assessments upon which to base such
plans. Considerable time is wasted in the diagnosis of problems, as workers as managers do
not have the detailed information on the assets they are working on. Also, they have little
information on where the maintenance needs are the greatest, focusing instead on those where
complaints are the loudest.

Fourthly, the lack of a maintenance plan often is accompanied by the absence of simple
systems to direct staff, such as work order systems. Next, they pay little attention to
accumulating records of maintenance performed, or analyzing them to evaluate equipment
performance and identified problems. A typical reason for delays in reason for delays in
response to even crisis-maintenance requests is that materials, parts and tools are out of stock.
Thus is the result of a fundamental management deficiency, arising from poor procedures for
stores and stock control. In addition, maintenance management spends little time monitoring
the progress of work, evaluating performance, and establishing targets for their work. With no
framework for evaluation, staff and management are wandering through their appointed tasks
without direction or goal.

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Lastly, it must be pointed out that the poor condition of many infrastructure assets creates a
high incidence of failures and problems, fostering the crisis atmosphere. The4 cycle could be
broken if management could be improved, the maintenance approach shifted to planned
preventive actions, systems rehabilitated and maintained, and the work stabilized into an
effective and efficient service delivery operation.

4. Legislative and policy problems

Legislative barriers in some countries directly affect the efficiency of maintenance. For
instance, it is not uncommon to find cases where the use or non-use of sub-contractual
arrangements to carry out maintenance is predetermined by laws based on no technical criteria.
In other countries, there is legislation defining geographical jurisdictions for maintenance units,
leading to the neglect of some infrastructural facilities which are not clearly covered by the law.

Often, poor revenue generation is a consequence of legislative barriers. For example, even
though property taxes are intended to be the principal source of revenue for most local
authorities entrusted with maintenance functions, the poor to set the rates does not rest with
them. There are cases where rates have remained unchanged for 15 to 20 years. Frequently,
maintenance units whose operations could readily be based on cost-recovery principles are not
empowered to charge realistic rates for the use of facilities or to revise charges to reflect
realistic expenditures or to enforce charges against defaulters, and, more importantly, do not
posses the authority to explore innovative and tested strategies for revenue generation.

Maintenance often is a low priority on the agenda of political decision-makers. This may be
caused by a lack of understanding of the financial and economic consequences of poor
maintenance and infrastructure deterioration. Political processes tend to fevour large capital
projects which appeal to political constituencies, and lend status to those who plan and foster
them.

Similarly, donor agency practices may lead developing-country governments to be biased

against maintenance. Donor funds are almost always oriented toward loans or grants for capital
projects, leaving maintenance to the governments. Donors often are more concerned with
ensuring the isolated soundness of capital-investment projects than assuring that those
investments are accompanied by maintenance plans and improvements, to reach well defined
service-delivery targets. Donors do not give sufficient attention to maintenance procedures and
service-delivery results, when monitoring loan programmes.

Lastly governments do not have the policy-making apparatus to analyse current policies and
develop improved ones. Directives from central government are often unclear and incomplete.
Line ministries do not have the staff with the experience or interest to assess the maintenance

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policy framework, evaluate impacts of policy decisions, and begin to work with local
authorities to evaluate policy options and assist in their implementation.

5. Financial problems and issues

Local authorities suffer from a host of problems relating to the financing of maintenance,
including inadequate financial resources, obsolete accounting systems, weak budgeting,
problems with central/local relations, and a lack of concern for financial performance and
accountability.
Local authorities are often poor at generating local revenue, because they never had to depend
on these resources. But as the amount of national government transfers declines, local financial
performance is becoming more critical. Revenue collection is commonly under 50 percent of
the potential. Deficiencies in legal mandates to impose taxes, outdated assessments and rates,
inadequate cadastres, inefficient billing and collection procedures, and delinquent payments are
some of the common reasons for poor general revenue collection.

Direct cost recovery is also problematic. Weak policy guidelines, national restricts, inability to
compute necessary charges accurately, opposition to raising tariffs to requisite levels, and
inefficient billing and collection procedures are some of the common reasons for low direct
cost recovery. Even in potentially high revenue-generating sectors, such as water supply, many
government agencies record losses. Some of these aspects are discussed in more detail below.

(a) Inadequate financial resources

These may be due to;

 An inadequate revenue-collection authority which is a product of not assigning certain

powers for taxing to the local authority and of limitations on setting the rates for certain
taxes.
 Even when local authorities have adequate revenue-generation powers, there are often
problems with the local revenue base.
o First of all, there may be too many individual revenue sources, making it
difficult to focus on the most productive ones.
o Secondly, local taxes are subject to uncontrollably variable revenue yields. For
example, revenues based on the volume of trade passing through a city would
drop catastrophically if that trade were cut off to a jurisdiction because of re-
routing of a road.
o Thirdly, personnel systems can make tax administration unfeasible. Tax
assessors and collectors may be paid at compensation levels far short of a
practical living wage resulting in few or no personnel resistant to graft, or
personnel may be rotated in and out of positions so frequently and haphazardly
that little competence can be established.

The combined result of limited authority and poor revenue collection is a fiscal capacity will
below the need for funding local public services.

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On the expenditure side, local-government operating budgets are dominated by personnel costs
which tend to rise as fast as revenues will allow. While salary levels are normally set by
central government for all government personnel and cannot be controlled by local
government, the number of employees is often at the discretion of local government. In
general, local governments tend to be overstaffed at the lower skill levels (e.g., street sweepers)
and understaffed at the higher skill levels (service department managers, engineers, finance and
accounting). This means that planning and supervision of technical services and financial
administration tend to be poor.

(b) Obsolete accounting systems and practices

Accounting systems typically provide minimum information for financial management.

Designed primarily to restrict the spending of funds to authorized line items only, accounting
system are rarely designed to inform a manager of the relationship of funds expended to
services provided. Even where programme accounting exists, manual methods often produce
inaccurate and untimely statements. The almost complete lack of automation of accounting
slows down monthly, quarterly, and annual accounting reports, sometimes to the point of
rendering them virtually useless. Should fraud prevail, efforts to improve accounting practices
meet resistance calculated to prevent improvements to the system.
Similarly, accurate accounts of the costs of delivering services are almost non-existent in the
local authorities of most developing countries. Cost accounting systems are crucial to
maintenance in that sound decisions depend on accurate costing of jobs to repair sewer or water
maintenance units. This is compounded by mangers and governing boards who ignore the cost
issues of local service provision.

(c) Faculty budgeting systems and practices

Too often budgeting systems militate against sound resource allocation. The budget process, as
practiced in many local jurisdictions, fails to raise fundamental issues on revenue and spending.
It fails to spur analysis and investigation aligned at reprioritizing operations and raising the
efficiency and effectiveness of those operations. Instead, the revenue and expenditure histories
of previous years are repeated. Budgeting becomes and exercise performed by an accounting
clerk simply copying one year’s appropriations directly into the next.

In many countries, the local-authority budgeting process is not accorded adequate supervision
by the central government. While most countries require formal submission of annual budgets
from local authorities, few provide a detailed examination or monitor compliance with the
budget. Where compliance is required, multiple revisions of local budgets are common,
making the budgeting process a mere academic exercise. Again, as is the case with accounting
systems, the lack of basic automation promotes a static approach to budgeting. Forecasting
techniques, likewise, suffer from a lack of basic automation and simple-to-use software
operating on low cost microcomputers. Staff, all too familiar with a static regulatory and

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administrative environment, that stifles initiative, fails to take advantage of these newer
technologies.

9.5 Planning, Programming, Budgeting and Management of Infrastructure Maintenance

The improvement of planning, programming, budgeting and management is crucial to ensuring

the efficiency and effectiveness of urban service delivery. Many of the deficiencies in
maintenance are linked to weak planning, ad-hoc budgeting, and poor management. This
chapter outlines an approach to planning and budgeting, based mostly on the notion of
preventive maintenance and task-oriented budgeting, and describes a series of management
tools that will assist in implementing such a programme.

A. Initial steps in planning infrastructure maintenance

1. Asset inventories and condition assessments
The first step in planning maintenance will be to conduct a detailed inventory and condition
assessment of all assets, fixed or mobile. The purpose of such an inventory is to identify and
collect technical information on each asset to be maintained. The purpose of a condition
assessment is to define general as well as specific data on maintenance, repair and
rehabilitation needs. Inventories also form the database upon which regular record-keeping is
based, as discussed later in this chapter. These tasks will require a massive effort to collect the
process field data, especially if such inventories do not exist, or are out of date. Efforts should
not stop with a one-time inventory and assessment; follow up inventory and inspection efforts
must continue on an annual basis to keep the information up-to-data, and kept maintenance
plans tuned to the real needs in the field. The following are the conditions involved.

 The initial step in the inventory/condition assessment process is to determine the

jurisdiction of the maintenance authority in question: that is; to determine the
geographical and functional zone of infrastructure elements to be maintained.
 The next step is to develop a complete list of all hardware, with relevant technical
details. Any existing maps or records will be the obvious starting place. However, as
new systems or facilities are designed and constructed, engineering drawings of
infrastructure elements such as pumping stations, sewer lines and drains should be
available. The final as-built drawings will help immensely towards establishing this
inventory. However, there will be many cases where not up-to-date, reliable drawings
exist, so a lengthy inventory process must be undertaken. Simple inventory forms will
have to be developed, and completed site by site.
 Once the raw data have been collected, summary lists can be prepared. For example,
lists could be developed by location (street, water main) and by function (pumping
stations, vehicle workshops, distribution transformers etc.). Such aggregate data can
begin to build a picture of the overall condition of assets in each sector and in the
combined infrastructure condition.
 As field data are being collected, condition assessments can be performed, and results
noted on the same form as the inventory sheets, or separately. Rating of the condition
of infrastructural elements and vehicles and equipment can be made using the following
scale.

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Good: The utility value of the existing asset is not essentially different from the utility value of
a similar asset.

Fair: Maintenance/rehabilitation is needed, but the condition of the asset does not yet impose
severe constraints on its utilization.

Poor: The asset is seriously deteriorated or will deteriorate within several ears.
Comprehensive rehabilitation or replacement is required.

