Session 7

The Transformations of the International System:

Towards a Regulated Global Society
Definition of a system
⇒ a set of actors whose interactions are so sufficiently regular that the behavior of each
is a necessary factor in the calculation of the behavior of all the others
- characteristics of the international system (as compared to national political
systems)
- devoid of external environment (closed)
- lack of authority over the political units that make it up (anarchic character)
- can lead to the outbreak of a general war (strategic character)
- In IR
- 3 dimensions
- structure: distribution of power capacities
- nature: sharing or not of values and principles at the basis of political regimes
(homogeneous vs. heterogeneous systems)
- texture: number and types of actors who interact in the game
History of IR Approaches
Systesism
● It is an approach that views political phenomena as part of a larger system, it
focuses on the interactions between the different parts of the system and how these
interactions influence the system as a whole
Systemism in Political Science
● behavioral wave which observes subjects from the outside, ie behaviors which are
direct reactions to solicitations from the environment
Systemism in IR
● Systemic theory in international relations is an attempt to capture the relationship
between the units of the international system (generally, the states) and the
elements of the structure of the international system most relevant to their behavior
○ Kenneth Waltz → his book “theory of International Politics”
Theory of International Politics → Waltz
○ shifts the focus of international relations from individual states' characteristics to the
systemic structure of the international system.
○ Waltz distinguishes between three levels of analysis: individual, state, and international
system.
■ He argues that systemic factors are the most crucial in understanding international
relations, asserting that the structure of the international system significantly shapes
states' behavior.
○ Waltz's contends that the absence of a centralized authority leads states to prioritize their
security and survival.
○ Waltz highlights the importance of the balance of power as a stabilizing mechanism in
international relations.
■ States seek to maintain equilibrium in power to prevent any single state from
dominating the system, which helps in preventing conflict
○ Waltz critiques theories that focus solely on individual leaders or states' internal
characteristics in explaining international relations. He suggests that systemic factors
outweigh the impact of individual leaders or domestic politics.
●
● *** worked at Columbia & Berkeley, veteran of both WWII and Korean War, one of the
original founders of neorealism or structural realism,
History of International Systems
● Pre-Westphalian
○ Ancient Greece (City-States)
■ leader of advancements to uniformisation and unification
○ Ancient China (Chinese emperor and tributary regions)
○ Central America (Mayan cities)
● The Congress of Vienna
○ showed the heterogeneity (diversity) of the International system in Europe
○ set up new homogenous system → different interpretations
■ continuity perspective (Kissinger) = mechanics of balance prevail
■ innovation (Schroeder) → balance is a question of values
■ both → protection of monarchies but also a new wave of diplomacy
● Effects of World Wars
○ amplified interactions between political units
○ unification through dismantling opposition (ie colonial empires)
Rise of Modern International Systems
● bipolarity as a vehicle for unification
○ a distribution of power in which two states have the largest amounts of power
○ polarization and depolarization at work depending on the period
■ Waltz says that bipolar and multipolar systems are more stable than unipolar systems. In bipolar systems (such as the Cold
War era), the balance of power between two major powers creates stability due to clear alignments and deterrence
● some people ctritizie the security council for the veto power of c,f,r,uk & us → saying they have almost a unipolar
power then
● towards a global system
○ unifying role of igos
■ the rise of institutionalized multilateralism as a unifying factor in the system
● Institutionalized multilaterism refers to the practice of international cooperation and diplomacy through established
institutions, frameworks, and mechanisms that involve multiple states working together to address common issues or
challenges.
● This concept embodies the idea that international relations can be governed and managed through formalized
institutions that facilitate multilateral decision-making and collaboration among countries.
○ involves rule based systems, decision making processes, conflict resolution and dialogues
○ examples
■ the league of nations (1919) [woodrow wilson]]
● remember the US didn’t ratify it, was not really a success
■ Then the UN [FDR, Churchill)
● 1945
■ Thinkers
● Robert Keohane, Joseph Nye, and others, have contributed theoretical frameworks that
support the idea of institutionalized multilateralism.
○ emphasizing the importance of international institutions in facilitating cooperation,
managing conflicts, and promoting collective action among states.
Changes in texture
● texture → number and types of actors who are in the game today
○ can be used to describe the type of interaction between states, non state actors, ios and other entities
