Powder Metallurgy

Powder Metallurgy

• Powder metallurgy is the name given to the process

by which fine powdered materials are blended,
pressed into a desired shape (compacted), and then
heated (sintered) in a controlled atmosphere to
bond the contacting surfaces of the particles and
establish the desired properties.
 Manufacturing of Powder
Atomization using a gas stream
Molten metal is
forced through a
small orifice and is
disintegrated by a
jet of compressed
air, inert gas or
water jet,. It is
used for low
melting point
materials, brass,
bronze, Zn, Tn, Al,
Pb etc.
 Manufacturing of Powder
Reduction
• Metal oxides are turned to pure metal powder when
exposed to below melting point gases results in a product of
cake of sponge metal.

• The irregular sponge-like particles are soft, readily

compressible, and give compacts of good pre-sinter
(“green”) strength

• Used for iron, Cu, tungsten, molybdenum, Ni and Cobalt.

 Manufacturing of Powder
Electrolytic Deposition
• Used for iron, copper, silver
• Process is similar to electroplating.
• For making copper powder, copper plates are placed as
anode in the tank of electrolyte, whereas the aluminium
plates are placed in the electrolyte to act as cathode. When
DC current is passed, the copper gets deposited on cathode.
The cathode plated are taken out and powder is scrapped
off. The powder is washed, dried and pulverized to the
desired grain size.
• The cost of manufacturing is high.
 Manufacturing of Powder
Granulations - as metals are cooled they are stirred rapidly
Machining - coarse powders such as magnesium
Milling - crushers and rollers to break down metals. Used for
brittle materials.
Shooting - drops of molten metal are dropped in water, used for
low melting point materials.
Condensation – Metals are boiled to produce metal vapours and
then condensed to obtain metal powders. Used for Zn, Mg, Cd.
 Blending
• Blending or mixing operations can be done either dry or wet.

• Lubricants such as graphite or stearic acid improve the flow

characteristics and compressibility at the expense of reduced
strength.

• Binders produce the reverse effect of lubricants. Thermoplastics

or a water-soluble methylcellulose binder is used.

• Most lubricants or binders are not wanted in the final product

and are removed ( volatilized or burned off)
 Compacting

• Powder is pressed into a “green compact”

• 40 to 1650 MPa pressure (Depends on materials,
product complexity)
• Still very porous, ~70% density
• May be done cold or warm (higher density)
Compacting
 Sintering

• Controlled atmosphere: no oxygen

• Heat to 0.75*T melt
• Particles bind together, diffusion, recrystalization and
grain growth takes place.
• Part shrinks in size
• Density increases, up to 95%
• Strength increases, Brittleness reduces, Porosity
decreases. Toughness increases.
 Production of magnets
• 50:50 Fe-Al alloys is used for magnetic parts
• Al-Ni-Fe is used for permanent magnets
• Sintering is done in a wire coil to align the magnetic poles of
the material
• H2 is used to rapidly cool the part (to maintain magnetic
alignment)
• Total shrinkage is approximately 3-7% (for accurate parts an
extra sintering step may be added before magnetic
alignment)
• The sintering temperature is 600°C in H2
 Advantages
• Good tolerances and surface finish
• Highly complex shapes made quickly
• Can produce porous parts and hard to manufacture
materials (e.g. cemented oxides)
• Pores in the metal can be filled with other materials/metals
• Surfaces can have high wear resistance
• Porosity can be controlled
• Low waste
• Automation is easy
 Advantages Contd….

• Physical properties can be controlled

• Variation from part to part is low
• Hard to machine metals can be used easily
• No molten metals
• No need for many/any finishing operations
• Permits high volume production of complex shapes
• Allows non-traditional alloy combinations
• Good control of final density
 Applications
• Oil-impregnated bearings made from either iron or copper
alloys for home appliance and automotive applications
• P/M filters can be made with pores of almost any size.
• Pressure or flow regulators.
• Small gears, cams etc.
• Products where the combined properties of two or more
metals (or both metals and nonmetals) are desired.
• Cemented carbides are produced by the cold-compaction of
tungsten carbide powder in a binder, such as cobalt ( 5 to
12%), followed by liquid-phase sintering.
 Pre - Sintering
• If a part made by PM needs some machining, it will be rather
very difficult if the material is very hard and strong. These
machining operations are made easier by the pre-sintering
operation which is done before sintering operation.
 Repressing
• Repressing is performed to increase the density and improve
the mechanical properties.

• Further improvement is achieved by re-sintering.

 Infiltration
• Component is dipped into a low melting-temperature alloy
liquid

• The liquid would flow into the voids simply by capillary

action, thereby decreasing the porosity and improving the
strength of the component.