2. Resource inventory
An inventory of the human and financial resources for maintenance should be conducted along
with the inventory of physical infrastructure to be maintained. These are the basic inputs
required for the planning process. The following is a list of useful data to collect and indicators
to develop such as:

Materials:
Indicators to be used to examine material, equipment and facilities resources in maintenance
agencies and department include:

 Vehicles: inventory with data on type, age, condition and availability

 Workshops and special facilities: inventory and condition
 Workshop tools and equipment: inventory and condition
 Stores for tools, equipment, spares, materials: procedures used, shortfalls incurred
Finance:
Indicators to be used to examine financing practice and resources in maintenance units include:

 Source of funds
 Annual maintenance expenditure
 Percentage ratio of annual maintenance expenditure to new capital investment.
Staffing:

 Existence of a staff inventory

 Availability of job descriptions
 Staff turnover rate
 Staff internally recruited as percentage
 Typical number of applicants for vacant positions.
 Ratio between salary/benefits in public versus private sector
 Breakdown between professional/craftsperson/unskilled staff.
 Total staff per unit of infrastructure or urban service delivery

3. Task identification and definition

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Once a detailed inventory of the infrastructure to be maintained has been developed, the
maintenance tasks which must performed on each element must be identified. Three types of
maintenance tasks will have to be identified:

 preventive maintenance,
 common corrective maintenance,
 And rehabilitation tasks.
For each task, the identification should include data on: task name, brief description, and
frequency (daily, monthly, annually, and biannually).

Another way of viewing task definitions is to consider them as maintenance-work quality

standards; thus, they define the level of maintenance service that should be provided. For
example, the frequency of defect detection efforts on roads will define the level of maintenance
service, with impacts on service provision and on other infrastructure sectors. Choosing
standards will be a difficulty trade-off between maintenance expenditure, rehabilitation
expense, and capital investment in replacement of the assets. This issue is discussed in more
detail when multi-year maintenance planning is discussed later in this chapter.
Discussions with other users of the equipment may also be useful, but the same cautions should
apply. Thus the task identification must often start from zero. For vehicle, pumps, engines and
other electromechanical equipment, the best place to start is the recommendations of the
manufacturer, which should be able to specify the above data on each task to be done.
Engineering handbooks and manuals will also be useful references. A final source of
information would be outside consultants with maintenance planning experience with the
relevant equipment.

4. Maintenance task standards

The standards must be developed for planning programming and budgeting purposes, but also
to guide actual implementation, and facilitate monitoring and evaluation of performance. The
primary purpose of standards, as opposed to the task descriptions, is to identify the resources
(human, material and equipment) necessary to complete a given task. With a predetermined
target, crews and workers can be made accountable for their time and expenditures, promoting
more efficient work. Managers can easily measure performance and analyze variances, and can
be held accountable themselves to the workers they direct.
A maintenance task standard should specify:

 Task name;
 Task description
 Task code;
 Date of maintenance standard;
 Task steps or work methods;
 Personnel, equipment and materials needed;
 Work measurement unit;
 Estimated productivity (such as work measurement units/day);
 Estimated cost per work unit, based on costs of labour, materials and equipment.

By Paddy Ahimbisibwe +256-702-550045 [email protected] Page 111

Maintenance standards demand a significant amount of work to develop. Local skills, tools,
maintenance practice and costs make standards specific to one location. Thus, standards have
to be developed probably at national level, with some allowance for local modifications.

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CHAPTER TEN
10.0 PROTECTION OF STRUCTURES.

Protection of structures is the process of using external building materials on the roof and walls
to enclose a house, providing protection against weather and external forces.
Structures are protected against rain, fire, wind, earthquake and sunlight.

10.1 Building cladding

Building cladding is an exterior finish material that is installed over the wall framing or
building support structure. It serves a dual purpose of improving the appearance of the building
and helping to keep outdoor elements out. Cladding itself may not be water or wind resistant,
but combined with other waterproofing elements like building wrap and insulation, cladding
systems help to complete the exterior walls of a building. Cladding comes in many forms and
materials, which are generally chosen based on the design and aesthetics of the building.

In different parts of the world, the words ‘cladding’ or ‘weatherboard’ are also used as a
substitute to the word ‘cladding’.

Types of Cladding for Buildings:

Vinyl Cladding

It is the most common exterior finish used on most of tall buildings in Kampala (e.g Workers
house) . This material is made from rows of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin panels. It is a cheap
cladding material that is easy to cut, install and replace as necessary. As green building
interests increase, more and more attention is being paid to the off-gassing effects of PVC
cladding. This material is said to release toxic fumes as it interacts with the air. These elements
can potentially be harmful to humans, and may irritate respiratory illnesses like asthma.

Stone Veneer

One of the more expensive ways to clad a building is to use brick or stone veneer. This product
requires a high upfront investment, but will likely last for decades once installed, and needs no
maintenance. Masonry veneer may consist of various types of brick, stone, or clay products
attached to structural framing.

Advantages:

 It is installed with an empty air space between the building and the back of the stone.
 Weep holes placed at the bottom of this opening allow for excellent drainage, and help
keep water out of the building itself.

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  This cavity provides plenty of space to install building insulation, particularly rigid
foam boards, which can help control temperature and reduce heating and cooling costs.

EIFS (Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems)

EIFS are one of today's most popular exterior cladding products for commercial buildings such
as schools, offices, and high rises. EIFS is a system of plastic insulating panels covered by a
synthetic stucco-like material. The finish on these walls can mimic the texture of stucco or
plaster, or can be toweled so smooth that it looks like a solid piece of stone. Dyes and pigments
are used to color EIFS as it is applied, or it can be painted. It also aids in improved drainage
mechanism.

Wood Cladding

Wood cladding and shingles are very common types of cladding. This material is made up of
wood planks derived from oak, pine and cedar trees. When rows are installed so that they
overlap, the effect is called "clapboard," leading to the term "clapboard house." Wood cladding
is naturally weather-resistant, environment-friendly and thermally insulating. This material is
quite durable, but requires more maintenance than most other kinds of cladding. It must be
treated for termites every few years, and tends to need repainting or a touch-up quite
frequently.

Metal Cladding

Metal cladding comes in two basic varieties. There is the corrugated steel used on storage
buildings, and aluminum panels or cladding used mostly on homes. Corrugated steel is popular
on buildings where appearance isn't really an issue. This product is extremely strong and
durable, and will last for years with no maintenance. While rust can be a problem, it can be
avoided through the use of galvanized metal. Aluminum cladding, on the other hand, is a
popular cladding for homes in coastal areas. The aluminum will not rust or corrode when
exposed to moisture or saltwater, and can withstand storms and harsh conditions better than
many other cladding products. Metal cladding in general is fairly expensive, though it is
resistant to rot, termites, and most kinds of damage.

10.2 Protection against Fire

Structural fire protection in buildings is typically achieved via three means:

 Passive fire protection (use of integral, fire-resistance rated wall and floor assemblies
that are used to form fire compartments intended to limit the spread of fire, or
occupancy separations, or firewalls, to keep fires, high temperatures and flue gases
within the fire compartment of origin, thus enabling firefighting and evacuation)
 Active fire protection (manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires, as in
using and installing a fire sprinkler system or finding the fire (fire alarm) and/or
extinguishing it)

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  Education (ensuring that building owners and operators have copies and a working
understanding of the applicable building and fire codes, having a purpose-designed fire
safety plan and ensuring that building occupants, operators and emergency personnel
know the building, its means of Active fire protection and Passive fire protection, its
weak spots and strengths to ensure the highest possible level of safety)

10.2 Protection against Lightning

Lightning Protection System

Lightning is a huge static electric spark created during a thunderstorm. Lightning strikes can be
damaging to buildings and equipment, as well as dangerous to people.

Buildings often use a lightning protection system consisting of a lightning rod (also called a
lightning conductor) and metal cables to divert and conduct the electrical charges safely into
the ground. Another form of lightning protection system creates a short circuit to prevent
damage to equipment

Questions you may have include:

 How are buildings protected from lightning?

 How is equipment protected?

Protecting buildings

When lightning jumps toward the earth from a cloud during a thunderstorm, it will seek out the
highest structure that has collected electrical charges opposite of the static electric charges in
the cloud. A high tree in a field or a tall building can be likely lightning targets.

Lightning rod invented

In 1752, Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning rod, which was meant to extend above a
building and attract the lightning bolt to the rod, where it could be diverted harmlessly to the
ground.

Lighting diversion system

A lightning rod (also called lightning conductor) is just part of a lighting diversion system
meant to protect building from damage due to a lightning strike. Included in the system is the
metal cable or rod that extends down into the ground and electrodes in the earth to safely
dissipate the energy away. Often buildings prone to being struck by lightning will have a
network of lightning rods and conductors.

The idea is that the electricity will take the path of least resistance and thus bypass the structure
of the building as it travels to the ground. But also, the configuration of tip of the lightning rod
is such that it is a good receptor for lightning.

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Fig 10.1 A simple lightning protection system

Round tip better

When Franklin invented the lightning rod, he felt that a sharp tip would be best for attracting
electrical charges and thus lightning. It wasn't until 2000 that scientists at the Langmuir
Laboratory for Atmospheric Research in New Mexico proved that a rod with a rounded or
spherical end works better.

Protecting sensitive equipment

When lightning strikes an electrical power line or communication line external to a building or
when it strikes a building and jumps to one of those lines, it can create a surge of current that
will burn out or damage electronic instrument and computers.

Lightning arrester is at input to building

A lightning arrester is a device that is connected between each electrical conductor in a power
and a communications system and the Earth or ground. They create a means to short circuit the
surge in power, limiting the rise in voltage. Usually, lightning arresters are placed where the
power and communication lines enter the building.

10.3 Protection against Earthquake

Earthquake-resistant structures are structures designed to withstand earthquakes. While no

structure can be entirely immune to damage from earthquakes, the goal of earthquake-resistant
construction is to erect structures that fair better during seismic activity than their conventional
counterparts.

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According to building codes, earthquake-resistant structures are intended to withstand the
largest earthquake of a certain probability that is likely to occur at their location. This means
the loss of life should be minimized by preventing collapse of the buildings for rare
earthquakes while the loss of functionality should be limited for more frequent ones.

To combat earthquake destruction, the only method available to ancient architects was to build
their landmark structures to last, often by making them excessively stiff and strong, like the El
Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza.