■ can involve diplomatic relations, economic interactions, security alliances, ect
○ multiplicity of actors
■ international system with various actors of indifferent interests, agendas and capabilities
● ie nation-states, corporations, ngos, terrorist groups and institutions
○ can relate to layered nature of issues and agendas in IR
■ ranging from security concerns such as conflicts and terrorism to econ matters and sociocultural aspects
(human rights)
○ can even describe changes in nature and relationship among states, ie power shifts
■ developed upon by Waltz, Robert Keohane, Nye, and Hedley Bull
● Hedley Bull
○ focusing on IR society → towards new obligations
■ International society: a group of states (which), aware of certain common interests and values, conceive
of themselves as bound by a set of common rules in their mutual relations and participate in the proper
functioning of common institutions
■ Anarchy compatible with the idea of society + Limits of the analogy between national society and
international society
Robert K.
● Robert Keohane
○ known for his contributions to the realms of international political economy and neoliberal institutionalism,
(which emphasizes the importance of international institutions in shaping state behavior and facilitating
cooperation among states)
■ His research focused on how international regimes and institutions influence state actions, compliance,
and the management of global issues
○ His most influential work includes the co-authorship of the book "Power and Interdependence: World Politics
in Transition" with Joseph Nye, published in 1977.
■ this book introduced the concept of complex interdependence.
● It argued that in an increasingly globalized world, states are not solely driven by military power
but are also interdependent through economic, social, and political ties
○ Keohane coined the term Hegemonic stability theory in a 1980 article for the notion that the international
system is more likely to remain stable when a single nation-state is the dominant world power, or hegemon.
■ Keohane's 1984 book After Hegemony used insights from the new institutional economics to argue that
the international system could remain stable in the absence of a hegemon, thus rebutting hegemonic
stability theory.[7] Keohane showed that international cooperation could be sustained through repeated
interactions, transparency, and monitoring
● works at princeton and According to the Open Syllabus Project, Keohane is the most frequently cited author on college syllabi for
political science courses
Diplomacy Features
● catalytic diplomacy
○ diplomatic approach aimed at initiating, facilitating, or accelerating positive changes or
developments in global affairs. It involves proactive diplomatic efforts to stimulate positive
outcomes or transformations in various international issues.
○ "Association of diverse actors weaving flexible relationships around specific objectives"
■ often a response to crisis’s
■ however it also pertains to the idea that diplomatic efforts should not merely react to
existing situations but should activley work to instigate positive changes and create
favorable conditions for addressing global challenges
○ example of NGOs participating (formal and normative presence)
■ imploct (denoucing legal vacuum)
■ explicit (promotion of an alternative conception via editorial contibitions)
3 types of crises
● vitality
○ neo populist assauts
● functionality
○ legimtiation, efficient, operations towards peace
● universality
○ a strong cleavage
○ from political heterogeneity to multidimensional heterogeneity
● Example of US, Russia & China
○ US → release agent
■ trump & biden
○ Russia → censorship
■ preveninting multilateralism and war in Ukraine as a symptom
○ China → Chatterbox
● change of priorities, focusing on national interests through other means
Case Studies (Presentations) & Examples
● G7 and Club diplomacy
○ G7= Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States & EU
■ The group holds annual summits where leaders discuss and coordinate policies on a wide
range of global issues, including the economy, security, and environmental challenges
○ Club diplomacy, on the other hand, is a broader concept referring to diplomatic relations and
negotiations that occur within exclusive groups or clubs of countries or entities
○ allows them to advance their own interests, meetign away from larged groups such as the UN
■ G7=Club Diplomacy
● Neo-Ottomanism as a vision of the international system
○ Neo-Ottomanism refers to a political ideology and a foreign policy concept that suggests a
revival or resurgence of influence associated with the historical Ottoman Empire
○ In the context of the international system, Neo-Ottomanism envisions Turkey as a significant
regional power with the capacity to exert influence beyond its borders.
○ It involves a more assertive foreign policy stance, aiming to enhance Turkey's diplomatic,
economic, and strategic presence in its neighboring regions,
■ methods associated: cultural & soft power, economic expansion, seeking to play a more
active dipomatic role in securing peace in the region, maintinaing global alliances, and
providing aid and support to neighbor countries → to portray Turkey as a influential actors
in global affairs
Case Studies (Presentations) & Examples
BADIE, Bertrand, DEVIN, Guillaume (dir.), Le Multilatéralisme, Paris : La Découverte, 2007.