• The process is used quite extensively with ferrous parts

using copper as an infiltrate but to avoid erosion, an alloy of
copper containing iron and manganese is often used.
 Impregnation
• Impregnation is similar to infiltration
• PM component is kept in an oil bath. The oil penetrates into
the voids by capillary forces and remains there.
• The oil is used for lubrication of the component when
necessary. During the actual service conditions, the oil is
released slowly to provide the necessary lubrication.
• The components can absorb between 12% and 30% oil by
volume.
• It is being used on P/M self-lubricating bearing components
since the late 1920's.
Oil-impregnated Porous Bronze Bearings
Plastics
 Plastics or polymer
• Definition: A group of engineered materials characterized
by large molecules that are built up by the joining of
smaller molecules.

• They are natural or synthetics resins.

 Properties of plastics
•Light weight
•Good resistance to corrosion
•Easy of fabrication into complex shapes
•Low electrical and thermal conductivity
•Good surface finish
•Good optical properties
•Good resistance to shock and vibration.
 Classification – Polymers
• Classification based on their industrial usage:
(a) plastics and
(b) elastomers.
• Classification based on their temperature dependence:
(a) thermoplasts and
(b) thermosets
 Thermoplasts
• Plastics which softens up on heating and hardens up on
cooling where the softening and hardening are totally
reversible processes.
• Hence thermoplasts can be recycled.
• They consist of linear molecular chains bonded together
by weak secondary bonds or by inter-winding.
• Cross-linking between molecular chains is absent in
theromplasts.
• E.g.: Acrylics, PVC, Nylons, Perspex glass, etc.
 Thermoplastics
• Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS):
Characteristics: Outstanding strength and toughness,
resistance to heat distortion; good electrical properties;
flammable and soluble in some organic solvents.
Application: Refrigerator lining, lawn and garden
equipment, toys, highway safety devices.
• Acrylics (poly-methyl-methacrylate) PMMA
Characteristics: Outstanding light transmission and
resistance to weathering; only fair mechanical properties.
Application: Lenses, transparent aircraft enclosures,
drafting equipment, outdoor signs.
Contd…
• Fluorocarbons (PTFE or TFE,Teflon)
Characteristics: Chemically inert in almost all
environments, excellent electrical properties; low
coefficient of friction; may be used to 260ooC; relatively
weak and poor cold-flow properties.
Application: Anticorrosive seals, chemical pipes and
valves, bearings, anti adhesive coatings, high temperature
electronic parts.
• Polyamides (nylons)
Characteristics: Good mechanical strength, abrasion
resistance, and toughness; low coefficient of friction;
absorbs water and some other liquids.
Application: Bearings, gears, cams, bushings, handles, and
jacketing for wires and cables.
Contd…
• Polycarbonates
Characteristics: Dimensionally stable: low water
absorption; transparent; very good impact resistance and
ductility.
Application: Safety helmets, lenses light globes, base for
photographic film
• Polyethylene
Characteristics: Chemically resistant and electrically
insulating; tough and relatively low coefficient of friction;
low strength and poor resistance to weathering.
Application: Flexible bottles, toys, tumblers, battery parts,
ice trays, film wrapping materials.

Contd…
• Polypropylene
Characteristics: Resistant to heat distortion; excellent
electrical properties and fatigue strength; chemically inert;
relatively inexpensive; poor resistance to UV light.
Application: Sterilizable bottles, packaging film, TV
cabinets, luggage
• Polystyrene
Characteristics: Excellent electrical properties and optical
clarity; good thermal and dimensional stability; relatively
inexpensive
Application: Wall tile, battery cases, toys, indoor lighting
panels, appliance housings.

Contd…
 Thermosets
• Plastics which are ‘set’ under the application of heat
and/or pressure.
• This process is not reversible, hence thermosets can not
be recycled.
• They consist of 3-D network structures based on strong
covalent bonds to form rigid solids. linear molecular chains
bonded together by weak secondary bonds or by
interwinding.
• Characterized by high modulus / rigidity /dimensional
stability when compared with thermoplasts.
• E.g.: Epoxies, Amino resins, some polyester resins, etc.

Contd…
• Thermosets are strengthened by reinforcements .
• Different reinforcements are in use according to the necessity.
Glass fibers are most commonly used to form structural and
molding plastic compounds.
• Two most important types of glass fibers are E (electrical)- and
S (high strength)- glasses.
• E-glass (lime-aluminium-borosilicate glass with zero or low
sodium and potassium levels) is often used for continuous
fibers.
• S-glass (65%SiO2, 25%Al2O3 and 10% MgO) has higher
strength-to-weight ratio and is more expansive thus primary
applications include military and aerospace applications.
• Carbon fiber reinforced plastics are also often used in
aerospace applications. However they are very expansive.

Contd…
• The other classes of reinforcements include aramid (aromatic
polyamide) fibers.

• They are popularly known as Kevlar.