Currently, there are several design philosophies in earthquake engineering, making use of
experimental results, computer simulations and observations from past earthquakes to offer the
required performance for the seismic threat at the site of interest. These range from
appropriately sizing the structure to be strong and ductile enough to survive the shaking with an
acceptable damage, to equipping it with base isolation or using structural vibration control
technologies to minimize any forces and deformations. While the former is the method
typically applied in most earthquake-resistant structures, important facilities, landmarks and
cultural heritage buildings use the more advanced (and expensive) techniques of isolation or
control to survive strong shaking with minimal damage.

Combined vibration control solution

Fig 10.3Seismically retrofitted Municipal Services Building

in Glendale, CA

Fig 10.2 Close-up of abutment of seismically retrofitted Municipal Services Building in

Glendale, CA

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Steel plate shear walls system

Fig 10.4 Coupled steel plate shear walls, Seattle, Copyright Mehdi Kharrazi

Simple roller bearing

Simple roller bearing is a base isolation device which is intended for protection of various
building and non-building structures against potentially damaging lateral impacts of strong
earthquakes.

This metallic bearing support may be adapted, with certain precautions, as a seismic isolator to
skyscrapers and buildings on soft ground. Recently, it has been employed under the name of
Metallic Roller Bearing for a housing complex (17 stories) in Tokyo, Japan.[29]

Springs-with-damper base isolator

Fig 10.5 Springs-with-damper close-up

Springs-with-damper base isolator installed under a three-story town-house, Santa Monica,

California

10.4 Protection against Rain

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10.4.1 Rain Gutter

A rain gutter is a narrow channel, or trough, forming the component of a roof system which
collects and diverts rainwater shed by the roof. It is also known as an eaves trough, eaves
channel guttering or simply as a gutter.

Description

The main purpose of a rain gutter is to protect a building's foundation by channeling water
away from its base. The gutter also helps to reduce erosion, prevents leaks in basements and
crawlspaces, protects painted or stained surfaces by reducing exposure to water, and provides a
means to collect rainwater for later use.

Rain gutters can be made from a variety of materials such as cast iron, lead, zinc, galvanised
steel, painted steel, copper, painted aluminium, PVC (and other plastics), concrete, stone, and
wood. More information on copper rain gutters is available.

Water collected by a rain gutter is fed, usually via a downspout (traditionally called a leader or
conductor, from the roof edge to the base of the building where it is either discharged or
collected. Water from rain gutters may be collected in a rain barrel or a cistern.

Types of gutters

A rain gutter may be a:

 Roof integral trough along the lower edge of the roof slope which is fashioned from
the roof covering and flashing materials.
 Discrete trough of metal or other material that is suspended beyond the roof edge and
below the projected slope of the roof.
 Wall integral structure beneath the roof edge, traditionally constructed of masonry,
fashioned as the crowning element of a wall.

A Box gutter is a deep gutter which is concealed within the structure of the roof.

Fig 10.6 Commercial Box Gutter

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Cold forming technology exists to allow continuous gutters to be created, on site, in long
individual lengths suitable to roof edge conditions, thereby reducing joints along the length of
the gutter. These mostly joint free gutters are referred to as "seamless", and available in various
shapes, sizes, and finishes.

Rain gutters can be equipped with gutter screens, micro mesh screens, louvers or solid hoods to
allow water from the roof to flow through, while reducing passage of roof debris into the gutter.

Precautions

Broken gutter. Weeds in roof gutter

Fig 10.7 Dripping of water from an open rain gutter

Clogged gutters can cause water leakage into the house as the water backs up. Clogged gutters
can also lead to stagnant water build up which allows mosquitoes to breed and also allows
grasses and weeds to grow in the gutter.

Gutters must be maintained regularly to remove leaves and other debris to keep them from
clogging. Gutters that are filled with debris can overflow and soak the foundation, damage the
roof structure, and exacerbate ice dams in cold climates.

Effective gutter guards that keep debris out but allow water to enter are a good alternative to
regular cleaning.

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Gutter protection devices include strainers, snap-in metal and plastic gutter guards, filtered
gutter guards, stainless steel gutter guards, hinged gutter guards, plastic and metal total gutter
covers, and even gutter brushes that look like hairy caterpillars.

Regardless of the gutter guard protection used, all gutter systems should be examined for
cleaning and repair twice every year.

Another option is to use a closed gutter to ensure that debris and leaves do not enter the gutter.
The continuous hanger is a way to protect gutters from clogging and damage while reducing
required cleaning to a minimum.

10.4.2 Storm Drain

A storm drain, storm sewer (US), storm water drain (Australia and New Zealand) or
drainage well system (UK) or simply a drain or drain system is designed to drain excess rain
and ground water from paved streets, parking lots, sidewalks, and roofs. Storm drains vary in
design from small residential dry wells to large municipal systems. They are fed by street
gutters on most motorways, freeways and other busy roads, as well as towns in areas which
experience heavy rainfall, flooding and coastal towns which experience regular storms. Many
storm drainage systems are designed to drain the storm water, untreated, into rivers or streams.

There are two main types of stormwater drain (storm sewer) inlets: side inlets and grated inlets.
Side inlets are located adjacent to the curb (kerb) and rely on the ability of the opening under
the backstone or lintel to capture flow. They are usually depressed at the invert of the channel
to improve capture capacity.

Many inlets have gratings or grids to prevent people, vehicles, large objects or debris from
falling into the storm drain. Grate bars are spaced so that the flow of water is not impeded.
Consequently sediment and many small objects can fall through. Also, if grate bars are too far
apart, the openings may present a risk to pedestrians, bicyclists, and others in the area. Grates
with long narrow slots parallel to traffic are of particular concern to cyclists, as the front tire of
a bicycle may become stuck, causing the cyclist to go over the handlebars or lose control and
fall. Storm drains in streets and parking areas must be strong enough to support the weight of
vehicles.

Full view of a storm drain (Ontario, Canada)

Old storm drain in Kutná Hora, the Czech Republic

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 Urban runoff entering a storm drain

Fig 10.8 Old German storm drain in Küstrin (now Kostrzyn nad Odrą in Poland)

Weather guard paint

Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition which, after application to a substrate in
a thin layer, is converted to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, color or provide
texture to objects.

For external use against rain, weather guard paints are a used to protect structures.

By Paddy Ahimbisibwe +256-702-550045 [email protected] Page 122

CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.0 INDUSTRIALISED AND SYSTEM BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.

11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Industrialisation: This can be defined essentially as an organisational process aimed at
continuity of production implying a steady flow of demand; standardisation; integration of the
different stages of the whole production process; a high degree of organisation of work;
mechanisation to replace human labour wherever possible; research and organized
experimentation integrated with production.
According to International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction
(CIB) TG57, industrialisation involves the rationalization of the whole process of building
(which includes the process of design, the forms of construction used and the methods of
building adopted), in order to achieve integration of design, supply of materials, fabrication and
assembly so that building work is carried out more quickly and with less labour on site and, if
possible, at less cost. Industrialisation of construction deals with the rationalisation of the
construction process through prefabrication, extensive on-site use of forms, equipment, and
advanced labour saving finish technologies. Industrialisation is basically the aggregation of a
large market to divide into fractions the investment in strategies and technologies capable, in
return of simplifying the production and therefore reducing the costs.
11.1.2 System Building or System Engineering (SE) of construction is an interdisciplinary
field of engineering, which focuses on the development and organization of a complex artificial
system. It integrates other disciplines and specialty groups into a team effort, forming a
structured development process that proceeds from concept to production, operation and
disposal. Systems engineering considers both the business and the technical needs of all
customers, with the goal of providing a quality product that meets the user needs
System building focuses on defining customer (client) needs and required functionality early in
the development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and
system validation while considering the complete problem (system lifecycle). System building
construction process can be decomposed into a Systems Engineering Technical Process, and a
Systems Engineering Management Process. Within the model, the goal of the Management
Process is to organize the technical effort in the lifecycle, while the Technical Process includes
assessing available information, defining effectiveness measures, to create a behavior model,
create a structure model, perform trade-off analysis(try to weigh options), and create sequential
build & test plan. Depending on their application, although there are several models that are
used in the industry, all of them aim to identify the relation between the various stages
mentioned above and incorporate feedback.

11.1.3 Why industrialise construction?

Increasing heavy demands for the products of the building industry were made in the years
following the end of the Second World War during the reconstruction programmes. Since this
War, the world population has more than doubled. Currently, the demand on housing is very
high and the number of homeless people has been growing. For example, more than 25 % of
the population in Uganda does not have an adequate shelter. There are also a big number of
huge construction projects, which are undertaken. While the increase in demand of construction

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products is happening, there is a growing shortage of skilled manpower. Shortage of manpower
is unlikely to diminish to any significant extent. To deliver quality architecture to the vast
majority of people, the building industry should move to full industrialisation. The problem of
low and decreasing labour productivity is typical of many countries. For example, labour
productivity in the United States has continued to slowly decline (with a few exceptions) over
the past 25–30 years. Comparison was drawn largely from the car industry and found that
industrialisation would reduce the cost of construction by 30 % when increasing productivity.
The level of industrialisation in Uganda seems to be low. For example, most workers do not
have all necessary tools and equipment to help them in the construction process. Lack of
necessary tools and equipment coupled with low skill levels and poor management generally
have led to low levels of productivity. Industrialisation of construction is needed to increase the
productivity of the industry while at the same time reducing the amount of site labour involved.

11.2 Classification of industrialisation

The existing strategies for industrialisation can be divided into:

 On-site industrialisation and

 Off-site industrialisation.
Another split in industrialisation strategies is between the:

 Product industrialisation and

 The process industrialisation.

11.2.1On-site and off-site industrialisation

Off-site industrialisation is based on the assumption that buildings may also be made in
factories. Prefabrication is the production of construction components using factory
mechanization. It refers to the manufacture and assembly of buildings or parts of buildings
ahead of time that would traditionally be constructed in-situ on site and usually takes place at a
manufacturing facility remote from the site. The factory setting enhances affordability through
a combination of quantity purchasing of materials, mass production, assembly techniques and
use of less skilled labour. The ultimate goal is a radical change that will lead to new buildings,
fully constructed with prefabricated elements assembled on site, ready for use. In the housing
industry some systems are already successful. Prefabrication may take one of these forms:

 Prefabricated components,
 Modular housing, and
 Manufactured housing.
On the other hand, on-site industrialisation refers to the application of advanced tools and
technologies on building sites. Some examples are Ground Positioning System (GPS),
assembly of big prefabricated units, identification of elements with bar codes, just is time
deliveries, self-climbing formwork, self-levelling concrete, robotic finishing etc.).