● Badie's concept of "le multilatéralisme" emphasizes the importance of multilateral approaches in

global politics
● He argues that in an interconnected world, traditional power structures are evolving, and states
need to engage in cooperative efforts through multilateral institutions to address global
challenges effectively.
● His perspective highlights the limitations of unilateralism and power politics advocating instead
for a system where multiple actors, including states, igos, ngos and other stakeholders work
together to manage global issues, stressing the need for diplomacy and dialogue
● his vision of "le multilatéralisme" underscores the necessity of collaboration and cooperation
among diverse actors to navigate an increasingly complex and interdependent world, promoting
a more inclusive and effective approach to international relations
Case Studies (Presentations) & Examples
BADIE, Bertrand, La diplomatie de connivence. Paris : La Découverte, 2011.

● Diplomacy of connivance (secret agreements, ones of tactic)

○ his book is a critique of this occurrence as modern diplomacy has shifted from its traditional role of
negotiation and representation of state interests to a form of connivance among elites
● Badie scrutinizes how diplomacy has increasingly become a tool for maintaining the status quo and serving the
interests of a small group of global decision-makers rather than addressing broader societal concerns or
representing the diverse interests of citizens.
○ He contends that this trend perpetuates inequality, reinforces power imbalances, and undermines the
democratic process in international relations.
● Badie calls for a reevaluation of diplomacy, urging a return to its fundamental role of serving the public interest
and representing the values and needs of wider populations
○ He advocates for a more inclusive and transparent diplomatic framework that engages with civil society,
incorporates diverse voices, and addresses pressing global issues beyond the narrow confines of elite
interests.
Thinkers
● Jean Bodin
○ placed the sovereignty of the state at the heart of the study of the internationnal system and justifies the
distinction between the internal order of states in which as sovereign power exists and th eitnernational
system in which no sovereign exists (no world government)
○ Thomas Schelling
■ known for his work in founding game theory, with hie work on the Strategy of Conflict, focusing on
balances of power applying to systems in IR (evaluating next moves)
Readings
Amitav Acharya: After Liberal Hegemony: The Advent of a Multiplex World Order,

● Acharya challenges the prevailing notion of a unipolar world order dominated by liberal values and argues that a new era of
multiplexity is emerging in global politics.
○ Key Points
■ Acharya critiques the idea of liberal hegemony, which asserts the dominance of Western liberal values and
institutions in shaping global order after the Cold War.
● He argues that this perspective oversimplifies global politics and neglects the diversity of values,
cultures, and approaches to governance around the world.
■ Multiplexity in Global Order:
● Acharya emphasizes the coexistence of different power structures, ideas, and identities that challenge
the dominance of a single ideological system.
■ Rise of Non-Western Powers
● Acharya highlights the increasing influence and assertiveness of non-Western powers, such as China,
India, Brazil, and others, presenting atlenative forms of governance and challening the tradtional
western centric global order (BRICS)
■ Pluralism and Diveristy
● Archarya argues for a more inclusive and pluralistic approach that accommodates multiple voices,
perspectives, and cultural values in shaping international relations.
■ Policy Implications
● he advocates for a more flexible, adaptable, and inclusive approach to global governance that
accommodates diverse viewpoints and accommodates multiple forms of power and legitimacy
 Session 8
The Return of the Great Power Game
Powers in the game
● Military Power
○ national power is clearly linked to military power
■ potential power → demography ie population statistics (how many young men ) & GDP
■ actual power → military budget – military capabilities
● connects to relational & structural power
● Relational Power
■ capability to make one do what he would not have done or stop one from doing what
they would have done
● Badies questions relational power (not state to state, focuses on structural)
○ criticizing western IR
● Structural Power
○ “Ability to shape and determine the structures of the global political economy within which
other states, their political institutions, their economic enterprises and their scientists and other
experts must operate → Susan Strange, making a profound impact
More Powers by Joseph Nye
● Soft Power
■ Power as seduction
● "The ability of a state to set the political agenda in a way that will shape the
preferences expressed by others, as well as structure a situation in such a way
that all other countries make choices or define interests that are consistent with its
own.”
○ includes prestige, positive image abroad, cultural/ ideological attraction &
diplomatic influence
● Hard Power
○ the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political
bodies.
And MORE Powers
● Sharp power
○ combines both soft and hard power
○ "an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances,
partnerships, and institutions of all levels to expand one's influence and establish legitimacy of one's
action
■ used to describe the tactics employed by authoritarian regimes to manipulate and influence
political discourse, public opinion, and decision-making processes in democratic countries
● ex.) media manipulation, the use of disinformation, cyberattacks, economic coercion, and
other forms of interference in democratic processes
○ aimed at undermining democratic institutions, spreading disinformation, polarizing
societies, and shaping public opinion to serve the interests of the authoritarian
regimes.
○ The concept of sharp power has gained traction as a framework to analyze and understand the
strategies used by authoritarian states, particularly China and Russia, to exert influence beyond their
borders by exploiting the openness of democratic societies.
■ It highlights the challenge posed by these tactics to the integrity and resilience of democratic
institutions and values.
○ Coined by Christopher Walker and Jessica Ludwig of the National Endowment for Democracy (NED),
a non-profit organization in the United States
Return of the Security dilemma
● dealing with territorial space → Ukraine
● controlling flows at the heart of the commons
○ controlling access to common spaces (available to all, owned by no one)
■ high seas
■ international airspace
■ outer space
■ cyber world
● Also dealing with
○ globalization ramifications
○ reputational images → national brandings
○ regions & regional cooperations
■ ie EU, where do they belong, → originated as an actor in international secruity
Security dilemma theorists
● John H. Herz
○ introduced the concept of the "security dilemma" in his work "Political Realism and Political Idealism."
■ he described how actions taken by states to enhance their security often lead to increased insecurity or
threat perceptions by other states, which can lead to arms races, distrust, and conflict.
● John J. Mearsheimer:
■ expanded on the security dilemma in his influential work "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics" (2001).
● he argued that in an anarchic international system, states' efforts to increase their own security
inevitably generate fear and insecurity in other states, leading to a spiral of mistrust and
competition for relative gains.
● Robert Jervis
■ explored how misperceptions, cognitive biases, and uncertainty contribute to the security dilemma.
■ He highlighted that states' perceptions of intentions and capabilities of other states can lead to
defensive actions that are interpreted as offensive by others, exacerbating tensions.