 Examples – Thermo setting polymers
• Epoxies
Characteristics: Excellent combination of mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance; dimensionally stable;
good adhesion; relatively inexpensive; good electrical
properties.
Application: Electrical moldings, sinks, adhesives,
protective coatings, used with fiberglass laminates.
• Phenolics
Characteristics: Excellent thermal stability to over 150o C;
may be compounded with a large number of resins, fillers,
etc.; inexpensive.
Application: Motor housing, telephones, auto distributors,
electrical fixtures.
Contd…
• Polyester (PET or PETE)
Characteristics: One of the toughest of plastic films;
excellent fatigue and tear strength, and resistance to
humidity acids, greases, oils and solvents
Application: Magnetic recording tapes, clothing,
automotive tire cords, beverage containers.
 Elastomers
• These polymers are known for their high elongations,
which are reversible upon release of applied loads.
• They consist of coil-like molecular chains, which
straightens up on application of load.
• Characterized by low modulus / rigidity / strength, but
high toughness.
• E.g.: natural and synthetic rubber.
 Plastic Process
• The common forms of raw materials for processing plastics
into products are :- pellets, granules, powders, sheet,
plate, rod and tubing.
• Liquid plastics are used especially in the fabrication of
reinforced - plastic parts.
• Thermoplastics can be processed to their final shape by
moulding and extrusion processes.
• However, extruding is often used as an intermediate
process to be followed by other processes, for example,
vacuum forming or machining.
 Injection Moulding
• The polymer is melted and than forced into a mould.
• Thermoplastic pellets melted and melt injected under high
pressure (70 MPa) into a mold. Molten plastic takes the
shape of the mold, cools, solidifies, shrinks and is ejected.
• Molds usually made in two parts (internal and external
part).
• Use of injection molding machine mainly used for
thermoplastics (gears, cams, pistons, rollers, valves, fan
blades, rotors, washing machine agitators, knobs, handles,
camera cases, battery cases, sports helmets etc…)

Contd…
Fig. Injection moulding
 Extrusion
• Long plastic products with uniform cross sections are
readily produced by the extrusion process.
• Thermoplastic pellets & powders are fed through a hopper
into the barrel chamber of a screw extruder. A rotating
screw propels the material through a preheating section,
where it is heated, homogenized, and compressed, and
then forces it through a heated die and onto a conveyor
belt.
• As the plastic passes onto the belt, it is cooled by jets of
air or sprays of water which harden it sufficiently to
preserve its newly imparted shape.
• It continues to cool as it passes along the belt and is then
either cut into lengths or coiled.
Contd…
• The process is continuous and provides a cheap and rapid
method of moulding.
• Common production shapes include a wide variety of solid
forms, as well as tubes, pipes, and even coated wires and
cables.

Fig. Extrusion
 Compression moulding
• A compression mould is made of two halves with one each
being connected to the platens of the press.
• The mould is electrically heated to maintain the required
temperature.
• Material is placed in the mould, and it is closed with a
hydraulic cylinder, or toggle clamp.
• The pressure maintained on the material is of the order of
14 to 40 MPa of moulding area.
• As the material comes in contact with the heated mould
surface, it softens and fills the entire cavity and at the
same time initiates the chemical reaction which cures the
part.
Contd…
• Cure time is determined by the thickest cross section,
mould temperature, material type and grade.
• After curing, the mould opens and the part is ejected.
• The most widely used plastic is phenol- formaldehyde,
commonly known as 'Bakelite’.
 Transfer Moulding
• Transfer moulding is very similar to compression moulding
and is developed to avoid the disadvantages found in that
process.
• In this method, thermosetting charge is heated and
compressed in a separate chamber and then injected into
the closed mould where it is allowed to cool and solidify.
• Transfer moulding is capable of moulding part shapes that
are more intricate than compression moulding but not as
intricate as injection moulding.

Contd…
 Blow moulding
• Blow moulding is the process of inflating a hot, hollow, thermoplastic preform or
parison inside a closed mould so that its shape conforms to that of the mould
cavity.
• Typical parts made are bottles, toys, air ducts of automobiles, chemical and
gasoline tanks, and a number of housholds goods.

Contd…
Rotation Moulding
 Thermoforming
• In this process, a thermoplastic sheet can be formed into a
three- dimensional shape by the application of heat and
differential pressures.
• First, the plastic sheet is clamped to a frame and uniformly
heated to make it soft and flowable.
• Then a differential pressure (either vacuum or pressure or
both) is applied to make the sheet conform to the shape of a
mould or die positioned below the frame.
• It is possible to use most of the thermoplastic materials. The
starting material is a plastic sheet of uniform thickness.
• It is a relatively simple process and is used for making such
parts as covers, displays, blister packaging, trays, drinking cups
and food packaging.
Contd…
Contd…
Film blowing
The End