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11.2.2 Product industrialisation and process industrialisation
Product industrialisation focuses on the technological aspect of building. On-site and off-site
are both examples of product industrialisation. On the other hand, process industrialisation is
concerned with how parties are cooperating, contractually and informally. It deals with Design
and Build contracts or with more advanced strategies like Private Finance Initiative (PFI),
Design Build Market and Operate (DBMO).

11.3 Key factors of industrialisation

The key factors of industrialisation of any industry and construction in particular include the
following.
• Materials
Materials should be available all the time and when they are needed to avoid unnecessary
delays. In this the paradigms of Just-In-Time (JIT) and Supply Chain Management are
pertinent. The materials should also be in a form that they are ready to fix into the building and
not raw materials that have to be processed on site in order to be able to fix them. In this regard,
the concepts of prefabrication are relevant. Industrialisation assumes that most materials are
standardised that materials and components can be manufactured in several places but they can
fit in the final product without discrimination based on origin. The components should be easily
identifiable by bar codes just like other products.
• Methods
The methods employed in industrial construction should allow a continuous flow of inputs and
products. Methods are studied for optimising resources. Industrialisation leads to
documentation, so the methods and procedures are clearly spelt out such as advanced in the
concept of Total Quality Management
• Men
Men should be skilled in whatever they are doing. Industrialisation promotes specialisation so
that the people develop expertise in whatever they are doing. Industrialisation assumes that few
people are employed and are supported with tools/machines, so that they are not overworked
and their health and safety conditions are well cared for.

• Markets
Industrialisation is usually based on the premise that there will be steady markets for the
products so that the flow of products does not stop. The products also must be flexible to satisfy
the varying requirements of customers. Industrialisation flourishes where the economies of
scale are favoured.
• Money

The assumption made here is that the party that has the money takes the risk to finance the
product just like in the cases of Private Finance Initiatives (PFI) and its variants of Turnkey,
Build, Own, Operate and Transfer (BOOT), Design, Build, Market and Operate (DBMO).

• Machines

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Industrialisation calls for using the modern technologies such as robots to replace the archaic
methods that were mainly labour-based. Other examples are the use of self-climbing formwork
and GPS positioning. Industrialisation assumes that the basic tools are available and there is a
development of processes and tools.

• Management
This requires a high degree of organisation of work so as to minimise delays and wastage. Once
again, industrialisation concepts, like JIT, Supply Chain has to be adhered to.

The above factors notwithstanding, there is conservatism in the construction industry. Manual
labour has been used in the construction industry for many generations. People are scared of
loosing jobs because of being substituted by machines. Failure to adopt technological change is
a great barrier to industrialisation in construction. There are many cultural issues in
construction. For example, women are not commonly employed on construction sites in many
parts of the world while they form the bigger percentage of the population.

11.4. Advantages and disadvantages of industrialisation in construction

11.4.1. Advantages
The advantages of pre-assembly and standardisation include:

 Speed of construction, with consequent shorter construction periods

 lower cost,
 Reduced need for skilled labour,
 high technical quality,
 independence of weather,
 reduction in manufacturing costs,
 Fewer interface and tolerance problems, and more efficient research and development
of components.
Prefabrication of the housing components such as windows, doors, and cabinets, has been a
long main stay of the construction industry, keeping the costs down by reducing on-site, high-
cost labour. Modular housing involves the prefabrication of sections of housing that are
assembled on site, thereby reducing significantly on-site labour costs. The construction industry
needs to make a greater use of prefabrication in undertaking projects in order to overcome
manpower shortage. Continued development of prefabrication provides a growing range of
construction products that may further reduce construction costs. Industrialisation will lead to
improved quality of the products. There is a greater precision and consistency in quality.
Industrialisation enables production under controlled conditions, often inside a factory or
specialised works, hence protecting products from bad weather. Industrialisation minimises site
activity. There is reduction in construction hazards leading to improvement in the workers’ site
safety and health. Prefabrication can simplify temporary or permanent removal or replacement
with minimum disruption. For example, modular plant rooms located on the roof of a building
can be removed and replaced in one operation over a weekend shutdown. Prefabrication
optimises the location of the work where it is more efficiently built in this way. Sometimes this

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is the only option. It allows suppliers and contractors to exploit special skills or specialised
equipment. Expensive or specialized components can be kept secure till installation in final
position. For projects on remote sites, relocating the work to workshops could mean a better
access to the skilled labour. Industrialisation and particularly prefabrication will lead to a big
reduction in the overall duration of a construction project if well-planned in advance. Process
industrialisation leads to transfer of risks from the clients to the suppliers and contractors. This
in a way encourages innovation since the risk takers will be forced to find ways of creating and
implementing change in the construction industry. Industrialisation taking into account mass
production will lead to reduced costs, when the quantities of work are beyond the minimum
economic order quantities.

11.4.2 Disadvantages
The use of machines to replace manpower reduces on the jobs available for human labour. In
some countries where unemployment is high, this can exacerbate the problem. Therefore the
increased use of industrialisation might lead to higher levels of unemployment. Care has to be
taken to use appropriate levels of industrialisation.
For optimum productivity, there has to be an optimal level of industrialisation. Use of
prefabrication in buildings has the following shortcomings:

 Possibility of damage during transportation;

 normally it requires lifting equipment;
 Monotony of design unless there are variations in the prefabricated units; and
 Over designs to take care of the loading conditions.
 The cost of the technologies and equipment is usually high at the beginning.
Industrialised construction shows widely different characteristics in comparison to site
construction. In industrialised construction, the flow is longer due to multiple production
locations, the amount of design required is larger, the error correction cycle is longer, and
requirements for dimensional accuracy are higher than in site construction. The total process of
industrialised construction tends to become more complex and vulnerable in comparison to site
construction. It seems plausible that in design, prefabrication, and site processes of
industrialised construction that are managed in the fragmented mode suggested by the
transformation theory, the increase of costs due to increased waste has often consumed the
theoretical benefits to be gained from industrialisation. All systems in developing countries
must take advantage of the abundant labour market. This approach would decrease
unemployment, reduce the shortage of housing, generate industrial development, and reduce
the construction cost. However, for the systems approach to be successful, cooperation between
the private sector and various governmental agencies is necessary.

In order to improve, the industry must design projects for ease of construction making
maximum use of standard components and processes. Designs should be fully developed before
the manufacture and site construction begins. When prototype equipment is involved, it must
be identified in the initial stage of the project. Detailed programmes for research, design,
testing and manufacture must be produced and monitored. This has to be available before the
work starts on site. It is hoped the use of Knowledge Based Engineering (KBE) that has already
been developed in manufacturing industry both for aeroplanes and cars would best suit the
manufacture of structures. It enables product managers and designers to see new ideas either
through advanced computer-aided design or ‘Virtual Reality’. All aspects of design,

By Paddy Ahimbisibwe +256-702-550045 [email protected] Page 127

manufacture assembly and use of the product can be presented in one entity. It is found out
however that the construction industry invests little in research and development (R&D) and in
capital. The industry is typically seen as dealing with the project process as a series of
sequential and largely separate operations undertaken by individual designers, constructors and
suppliers who have no stake in the long term success of the product and no commitment to it.
Changing this culture is fundamental to increasing efficiency and quality in construction. It
requires integration of the processes and the team around the product. It was observed that 80
% of the inputs into buildings are repeated. The advice offered to construction by leading
manufacturing industries is to approach change by first sorting out the culture, then defining
and improving processes and finally applying technology as a tool to support these cultural and
process improvements. Five points that defines the degrees of industrialisation that can be
identified are:

 Prefabrication,
 Mechanisation,
 Automation,
 Robotics and
 Reproduction.

By Paddy Ahimbisibwe +256-702-550045 [email protected] Page 128

Prefabrication implies building components before and/or elsewhere. Mechanisation comes in
whenever machinery is employed to ease the labour work. With automation, the tooling is
completely taking over the tasks performed by the labour and with robotics; the tooling has the
multiaxis flexibility to perform by itself diversified tasks. Reproduction is the introduction of
innovative technology capable of simplifying the multiplication of complex goods. Instead of
investing straight into machinery, reproduction is first calling upon research and development
for ideas to generate a simplified process. Reproduction implies that priority is given to ideas
rather than machinery. It is the introduction of an innovative technology capable of simplifying
the production of complex goods, of shortcutting long sequential operations. Construction
engineering will be changed by the application of more industrial production, sustainable
production, mass industrialisation, and intelligent building to improve constructability.

11.5 Measure of industrialisation

It was pointed out that five degrees of industrialisation can be identified. These are
prefabrication, mechanisation, automation, robotics and reproduction. Reproduction is not
necessarily available as a down right option: it is often present together with some of the other
degrees of industrialisation. The following indicators can be used to measure the degree of
industrialisation at the activity, company and industry level.
• Level of prefabrication – this can be measured by the ratio of value of work done on site to
the value of work done off site.
• Extent of use of mechanisation – this includes use of high-tech machines and technologies.
• Degree of automation – the more the system is automated, the more industrialised it is
regarded.
• Use of robotics – the more the robots are used, the more industrialised the industry is
regarded.

• Reproduction – the more and the ease with which products are reproduced is an indicator of
degree of industrialisation.
Further measures that can be used include:
• Degree of standardisation – the more standardized the building components and construction
procedures are, the higher the degree of industrialisation.
• Professionalised skilled labour – the skills and training of the craftsmen should also be
regarded as indicators of industrialisation.
• Continuity of production. This can be measured by the time taken to accomplish the project as
a ratio of the planned time.
• Organised experimentation integrated with production. The indicator of this could be the ratio
of the cost of research and development (R&D) as a percentage of the annual turnover.
• Use of labour saving technologies. This can be measured by cost of labour as a percentage of
cost of construction. The higher the value, the less industrialised the industry is regarded.

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 • Extensive use of forms – the more forms are used to assemble building parts, the more
industrialised it is regarded.