The security dilemma concept revolves around the paradoxical situation where states' efforts to enhance their security can
inadvertently lead to greater insecurity and tension in the international system.

Actions taken by one state to increase its security can be misinterpreted or seen as threatening by other states, prompting
them to take defensive measures that, in turn, are perceived as offensive by the first state. This cycle of mutual suspicion
and arms buildup can heighten tensions and potentially lead to conflict, despite neither side intending aggression.
When power is not enough…
● power and self representation
● fight to maintain global dominance
● Russian FM Sergey Lavrov
○ adepts of the obsolete concept of unilateral hegemony to maintain their global dominance at
any cost and impose pseudo-liberal values across the board without taking into account the
cultural and civilizational diversity in today’s world.
○ Never before have the principles of self-determination and respect for human rights been
used so cynically as a cover for political and economic expansion
When power is not enough…
● Aporias of power → paradoxes → Jacque Derrida
○ "aporias of power" refers to the inherent contradictions, paradoxes, or dilemmas that arise within the
structures and dynamics of power, highlighting the complex and contradictory nature of power itself
■ Jacques Derrida discussed aporias in the context of deconstruction and questioned the stability and
coherence of power structures. He explored how power operates through language and discourse,
revealing contradictions and ambiguities within systems of authority and control.
● wars among ideas, populations and parties
○ contested state military power → war on terror
● international crises → nuclear
● Kenneth Waltz (in his doctoral thesis Man, the State and War)
○ highlights three images for thinking about war
■ human nature (individual level)
■ political regimes (national level)
■ interstate anarchy (international level
Case Studies (Presentations)
● Is NATO an Obsolete Organization?
○ matter of perspective and interpretation
○ continue relevance (outside Euro-Atlatnic context as well)
○ has reformed itself to include more relevant issues ie terrorism and cooperative security
○ Critics argue that NATO's relevance has diminished following the end of the Cold War and the
dissolution of the Soviet Union. Some suggest that the organization has struggled to find a clear
purpose in a world where traditional state-based threats have transformed, and new challenges,
such as cybersecurity and hybrid warfare, have emerged.
○ issues of budget, not equal contibutions by each member countru
○ supporters emphasize NATO's continued importance in promoting collective security, stability,
and cooperation among member states.
○ continued issues with russia
● Are international sanctions efficient?
○ depend on a variety of factors
■ do other countries join in on sanctions?
■ political, economic and social ramifications
■ enforcement mechanisms for compliance
■ time frame, is it possible to be patience
■ total social and economical costs on country applying the sanctions, and the one being
subjected
● Chinese soft power in Africa
○ whole presentation
Readings
Joseph Nye, Soft Power & Public Diplomacy Revisted
● Soft power is the ability to affect others to obtain the outcomes one wants through attraction and persuasion rather than coercion or
payment
○ A country’s soft power rests on its resources of culture, values and policies
■ A smart-power strategy combines hard- and soft-power resources.
■ Soft power rests on the ability to shape the preferences of others. It is not the possession of any one country, nor only of
countries
● Types of soft power
○ public diplomacy: communciations, strategic campaigns, scholarships/programs
○ even military →normally asssociatted with hard power but actually has a broad range of officer exchanges, joint
training and assistance programmes with other countries in peacetime.
● Methods
○ cultural resources → when seen as attractive
○ political values → when lived up to at home & abroad
○ foreign policies → when seen as legitmate
○ credibilty as a whole → by nations leaders, by citizens, etc
● Limitations of soft power
○ takes longer to show results and reliance on civil society but technology (easeier access and comms) = easier to overcome
these limits
● “Swords are swifter than words, but over the long term, words can change the minds behind the swords” - Joseph Nye
 Session 9
They promised us peace… and there was no peace
Towards new wars