• Type of contract used – contracts that integrate the different stages of the whole production
process are regarded as encouraging industrialisation while those that are fragmented do not
encourage industrialisation.
The following variables are used to evaluate the degree of industrialisation at the industry level:
Competitive advantage, logistical support requirements, environmental requirements, local
market demand, export market potential, related markets, technology, infrastructure, suppliers,
strategic requirements, market considerations, and current capacities.

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 KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

CE313 CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III – (Assignment 02)

Issue Date: 24th September 2013

Hand in Date: 5th November 2013

CHAPTER TWELVE
12.0 LIMITATIONS IN UGANDA'S RURAL AND URBAN AREAS. APPROPRIATE
SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFIED LIMITATIONS. APPROPRIATE
TECHNOLOGY CONSIDERATIONS.

Assignment Two

Uganda’s construction industry is emerging at a high speed. Nevertheless it’s faced with a
number of challenges as Uganda is a developing economy.
a) Discuss construction limitations in Uganda’s rural and urban areas?
b) What are the appropriate solutions to the indentified limitations?
c) Describe appropriate technology considerations to the indentified limitations?

This will be our final assignment for construction technology III this semester one. You are
required to do this assignment in the groups that were formed during assignment one. Hand
in both hard copy and soft copies of this assignment.

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CHAPTER THIRTEEN
13.0 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY.

Because of limited fossil fuel resources, increased demand, and environmental impacts
alternative and renewable sources of energy are needed.

Some Possibilities (among others):

1. Nuclear Fission

2. Nuclear Fusion

3. Solar Energy

4. Wind Energy

5. Hydro Power

6. Tidal Energy

7. Wave Energy

8. Oceanic Heat

9. Biogas and Biomass

10. Geothermal Power

11. Hydrogen Fuel Cells

The Problem with many of these is that they are not transportable i.e utilized in large electrical
power generation stations. All have advantages and disadvantages. Which one(s) we use and to
what extent depends on future technological advances, economic considerations, and societal
priorities.

I. Nuclear Fission

235U: (92 protons + 143 neutrons) splits to form smaller fragments which forms a controlled
chain reaction - releases energy, some of it in the form of heat -generates steam - turns a
turbine to generate electricity. A very complex and expensive match, but they produce no air
pollution.

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Problems:

1. Reactor safety meltdown if cooling disrupted, explosions from hydrogen gas produced
during nuclear fission spreads radiation (like Chernobyl). However, so far nuclear
power plants (particularly in the U.S. and Europe) are much safer than coal-fired plants.
The health impacts of generating electricity are hundreds of times greater for coal than
for nuclear.

2. Nuclear waste repository still has no place to store radioactive materials permanently.
Everything is stored on site in large pools of water or large sealed containers thus a
need to store high level wastes (like toxic plutonium) for tens of thousands of years
isolated from the environment

3. Political issues. No one wants nuclear power plants near them (NIMBY). Safety and
terrorism concerns. No new nuclear power plants are being built in the U.S. Older ones
are being shut down. By about 2050 there will be few if any left in this country. Today,
Syria has decided to shut down its nuclear power plants. Iran is on the why too and
many other countries.

II. Nuclear Fusion

2
H (deuterium) or 3H (tritium) fuse together to make 4He nucleus which creates a huge amount
of energy, especially heat which is used to make electricity.

Virtually unlimited resource (hydrogen from water is the fuel) and fusion products are not
highly radioactive. Unfortunately we do not have the technology yet where energy created is
greater than energy consumed, nor can we sustain reaction for any meaningful length of time
which may be tens or even hundreds of years before technologically feasible. Ultimately this
may become a very important energy resource, but not anytime soon.

III. Solar Energy

Clean, unlimited source of energy, little or no pollution of any kind produced. Why don’t we
use more of it?

Three types of solar energy:

1. Passive: Heat air or thermal mass (water, concrete, stone, etc) in building - no
mechanical device used in the generation of the energy - an excellent method for space
heating. Can combine with appropriate building design to maximize heating in cold
climate and cooling in hot climate.

2. Active: Heated medium (air, water, brine, etc.) are pumped mechanically to where they
are needed - good for space and water heating.

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 3. Photovoltaic: Solar cells convert sunlight into electricity which are usually made of
silicon-based material, not very efficient, typically around 20 percent at best (but
improving). Need a whole roof covered with photovoltaic cells to generate enough
electricity (about 1500 watts) to run a typical home. Can also be used in space with large
solar satellites in orbit which produce electricity that is sent down to earth as microwaves
and then converted back to electricity.

Problems:

1. A dispersed resource. Often need large collection areas, result in a large environmental
impact. Often needs to be concentrated and in some areas where clouds block the sun,
or where the sun doesn’t shine at night, it requires other energy production and/or
energy storage (battery) systems.

2. Technology can be expensive; it may cost 2 to 3 times as much as producing energy by

other means. However, costs are dropping.

IV. Wind Energy

Really just second-hand solar energy (unequal heating produces high and low pressure areas,
creating air flow or wind) - utilized for 2000 or more years (wind mills). Produces no air
pollution and is renewable.

Presently the fastest growing source of energy globally and expected to double within 10 years.
It’s still a small portion of our energy production mix (1-2 percent).

Problems:

1. Still slightly more expensive than producing energy by fossil fuels.

2. Wind doesn’t blow fast enough or often enough everywhere. However, may be very
useful in specific localities (Great Plains, hill tops)

3. Dispersed. It needs large arrays of wind turbines (wind farms). Starting to build these in
remote and agricultural areas looks funny to the locals.

4. Many complaints about visual pollution and impact on migrating birds.

5. Issue of energy storage or alternative production methods when the wind is calm (same
issue as solar).

V. Hydro Power

Build dams along streams to create reservoirs. Allow water to flow through dam - spin a
turbine - spin a generator - produce electricity. Produces no pollution and is totally renewable.

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Can also use dam and reservoir for flood control, water resource, and recreation. Seems like a
win-win-win situation.

Problems:

1. Very expensive to build. Take years to complete. Bujagali dam has taken more than
5yrs. (Karuma dam might take close to ten years to complete)

2. Multiple uses are not always compatible with each other. One may want the reservoir to
be full (water resource, power generation), while another may want it to be below
capacity (flood control). Which use has a higher priority?

3. Destroy natural habitats and species by the flooding of the stream valley, often for tens
or even hundreds of miles upstream. Towns and cities have to be abandoned or
relocated.

4. Hinders or even stops fish migrations. Own falls dam hinders the movement of fish
along the river Nile.

5. Sediment is trapped behind the dam. Silts up reservoir and prevents sediment from
reaching the ocean, starving coastal beaches and increasing shoreline erosion. Big
problem along west coast of the U.S.

Can also produce lesser amounts of electricity without building a dam and just using the energy
of a fast flowing stream to turn the turbine. Creates much fewer environmental impacts than a
typical dam.

VI. Ocean Energy (not common in Uganda)

The world’s oceans are huge reservoirs of thermal and kinetic (motion) energy. Can be utilized
in a number of different ways to produce electrical energy. All are totally renewable and
produced no pollution.

1) Tidal Power: Difference in elevation between high and low tides causes currents to flow.
Can utilize currents to turn a turbine and generator to produce electricity on both the
incoming and outgoing tides. Need at least 2-3 feet of difference between high and low
tides - only a relatively few places in the world were this occurs. Problems also with habitat
destruction. May be applicable in specific localities.

2) Wave Energy: Use the energy of large waves to create electricity. Need waves of at least
5-10 feet in height. Doesn’t happen everywhere or all the time. May be useful in particular
places where other energy sources are not available or practicable.

3) Oceanic Heat: Utilize the large difference in temperature for shallow and very deep waters
in tropical areas. Cold water condenses a substance in a closed loop, such as ammonia, into
a liquid, and the warm water turns it into a gas (like water to steam). This can then be used

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 to turn a turbine and generator and produce electricity. Workable in only a few places, such
as Hawaii, where a pilot plant is in operation.

VII. Biomass and Biogas

Also know as un-fossilized fuels. Various ways of deriving energy from organic materials:

1) Wood Burning: One of the original sources of energy for humans. Still used extensively
in the third world. Large amounts of wood burning can create huge environmental
problems, including air pollution and desertification.

2) Agriculturally Produced Fuels: includes alcohol from grains and methane from animal
waste (dung can also be burned) - can be used as fuels themselves or as additives (gasohol).

3) Burn Garbage: Instead of putting garbage in landfills, burn the combustible portion of it
(organically derived like paper and food waste).

All of these methods are renewable on a human time scale, but have one major drawback in
common. Burning them produces carbon dioxide.

VIII. Geothermal Power

Concentrate and extract heat from the earth’s upper crust - use water as the heat extraction
medium - either natural or water pumped down to be heated by hot rocks. Works best in areas
with high heat flow - tend to regions of present volcanic and/or hydrothermal activity -
associated with hot spots or plate boundaries.

Two distinct types of geothermal energy: 1) Hot water (<100 degrees C ≠ no steam) used
directly for space heating as in Iceland, and 2) Water and/or steam >100 degrees C ≠ convert to
steam (if not already) - use to turn a turbine and generator to produce electricity - 40 places
worldwide.

Geothermal power plants are economically competitive with other ways to make electricity and
are largely (but not entirely) pollution free.

Problems

1. Extracted water and steam are often corrosive and rich in dissolved elements - may clog
or destroy pipes and makes disposal a problem.
2. Limited time (perhaps no more than 30-50 years) before a geothermal area cools down -
not really renewable on a human scale - will have to stop use and allow rocks to be
reheated (100’s-1000’s years) or find a new geothermal field.

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 3. Limited number of suitable sites. And remember, plate boundaries have many
geological hazards - do you want to build a multi-billion dollar geothermal plant in an
area with volcanoes and earthquakes?

IX. Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Water can be broken down into oxygen and hydrogen by passing a current through it
(electrolysis). The opposite can also occur - combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce
electricity and water (the only thing emitted). Get oxygen from the air and hydrogen from
liquid hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich fuel, such as alcohol or methane. This is the basis for all
fuel cells. Have been around for decades - are used on the Space Shuttle.

Can also be used as a battery. Other sources of energy are used to make electricity, which is
used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. Can be recombined to make electricity when
original source of energy is unavailable or inappropriate.

Can make fuels cells for home use, for your car, and for personal electronic devices (CD player
and cell phone). Technology is improving and costs are coming down. However, will have to
create a hydrogen distribution system similar to what we have now for gasoline and natural gas
- will not happen until there is a demand - will not have a demand until hydrogen is easy to get
- a chicken and egg situation.

The Future

How we will make energy in the future is hard to predict, but it will be different. Perhaps a
variety of ways will be utilized, depending on location and what is the most appropriate source
for that location. May also change from a centralized system of producing energy to a point-of-
use system. Your town, neighborhood, or even you as an individual may become your own
power generating company.

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CHAPTER FOURTEEN
14.0 CONSTRUCTION MECHANICAL PLANT.

14.1 Introduction
In construction cost control is aimed at erecting a structure of reasonable cost and sound
workmanship within an acceptable time period. The resources managed are usually man power,
materials, machineries, money and the method of work. This chapter looks at the machineries
or the equipment used in construction commonly referred to as the construction mechanical
plant. Through proper planning there is usually adequate time for every activity and works are
done within costs. To achieve this time period and in many cases to overcome a shortage of
suitable manpower the mechanisation of many building activities must be considered. The
items of plant available to the building contractors are very extensive, ranging from simple
hand tools to very expensive equipment undertaking tasks beyond the capabilities of manual
labour. The singular criterion for their use is that they provide the owner with the desired final
product. Given that this can be achieved through judicious application of the concept and the
precise descriptive development of the specifications, end results can yield numerous benefits
to both the private and public sectors.
The slow but steady improvement in construction equipment, especially earthmoving machines
and truck-mounted equipment such as mobile cranes has been a significant factor for the
automation and provision of solutions to heavy construction works. The development of all-
hydraulic transmissions for example on back-hoes, face shovels, bulldozers and truck mounted
cranes has virtually rendered redundant the manufacture of the rope operated machines.
However, many of the old-type machines are still widely used but attention is being directed
towards machine configurations in order to enhance productivity (Cliff J. Schexnayder and
Scott A. David).

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHA) Excavation and Trenching
standard, Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulation (CFR), Part 1926.650 defines an excavation
as any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth's surface formed by earth removal.
This can include excavations for anything from site clearance and stripping to excavation tunnels
and mining. Also OSHA defines a trench as a narrow underground excavation that is deeper than
its wide, and not wider than 15 feet (4.5 meters). Excavations are carried out principally to allow
basement constructions, foundations, levelling, mining, installation or repairs of public utilities,
drains, sewers sites for construction like in Highways or buildings etc…however; they are among
the most hazardous construction operations.

14.2 Planning Stage

No matter how much experience one has in excavation works, it is important to approach each
new job with the utmost care and preparation since every site is different in many ways and
present different challenges. Many on-the-job accidents result directly from inadequate initial
planning. Engineers should always aim at doing works right first time other than wait to
correct mistakes which usually slow down the operation, adds to the cost, and increases the

138
possibility of a cave-in (collapse) or other excavation failure. A thorough search should be
made for information about any existing utilities adjacent to or crossing the line of the planned
excavation including their location, size and alignment. Most of the underground utilities are
live systems such as electricity, water, sewer and gas and can be dangerous to workers when
damaged or fractured. During this stage it is also necessary for one to forecast the equipment
that will be used on the basis of information available. When looking for excavation equipment,
it more than pays to do some research first. Determine exactly what is needed. Review safety
reports on the machines. Heavy equipment work is dangerous business. If machines that are
needed are new to employees, look into training programs would be important aspects.
Planning will help you determine the amount, kind, and cost of safety equipment you will need
to perform the work in the safest manner possible.

14.3 Methods of Excavation

Excavation can be carried out in two ways;

i) Manual methods using hand held tools such as picks, shovels and wheel barrows. This
is practical on small sites
ii) Mechanical methods. This can be used on all sites. The actual plant employed being
dependant on factors such as volume of soil involved, nature of site and time element

Factors considered in acquiring a plant.

 The availability of funds
 Utilisation level. How much work is available to keep the plant working?
There are three ways of acquiring a mechanical plant:
 Hiring. It has one advantage that the plant can be hired for the minimum period
necessary and the disadvantage being expensive if it is to be hired for a long time.
 Purchasing. Idle plant means financial loss; therefore an owner of mechanical plant
must have sufficient work for the plant, either through the firm’s own contracts, or
through public hire business.
 leasing

Normally the processes of excavation used depend on the type of site involved and usually fall
under three headings or types of excavation:

a) Site clearance and stripping

b) Excavating to reduced levels
c) Excavating trenches, pits, basements etc…[R.Fullerton,1982]

Site Clearance and Stripping

This is a building regulation requirement. It is also termed as Oversite. This is the removal of
top soil from the site and could be carried out by manual means on small site. On big sites it is
advisable to use mechanical methods and the bulldozer or mechanical shovel would be the best
plant to carry out the task. A lorry or dumper will also be important to transport the spoil away
from site. In general the depth of excavation varies from site to site but usually in a 150mm to

139
300mm is appropriate. This is done because top soil contains plant life, animal life and
decaying matter which makes the soil compressible and therefore unsuitable for supporting
buildings. Fig 14.1 below shows the operation. [R.Chudley, 1998]

Fig 14.1
Reduced level Excavations
This is carried out below oversite level to form surface on which to build and can consist of
both cutting and filling operations. The level to which the ground is reduced is called the
formation level. On small sites hand or manual methods can be used and on all sites mechanical
methods could be used. A bulldozer for cut and fill operations could be used. Graders can also
be used to give accurate and neat formation levels. The Figure below shows the operation.

Figure 14.2 Excavating pits, basements etc…. [R.Chudley, 1998]

For narrow excavations primarily for strip foundation and buried services like electric cables,
water services, telephone cables etc…can be carried out by hand or machine. If the depth of
excavation exceeds 1.2metres, some methods of removing spoil from the excavation will have
to be employed.

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Figure 14.3
Excavation of trenches or basemen
It is difficult to lay down rules with regards to selection of Excavating equipment because of
the numerous variables involved.

Factors considered in the choice of excavation method

- Volume of work
- Nature of material to be excavated
- Time framework to deliver work
- Type of work, e.g deep excavation
- Availability of labour
- Government policy
Below are some of the factors which influence the choice of excavating equipment;

1. The quantities of materials to be moved;

2. The types and physical properties of materials to be excavated
3. whether the materials are suitable for compaction in an embankment of if there is a
surplus of excavation
4. The weather conditions that is likely to be encountered.
5. whether there are any restrictions on Excavating or earth moving equipment on the public
roads
6. The types of equipment that are available and whether plant will be hired.
7. The mobility of the plant over the terrain. [D.Jones,1998]

Advantages of using mechanical plan

The main advantages of using items of plant are enumerated below:
i) Increased rate of output
ii) Reduce overall building costs
iii) Carry out activities that can not be done manually or to do them more economically

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 iv) Eliminates heavy manual work thus reducing fatigue and increasing the productivity
of manual workers
v) Maintain planned rate of production where there is a shortage of either skilled or
unskilled operatives
vi) Maintain the high standards often required by present-day designs and specifications,
especially when concerned with structural engineering works.
vii) The Relevant Financial Benefit
viii) Performance and Functionality
ix) Machines optimize the quantity of work executed on building site if well operated and
maintained.
x) Best for some nature of work e.g. tunneling/piling

The main disadvantages are:

i) There is need for special transporting vehicle such as a low loader to move some
equipment between sites.
ii) Some types of equipment are noisy and create noise hazards to people in the vicinity
of the work place.
iii) Very expensive
iv) Cause accidents
v) Disposal is very difficult
vi) High maintenance costs
vii) Under-use due to lack of work and or Over use
Despite all the disadvantages, the current trend is to go for full mechanization.

Why the trend is to go fully mechanized.

- More plants available to hire
- Government policy – with the purchase of more plants, only a fraction of the profits is
taxed.
- Prestige
- Convenience
- Reduces fatigue and increases productivity.
- Complexity, competition, reliability

Examples of Mechanical Plants

Dumper Scraper Excavators
Back actor Mixer Vibrators
Fork lifts Compactor Grader
Wheel loader Rollers Cranes

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Chain loader Sprayers
Winch Compressors
Hoist Drilling rigs
Low loaders Mechanical hammer

Crushes Face shovels

Trenchers Pilling plant
Water browser Scarifiers
Pumps Generators
Tractors Stumpers
Plate compactors grinding machine

Factors that affect production when excavating

- Haulage root i.e. distance to the damping points
- Maintenance
- Incentives to the drivers
- Job planning
- Weather
- supervision
- Nature of the soil (density)
- Shape of the container
- Visibility to the driver
- Inexperience drivers
Classification of Mechanical Plants
1. Use or function
o Lifting plants
o Compacting
o Vibrating
o Transporting
o Excavating

2. Fixed/mobile plants
o Fixed ones are transported to the sites and operates from the fixed places e.g. cranes and
hoist.

3. Towed/pushed/self propelled

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4. Under- carriage
o Pneumatic with wheel
o Tracked (chained)

5. Size – Given in models

6. Roped and Hydraulic

o Ropes or Hydraulic systems used

Factors considered in choosing the type of plant to use

- Speed – Pneumatic are faster
- Space – Tracks turns within small area
- Terrain – level, slopping or rough
- Nature of the soil – dry soil - Pneumatic , wet soil – Tracks
- Increase public highways/paved yards – Pneumatic
- Maintenance – Tracks are expensive to maintain
- The turning
- Width of the roads compared to that of trucks
- Axial loads
- Strength of the truck
- Gross vehicle weight(GVW)
- Net vehicle weight (NVW)
- Turning circle

NVW – GVW = Pay Load

Trucks are divided into two:

1. High way trucks

Most of the movements are on public roads.
Public roads have limitations like the axial load. The most popular trucks are supported on two
axial and normally manoeuvre faster
High way trucks normally moves at faster speeds to move at the speed of the normal traffic
flow. There are trucks in which the axial are fixed rigidity on the chassis and there are those
that the tyres takes the ground levels.

2. Off road trucks

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 o Usually stronger
o Mainly used for excavation (especially large)
o Normally have two axial and are usually 4 x 2
o Move in any bad road.

Design aspects in selection of trucks

a) ADT. An articulated truck is a vehicle that is most commonly used in construction work.
Articulated trucks are used to haul heavy loads, sometimes over difficult terrain, and they can
be considered a type of tractor-trailer unit. There are simple articulated trucks that haul goods,
as well as articulated dump trucks that are also loaders.