● Changes in battles
○ digitalization
○ privatisation → ie mercenaries
○ hybridization
● Changes in rationalization
○ Safety → restoring order after an aggressive, responding to a threat
○ humanitarian → right to protect → contested action
■ UN security council
● Changes in geography
○ inter state wars
○ increase in scale of wars (scale of damage being done)
Towards peace
● positive vs negative peace
○ a state of harmony vs just an absence of violence
○ aim of society should be towards positive peace
■ In essence, negative peace emphasizes the absence of overt conflict, while positive peace focuses on
addressing underlying grievances and structural issues to foster a more sustainable and enduring peace
■ Idea developed by Johan Galtung, a Norwegian sociologist and peace studies scholar as part of his
broader framework for understanding peace
● He argued that achieving peace is not just about the absence of violence (negative peace) but
also involves addressing the underlying structural, social, and economic factors that contribute to
conflicts (positive peace).
● holy trinity of peacekeeping operations
○ consent (authorized force)
○ impartiality (neutral force)
○ minimal use of force (buffer force)
● mediation
● dangers of peace
○ bias
○ exclusion of indigineous populations
○ a false peace
Case Studies (Presentations)
● Is the Syrian War a New War?
○ The conflict in Syria, which began in 2011, is often regarded as a complex civil war rather than a "new"
war in the sense of a completely novel form of conflict. However, it does present distinct characteristics
that set it apart from other conflicts in recent history.
○ key aspects which differente the war
■ Protracted Nature & regional + international involvement
● conflict has evolved into a protracted and multifaceted war involving multiple actors,
including the Syrian government, various opposition groups, extremist organizations like
ISIS (Islamic State), Kurdish forces, and international powers supportinf different factions
(Iran,Russia, Turkey)→ have contributed to its prolonged duration
■ humanitarian crisis → completely profound devastation → millios displaced and seeking refugee
■ Use of Proxy Forces and Tactics:
● he conflict has witnessed the use of proxy forces, external military intervention, and the use
of unconventional tactics, including chemical weapons attacks, siege warfare, and
indiscriminate bombings targeting civilian areas.
■ Impact on Global Security:
● The war's implications extend beyond Syria's borders, affecting regional stability and global
security. The rise of ISIS and the flow of foreign fighters have raised concerns about
terrorism and radicalization worldwide.
○ While the Syrian conflict shares some commonalities with other civil wars in terms of its devastating
impact and humanitarian toll, its complexity, regional involvement, and the intertwining of various
geopolitical interests make it a unique and particularly challenging conflict to resolve.
Readings

Mary Kaldor, In Defense of New Wars

● explores the concept of "new wars" and challenges traditional understandings of warfare.
○ she argues that contemporary conflicts differ significantly from conventional wars,
emphasizing their characteristics such as being intra-state, involving non-state actors,
and targeting civilians.
○ she highlights how these conflicts are driven by identity politics, globalization, and
economic factors rather than solely by state interests.
○ she proposes that recognizing these distinctions is crucial for developing effective
strategies to address and resolve modern conflicts
● Aghiad: says that old wars were to acquire territory while new wars are economic and for
identity, wanting to get energy, frozen conflicts → US wanting gaza shore to drill
○ Ukraine as an example of both, acquiring territory and justifying them through identity
issues
Session 10
Identities
Definitions
Identity → a process of distinction, an individual and collective strategy, a social
construct
Culture → a concept linked to the discovery of alterity beyond the west, (a pattern
of meanings embodied in symbols handed down through history, a system of
conceptions expressed symbolically and by means in which men communicate,
perpetuate and develop their knowledge of life and their attitudes toward it)
ethnicity→ a group without political institutionalization and whose unity is based on
a community of language, culture and group consciousness.
 Political dynamics of identity in the global space
Identity Crisis → understanding the war in Ukraine by identity crisis of Russia

Identity revivals → Hinduism

Identity based reactions → humiliation of states

The identities of ethnic groups, rupturing in conflict → Serbs and Croats

Three Spectrums

- Primordialism → the idea that nations or ethnic identities are fixed, natural, and ancient, everyone has one
fixed identity
- idea is rejected by many scholars who argue that people can have multiple identities which can
change & are social constructs
- Essentialism → there are certain core attributes within any given thing which define it and make it what it
is.
- This could include an individual's gender, race, ethnicity, or even a species' biology
- Separatism → the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental, or gender separation
from the larger group
Identity in Politics
→ integrating cultural components into foreign policies
- minister for Maori development and local government (New Zealand)
- conference on governments supporting religious organizations (EU
participation)
- Arjun Appadurai → identities in globalization
- nationalist ideas extending to the global space under the effects of technological changes and
migrations
- example of response to colonialism → waves of nationalism rejecting it
- post independence movements as well
- example of ethnic groups
- objectives → strengthen nation building in a multinational world & foster international
recognition, attract resources and investors, but tensions with central government are at stake
- example of diaspora
Identity Entrepreneurs
- Bertrand Badie
- According to Badie, identity entrepreneurs are individuals or groups that capitalize on identity-related issues, exploiting
the sentiments and emotions associated with collective identities for political gains. They are agents who actively
engage in the construction, promotion, or manipulation of identities in the international arena. Badie's concept of
identity entrepreneurs involves the following key aspects
- These actors often work to influence or redefine the perceptions, beliefs, and narratives about group identities, whether
based on nationality, ethnicity, religion, culture, or other affiliations.
- Narrative Construction: They create and propagate narratives or stories that emphasize specific identity
markers, aiming to mobilize support, influence public opinion, or advance particular political agendas. These
narratives might focus on historical grievances, cultural heritage, or shared values to foster a sense of
belonging or solidarity among certain groups.
- Symbolic Representations: They use symbols, icons, rituals, or cultural artifacts to reinforce or manipulate
collective identities. This could involve the use of flags, anthems, religious symbols, or historical figures to
strengthen a particular identity and create a sense of unity among a population.
- Political Mobilization: Identity entrepreneurs often engage in political mobilization by organizing social
movements, political parties, or interest groups centered around specific identity-based issues.
- Conflict and Peace Dynamics: In some cases, identity entrepreneurs can contribute to conflict escalation by
exacerbating identity-based tensions or by manipulating perceptions to sow discord. Conversely, they can also play a
role in conflict resolution by fostering dialogue, reconciliation, and the promotion of inclusive identities.
Case Studies (Presentations)
● The international politics of the Kurdish Cause
○ The Kurdish cause is a complex issue that intersects with international politics on various levels.
○ he Kurds are an ethnic group spread across several countries in the Middle East, primarily in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, with aspirations
for self-determination and autonomy within these nations.
■ Geopolitical Interests:
● The region where the Kurds reside is strategically important due to its energy resources, geographical location, and
geopolitical significance.
○ Many international powers have vested interests in the stability or instability of this region, influencing their
stance on the Kurdish cause.
■ State Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity
● The Kurdish desire for an independent state or greater autonomy clashes with the principle of state sovereignty and the
territorial integrity of countries like Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria.
● Internal Divisions among Kurds
○ There are divisions among Kurdish groups themselves, leading to different strategies and aspirations. This
internal fragmentation affects the effectiveness of the Kurdish cause on the international stage.
● Impact of International Interventions
○ The interventions of various countries, especially in Iraq and Syria, have influenced the prospects and
challenges for Kurdish autonomy.
● Diplomatic Efforts
○ finding a mutually acceptable solution among the involved parties has been highly challenging due to differing
interests and historical grievances.
Case Studies (Presentations)
● Should we decolonize IR
○ The call to "decolonize" International Relations (IR) is a multifaceted and debated issue within the field.
Decolonization in IR refers to critically examining and challenging the historical biases, power structures,
and Eurocentric perspectives that have shaped the discipline.
○ Diversity of Perspectives:
■ IR has historically been dominated by Western-centric theories and eurocentirc perspectives,
marginalizing other voices, experiences, and knowledge systems. Decolonizing IR seeks to diversify
and incorporate multiple perspectives, including those from the Global South and indigenous
cultures.
■ Decolonization involves reevaluating historical narratives and power dynamics that have shaped
global relations. It aims to recognize the legacies of colonialism, imperialism, and their enduring
impacts on geopolitics, economies, and societies.
■ Decolonizing IR aims to influence policy-making by incorporating diverse perspectives and
experiences into discussions
■ There are debates within the field regarding the practical implications and methodologies for
decolonizing IR. Some argue for a complete overhaul of existing theories, while others advocate for
a more incremental approach that integrates diverse perspectives without discarding existing
knowledge entirely.
Readings
Arjun Appadurai's essay, "The Capacity to Aspire: Culture and the Terms of Recognition," explores the
concept of aspiration and its relationship with culture and recognition.
● Appadurai discusses how aspirations, which are desires for a better future or improved conditions,
are shaped by cultural factors. He argues that aspirations are not solely individual desires but are
influenced by societal and cultural contexts. He introduces the idea of the "capacity to aspire,"
emphasizing that people's ability to aspire is connectedAppadurai explains that recognition, both
individual and collective, plays a crucial role in fostering or limiting people's aspirations. Societies
and institutions that acknowledge and validate diverse aspirations contribute to creating a more
inclusive and empowering environment for individuals to aspire toward their goals. to their access to
cultural resources, opportunities, and the social environment.
● Appadurai also delves into the relationship between globalization, cultural flows, and aspirations. He
suggests that in a globalized world, where cultures intermingle and ideas circulate widely, there is an
expansion of possibilities for different aspirations to emerge. However, he warns against the
homogenizing effects of globalization that might restrict the diversity of aspirations by imposing
dominant cultural norms.
 Session 11
The return of the sacred
Defintions
Max Weber → sociology of religion, supernatural → explains what can be
understood through science
Durkheim → a united system of beliefs and practices related to religious things,
those that are seperate and forbidden, unite in a moral community
Modernization → as or not as secularization
questions of uniformity
ultimately religion has not disappeared but is used for different things, ie new
perspectives
Images of religion
Elizabeth Shakman-Hurd → 3 images of religion