The main feature of an articulated truck that puts it in a separate driving class is its drive
system. The drive system is based on the number of wheels on the axles used to pull the truck.
The most common system is the 6 x 6 system, in which the truck has six wheels on three axles
and all are used when driving the truck.

Another system used is the 6 x 4 drive, in which only the rear four wheels are used when
driving. The original drive system in articulated trucks is the famous 4 x 4 drive. This was
designed for trucks that drive over the roughest terrain on the planet. The 4 x 4 drive system
helps the truck maneuver over terrain that could be a potential problem for the goods being
carried.

An articulated truck can be used to carry all kinds of goods. The 4 x 4 drive system, for
instance, is most often used for loads such as flammable liquid. An articulated truck also has
the ability to carry loads of up to 40 tons in weight. This is why it is so popular in the
construction industry, in which heavy materials are used.

One of the problems of the articulated truck is found with the rear trailer. Because of its
coupling system, the trailer works independently from the driving cab. A skilled driver needs to
keep a watchful eye on the trailer using side view mirrors. Because of the independence of the
trailer, the driver has no sense of the trailer's motion. There are now video cameras that can be
installed in the trailer to allow drivers to be aware of the trailer’s movement.

o Requires much smaller space to manoeuvre

o All weather capable
o 4 – Wheel drive
o Works in both high ways and off roads

b) Rigid Framed Trucks (RFT)

o Used for longer hours
o Works in harsh or rocky areas

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c) Tipping systems
o Rear tipping – preferred because of greater stability
o Side tipping – better where there is no space for manoeuvring especially at road sides
o Ejecting – A system pushes the materials out of the container
Other information
Make of the truck (e.g. Leyland, Toyota, Isuzu etc)
Model Gross vascular weight Body capacity
Engine power Pay load
Maximum forward speed whether loaded or empty
Earth making plants; Examples include; Bull dozers, face shovels, scrappers, trenches, back
actor, dragline.

Excavators
Classification of excavators
- There are rope excavators and hydraulic excavators.
- Pneumatic (Rubber)
- Track excavators Under carriage
The plants have two parts.
- The base
- The attachment
Rope Excavators
- Face shovel
- Drag line
- Grab/Clam shell

Activities
Drag line is used for excavating below its tracks it can load tracks, can heap materials, spread.

Advantages
- Long reach for both damping and digging
- Holds loose materials
Advantages of a grab/cram shall
- Lowered vertically and filled without any lateral movement hence little space need.
- The depth of excavation is limited by the hoist tape
- It can lift and damp accurately
Back hoist
- Does the excavation in the backward direction

146
 - Used for excavation of trenches and drainages
- Should operate on a fairly levelled ground.
- Can also dig pits
- During back filing, it does cross carriage movement or in live movement
- Can load soil/rock into trucks

Cycle of operation of a back hoist

(i) Excavate
(ii) Load its buckets
(iii) Lift up
(iv) Slew towards the truck
(v) Discharge
(vi) Slew to point of excavation
(vii) Lower down and excavate
- Excavates embankments on the forward direction
- Loads

NB: As an Engineer, you should be able to know the damp height (reach), capacity of the
bucket and the depth below it can reach.

Scrappers
- Single engine, self propelled
- Twin engine, push loaded
- Moves on public high ways
- Are on pneumatic

It cuts by opening the gates, loads it, and closes to go and offload. It tips by ejecting the
materials out.

Cycle
- Excavating and loading at the same time
- Manoeuvre to start going for spreading/tipping
- Travel full
- Manoeuvre to back
- Manoeuvre to position for push loading. This refers to gaining momentum to enable
loading and is done by a bull-dozer.
Elevating Scraper
It is not push loaded. It has a chain bucket to load its content into the container.

147
Activities
- Excavation - Spreading - Shipping and form
- Loading itself embankments
Trencher
Specialized excavating plant used to excavate trenches and narrow width of 300 – 600 to
900mm.
- Loads materials onto trucks
- Excavate to desired elevation
- Excavates, removes materials and lay pipes automatically (flexible pipes)
- Works backward
- Achieves as much as 100 – 130m 3
- It should fill the truck within 15 – 30 min
- Needs good planning to avoid stopping the machine after it has gained momentum.
- Compacts

Mini Excavators
- Used to handle task in restricted areas
- The trucks are of rubber
- Produce little noise
- Fast in operation
Production cycle

QxFxCEx60 xExT
Productivity =
Cm

Where Q = bucket size m 3

F = soil factor (load factor)

CE = bucket fill factor (container efficiency)
60 = seconds per minute

E = job efficiency

C m = cycle time in min.

T = time period for which production is calculated

Examples of Plant
1.0 Bull Dozers

148
These machines consist of a track or wheel mounted power unit with a mould blade at the front,
which is usually controlled by hydraulic rams although wire cable operation is preferred on
some models. Many bulldozers have the capacity to adjust the mould blade to form an
angledozer and the capacity to tilt the mould blade about a central swivel point. Some
bulldozers can also be fitted with rear attachments such as rollers and scarifiers.

Application
- Clears a site
- Excavators
- Used to anchor when uprooting (because of weight)
- Used to start other engines (push loading) e.g. Scrappers
- Has a tooth (rippers) behind
- Heaps material (stock piling(
- Used for demolition and can tow

Cycle
- Excavates (to fill the blades) – 5 – 6 second
- Pushes the materials for loading – 5 second
- Tips or damps (3 – 6 seconds)
- Returns (blacking) – 10 seconds
- Manoeuvre and take position – 6 seconds

Note:
Bull dozers should always reverse back.
A bull dozer is economical for dozing materials between 0 – 90 m
The main functions of a bulldozer among others are:-
1. Shallow excavations up to 300mm deep either on level ground or side hill cutting.

2. Clearance of shrubs and small trees.

3. Excavation of filler material for construction work e.g. earth or gravel.

149
Figure 14.4
NB. Bulldozers push earth in front of the mould blade with some side spillage whereas angle
dozer pushes and costs the spoil to one side of the mould blade. . [R.Chudley, 1998]

2.0 Graders
These machines are similar in concept to bulldozers in that they have a long slender adjustable
mould blade, which is usually slung under the centre of the machine. A grader’s main function
is to finish or grade the upper surface of a large area usually as a follow up operation to
scraping or bulldozing. [D.Jones, 1998] They can produce a fine and accurate finish but do
not have the power of a bulldozer therefore they are not suitable for heavy over-site excavation
work. The mould blade can be adjusted in both the horizontal and vertical planes through an
angle of 300º the latter enabling it to be used for grading sloping banks.

150
Figure 14.5
3.0 Tractor Shovels
These machines are sometimes called loaders or loader shovels and primary function is to
excavating (scoop up) loose materials in the front mounted bucket elevate the bucket and
manoeuvre into a position to deposit the loose material into an attendant transport vehicle.
Tractor shovels are driven towards the pile of loose material with the bucket to be filled. Both
tracked and wheeled versions are available. The tracked format being more suitable for wet
and uneven ground conditions than the wheeled tractor shovel which has greater speed and
manoeuvring capabilities. To increase their versatility tractor shovels can be fitted with a 4 in 1
bucket enabling them to carry out bulldozing, excavating, clam lifting and load activities. See
fig below. [R.Chudley, 1998]
4.0 Loaders
- Different from face shovel in that the buckets are quite bigger
- Loaders don’t rotate (slow) around the vertical axis
- Has a shorter hand
- Excavates and loads by reversing and tipping
- Does clearance of sites
- Strips
- Levels

151
 - Uproots small trees
- Excavates basements
- A loader is faster
- Heaps
- Are tracked or pneumatic
Cycle
- Excavation
- Filling the bucket
- Raises the bucket up
- Manoeuvres to load/tip
- Tips/loads
- Reverses to excavate

Specification
- Capacity
- Loading height
- Turning radius
- Loaders can be on pneumatic or on track

Rule of thumb
- If you are to use a loader and a truck, it should be within 3 km.
- A scrapper is economical between 90 m – 3 km

152
 Detail
of
Typical
Tractor
Shovels
[R.Chu
dley,
1998]

Fig 14.6

5.0 Excavators

Excavators are heavy equipment used in civil engineering and surface mining. An excavator
also called a 360-degree excavator or digger is one of the major items of builder’s plant and is
used primarily to excavate and load most types of soil. Excavators come in a wide variety of
designs and sizes but all of them can be placed within one of three categories:-
1. Universal Excavators – This category covers most forms of excavators all of which have a
common factor the power unit. The universal power unit is a tracked based machine
arrangement and bucket type different excavating functions can be obtained. These machines
are selected for high output requirements and are rope controlled.

153
2. Purpose Designed Excavators – These are machines, which have been designed
specifically to carry out one mode of excavation and they usually have smaller bucket
capacities than universal excavators; they are hydraulically controlled with a shorter cycle time.
3. Multi-purpose Excavators – These machines can perform several excavating functions
having both front and rear attachments. They are designed to carry out the small excavation
operations of low output quickly and efficiently. Multi-purpose excavators can be obtained
with a wheeled or tracked base and are ideally suited for a small building firm with low
excavation plant utilization requirements. [R.Chudley, 1998]

6.0 Face Shovels

The primary function of this pieced of plant is to excavate above its own track or wheel level.
They are available as a universal power unit based machine or as a hydraulic purpose designed
unit. These machines can usually excavate any type of soil except rock, which needs to be
loosened, usually by blasting, prior to excavation. Face shovels generally require attendant
haulage vehicles for the removal of spoil and a low loader transport lorry for travel between
sites. Most of these machines have a limited capacity of between 300 and 400mm for
excavation below their own track or wheel level. [R.Chudley, 1998]

Figure 14.7
7.0 Backactors
These machines are suitable for trench, foundation and basement excavations and are available
as a universal power unit base machine or as a purpose designed hydraulic unit. They can be

154
used with or without attendant haulage vehicles since the spoil can be placed alongside the
excavation for use in backfilling. These machines will require a low loader transport vehicle
for travel between sites. Backator used in trenching operations with a bucket width equal to the
trench width can be very accurate with a high output rating. [R.Chudley, 1998]

Figure 14.8
8.0 Draglines
A dragline bucket system consists of a large bucket which is suspended from a boom (a large
truss like structure). The bucket is manoeuvred by means of a number of ropes and chains. The
hoist rope, powered by large diesel or electric motors, supports the bucket and hoist-coupler

155
assembly from the boom. The dragrope is used to draw the bucket assembly horizontally. By
skilful manoeuvre of the hoist and the dragropes the bucket is controlled for various operations
Dragline machines can also be fitted with a grab or clamshell bucket for excavating in very
loose soils [R.Chudley, 1998]

Detail of Typical Draglines

Figure 14.9

156
Multi-Purpose Excavators
These machines are usually based on the agricultural tractor with 2 or 4 wheel drive and are
intended mainly for use in conjunction with small excavation works such as those encountered
by the small to medium sized building contractor. Most multi-purpose excavators are fitted
with a loading/excavating front bucket and a rear backator bucket both being hydraulically
controlled. When in operation using the backator bucket the machine is raised off its axles by
rear mounted hydraulic outriggers or jacks and in some models by placing the front bucket on
the ground. Most machines can be fitted with a variety of bucket widths and various
attachments such as bulldozer blades, scarifiers, grab buckets and post hole auger borers.
[R.Chudley, 1998

Details of Typical Multi-purpose Excavators [R.Chudley, 1998]

Figure 14.10

157
Transport Vehicles

During excavation we need vehicles to transport the spoil which can be a problem away from
site.