- religious expertise (forms of knowledge pertaining to it)

- different levels and purposes of expertise, neutrality?
- official/governed religion → constructed, categorized and authorized by
- government and institutions (states with official religions)
- religion as a political object → determining rights and wrongs, controlling everyday behavior
- personally experienced religion → broader field of everyday spiritual practices
- interactions at local, national and global levels
- links between life and faith
- normalization in progress → interaction between three images of religion
Religion & Politics
Each country has their own dynamics with religion

- some focus on privatizing while others aim to publicize it

- different levels of neutrality of political power in relation to religion
- recognizing freedom of belief → democratic

Secularization

- common perception → westphalia seculirzd IR, it is a necessary condition to avoid conflicts

- policy implications → is it neccesary to promote seculirzation? (yes or no) how to secularize?

Clash of civilizations (in terms of religion)

- religionization of conflict (Israel-Palestine), War on Terror (Islam), religous extermism

- religious cooperations → ie the OIC
- un resolution → 16/18 on "Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping, stigmatization, discrimination,
incitement to violence and violence against persons on the basis of their religion or belief"
Case Studies (Presentations)
● Is the Resurgence of Religion a paradox of globalization
● Is Islamic Foreign Policy a Relevant Concept?
Readings
Jeffrey Haynes' article "Religion and International Relations after '9/11'" published in Democratization in 2005 discusses the
impact of the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the intersection of religion and international relations.