9.0 Dumpers
These are used for the horizontal transportation of materials on and off construction sites
generally by means of an integral tipping skip. Highway dumpers are of a similar but larger
design and can be used to carry materials such as excavated spoil along the roads. A wide
range of dumpers are available of various carrying capacities and options for gravity or
hydraulic discharge control with front tipping, side tipping or elevated tipping facilities. Special
format dumpers fitted with flat platforms, rigs to carry materials skips and rigs for concrete
skips for crane hoisting are also obtainable. These machines are designed to traverse rough
terrain but they are not designed to carry passengers and this misuse is the cause of many
accidents involving dumpers. [R.Chudley, 1998]

158
Figure 14.11

10. Road roller

A Road roller (sometimes called a roller-compactor, or just roller) is an engineering vehicle

used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in the construction of roads and foundations.

In many parts of the world, road rollers are still known colloquially as steam rollers, regardless
of their method of propulsion. This typically only applies to the largest examples (used for
road-making).

The first road rollers were horse-drawn, and were probably just borrowed farm implements (see
roller (agricultural tool)).

159
Steamroller

Since the effectiveness of a roller depends to a large extent on its weight, self-powered vehicles
replaced horse-drawn rollers from the mid 1800s. The first such vehicles were steam rollers.
Double-cylinder designs were preferred. Single-cylinder steam rollers were uncommon and
unpopular, as the power impulses from the steam engine would produce slight waves in the
road. Some road companies in the United States used steamrollers through the 1950s, and in the
UK, some remained in commercial service until the early 1970s.

As internal combustion engine technology improved during the 20th century, gasoline (petrol),
and diesel, powered rollers gradually replaced their steam-powered counterparts. The first
internal-combustion powered road rollers were very similar to the steam rollers they replaced.
They used similar mechanisms to transmit power from the engine to the wheels, typically large,
exposed spur gears. Some companies did not like them in their infancy, as the engines of the
era were typically hard to start. Virtually all road rollers in commercial use now use diesel
power.

Uses

Road rollers work by using the weight of the vehicle to compress the surface being rolled.
Initial compaction of the substrate is done using a pneumatic-tyred roller, where instead of
the single- or double-drum is replaced by two rows (front and back) of pneumatically filled
tyres. The flexibility of the tyres, with a certain amount of vertical movement of the wheels,
enables the roller to operate effectively on uneven ground. The finish is done using metal-drum
rollers to ensure a smooth, even result.

Rollers are also used in landfill compaction. Such compactors typically have knobbed ('sheeps-
foot') wheels and do not attempt to achieve a smooth surface. The knobs aid in compression
due to a smaller surface area being in contact with the ground.

Configurations

The roller can be a simple drum with a handle that can be operated by one man, and weighs 100
pounds, all the way up to a massive ride-on road roller weighing 21 short tons (44,000 lb or 20
tonnes) and costing more than US$150,000. A landfill unit can weigh 59 short tons (54 tonnes).
On some machines the drums may be filled with water.

Roller Types

 Manual walk-behind
 Powered walk-behind (electric or diesel/gas powered)
 Trench roller (manual units or radio-frequency remote control)
 Ride-on
 Ride-on with knock-down bar
 Ride-on articulating-swivel
 Vibratory

160
  Pneumatic-tyre
 Tractor mounted and powered (this may be a 'one-off' – see gallery picture below)

Powered, vibrating Ride-on with

Vibrating Dynapac
walk-behind Ride-on with articulating- articulating-swivel
CC232
swivel (small machine) (large machine)

A road-roller powered by a
Pneumatic roller for
tractor mounted on it from
initial compaction
rural India

Figure 14.12

Drum types

Drums come in various widths: 24-to-84 inches

 Single-drum sheeps/pad-foot (soil)

 Single-drum smooth (asphalt)
 Double-drum (duplex) sheeps/pad-foot (soil)
 Double-drum (duplex) smooth (asphalt)
 3-wheel cleat with bulldozing blade (landfills)

Variations and features

 On some machines, the drums may be filled with water on site to achieve the desired
vehicle weight. When not filled, the lighter machine is easier and cheaper to transport
between worksites.
 Additional compaction may be achieved by vibrating the roller drums
 Water lubrication may be provided to the drum surface to avoid hot asphalt (for
example) sticking to the drum
 Hydraulic transmission permits greater design flexibility (early examples were direct
mechanical drive) and reduces the number of moving parts exposed to the dust and filth
associated with construction sites
 Human-propelled rollers may only have a single roller drum

161
  Self-propelled rollers may have two drums, mounted one in front of the other (format
known as 'duplex'), or three rolls, or just one, with the back rollers replaced with treaded
pneumatic tyres for increased traction

Manufacturers

 Bomag ,
 Case CE
 Caterpillar
 CMI-Terex
 Dynapac (Atlas
Copco)
 Galion
 Hamm
 HYPAC
 Ingersoll Rand
 Ingram
Compaction
 Lebrero
 Multiquip/Ramma
x
 Stone Equipment
 SuperPac
 Vibromax
 Mikasa

162
Safety and Health Plans

Excavations are among the most hazardous construction operations. The Occupational Safety
and Health Administration's (OSHA) Excavation and Trenching standard, Title 29 of the Code of
Federal Regulation (CFR), Part 1926.650, and the Construction (general provisions) regulation,
1961 covers requirements for excavation operations.

Dangers of excavation operations

Trenching and excavation work presents serious hazards to all workers involved. Cave-ins pose
the greatest risk and are much more likely than other excavation-related accidents to result in
worker fatalities. Other potential hazards include falls, falling loads, hazardous atmospheres, and
incidents involving mobile equipment.

Safety factors considered when bidding for excavation works

Before preparing a bid, you will want to know as much as possible about the worksite and the
materials you will need to have on hand to perform the work safely and in compliance with the
standards eg OSHA and other Building (health, safety and welfare) Regulations. A safety
checklist may prove helpful when you consider specific site conditions such as the following:

 Traffic,
 Proximity and physical conditions of nearby structures,
 Soil,
 Surface and ground water,
 Location of the water table,
 Overhead and underground utilities, and
 Weather.

You can determine these and other conditions through worksite studies, observations, test
borings for soil type or conditions, and consultations with local officials and utility companies.
This information will help you determine the amount, kind, and cost of safety equipment you
will need to perform the work in the safest manner possible.

Before starting work, the OSHA standard and Building (Safety, health, and welfare) Regulation,
1996 requires;

a) You to contact the utility companies or owners involved to inform them of the proposed
work within established times. And also ask the utility them to find the exact location of
underground installations. If they cannot respond within 24 hours (unless the period
required by local law is longer) or cannot find the exact location of the utility
installations, you may proceed with caution.

b) You to share the details of your safety and health program with employees emphasizing
specific rules to help reduce the risk of on-the-job injuries.

By Paddy Ahimbisibwe 0702550045 [email protected] Page 163

 c) You to protect, properly support, or remove underground installations in case your
excavation work exposes them.

Protective Systems
Ways of Preventing Cave-Ins or Collapse of Excavations
OSHA Standard and the and Building (Safety, health, and welfare) Regulation, 1996 requires
that all excavations in which employees could potentially be exposed to cave-ins or collapse of
sides be protected by
 Sloping or benching the sides of the excavation,
 Supporting the sides of the excavation, or
 Placing a shield between the side of the excavation and the work area.
Design of appropriate protective system
Designing a protective system can be complex because you must consider many factors: soil
classification, depth of cut, water content of soil, changes due to weather and climate, or other
operations in the vicinity. The need for an assessment of risk with regard to the support of
excavations and protection of people within is contained in the Construction (Health, Safety and
Welfare) Regulations 1996 and the OSHA standard. You are free to choose the most practical
design approach for any particular circumstance.
The OSHA standard describes methods and approaches for designing protective systems such as
the following:

Method 1 — Slope the sides to an angle not steeper than 1.5:1; for example, for every foot of
depth, the trench must be excavated back 1.5 feet. All simple slope excavations 20 feet (6.11
meters) or less deep should have a maximum allowable slope of 1.5:1. A slope of this gradation
or less is safe for any type of soil [http://www.osha.gov. Accessed on 10th May 2007]
6.11m Max

1.5
Excavations Made in any Type of soil

Figure 14.13

However, it should be noted that subsoils have different abilities in remaining stable during
excavation works. Most will assume a natural angle of repose or rest unless given temporary

By Paddy Ahimbisibwe 0702550045 [email protected] Page 164

support. The presence of ground water apart from creating difficult working conditions can have
an adverse effect on the subsoils natural angle of repose. [R.Chudley, 1998]

Typical Angles of repose; [R.Chudley, 1998]

160 220
400
450

Drained Clay Wet Clay Gravel &

Wet Sand
Dry Sand

Figure 14.14
Time factors such as period during which excavation will remain open and the time of year when
work is carried out. The need for an assessment of risk with regard to the support of excavations
and protection of people within is contained in the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare)
Regulations 1996.

Wishing you a great future in the life of construction

END

By Paddy Ahimbisibwe 0702550045 [email protected] Page 165