● Haynes examines how the events of September 11, 2001, marked a significant turning point in the study and
understanding of the relationship between religion and international relations. The attacks, perpetrated by Islamist
extremists, brought religious issues to the forefront of global politics, challenging traditional views that emphasized
secularization and downplayed the importance of religion in world affairs
● The article explores how the post-9/11 era saw a resurgence in discussions about the role of religion in shaping
international relations. Haynes argues that this event exposed the complexity of religious identities and ideologies
and their potential to influence global politics, often in ways that were previously underestimated or overlooked.’
● he article delves into how the events of 9/11 prompted a reevaluation of the assumptions that religion would
diminish in significance as societies modernized. Instead, it highlighted the need for a better understanding of
religious dynamics, the diversity of religious beliefs, and their impact on international affairs.
● Haynes also discusses the challenges posed by the intersection of religion and politics in the post-9/11 world,
including the rise of religiously motivated violence, debates surrounding the compatibility of democracy and religious
values, and the need for a nuanced approach to understanding the complexities of religious identities and their
implications for global governance.
 Session 12
Beyond Bayonets, Security in the Anthropocene: Navigating in
Espace Mondial
Defintions
National Security → in an objective sense, measures the absence of threats to acquired values, in a
subjective sense, the absence of fear that these values will be attacked → ultimately it is a contested topic

security → as a state focus, historic ideal (alliances) → modern corporations

different ideas of security (feminist, security for women, end of patriarchy, environment (as a weapon and a
threat)) {consequences; upon wildlife, governments and on security}

→ intersectional perspective (gender, race, class, culture) → all different definitions

peacekeeping operations, involvement of IGOS

diplomatic efforts of security → UN security council (first resolution after gulf war, on the responsibility of
states for environmental degradation resulting from military activities abroad)

again environment as a source of conflict (Darfur, Syria)

→ (climate change example of water crisis, interstate conflict over resources), compromises security
Case Studies (Presentations)
Is the war in Darfur an environmental conflict?

● While environmental issues such as resource scarcity and competition have played a role in exacerbating
tensions, it's important to understand that the conflict in Darfur cannot be solely categorized as an environmental
conflict.
● enviromental factors which have contribute to the conflict
○ Resource Scarcity: The region of Darfur, like many areas in Africa, has faced challenges related to scarce
resources, particularly water and arable land. Competition over these limited resources has intensified due
to population growth, climate variability, and desertification.
○ Climate Change and Drought: Environmental stressors, including droughts and desertification, have
affected livelihoods in Darfur. Prolonged droughts, in particular, have led to reduced access to water and
grazing lands for livestock, impacting the livelihoods of pastoralist communities
● However, it's crucial to note that while environmental factors have played a role in exacerbating tensions, the
conflict in Darfur primarily stems from deep-rooted political, ethnic, and economic grievances. Issues like
marginalization, unequal distribution of power and resources, historical tensions between ethnic groups,
government policies, and human rights abuses have been significant drivers of the conflict.
Readings
● Lucile Maertens' article, "Depoliticisation as a securitising move: the case of the United Nations Environment Programme,"
published in the European Journal of International Security in 2018, examines the concept of depoliticization within the
framework of environmental issues, specifically focusing on the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
● Maertens investigates how the depoliticization of environmental problems can be viewed as a strategy to securitize these
issues. Depoliticization, in this context, refers to the deliberate attempt to present environmental challenges as technical or
apolitical matters rather than acknowledging their political roots or implications.
● The article analyzes how the UNEP, an international body dedicated to environmental concerns, has engaged in depoliticization
as a way to frame environmental issues in a manner that aligns with security agendas. By depoliticizing environmental
problems, certain actors aim to remove them from the realm of political contestation and instead present them as neutral,
technical issues that require urgent attention without addressing underlying political causes or conflicts.
● Maertens argues that this depoliticization process, while ostensibly aiming to facilitate cooperation and garner support for
environmental initiatives, can also be a securitizing move. By framing environmental issues as detached from politics and
presenting them as urgent security concerns, certain actors may employ securitization tactics to gain attention, resources, and
policy action without addressing the structural or political roots of these problems.
● The article sheds light on how the depoliticization of environmental issues, particularly within the UNEP, can serve as a strategy
to securitize these concerns, potentially influencing policy agendas and resource allocations without addressing underlying
political complexities.
Semester Overview
and other useful information
Schools of thought
● Realism
○ a major theoretical perspective that emphasizes the competitive and conflictual nature of
global politics.
○ views the state as the primary actor in international relations, that prioritize their own interests
and security above all else.
○ argues that the international system is anarchic, meaning there is no overarching authority or
global government.
○ argues that states seek to maximize their power relative to other states to protect their
interests and maintain their security.
■ Power is seen as a means to achieve security in a competitive international
environment.
○ emphasizes the concept of the balance of power, where states aim to prevent the dominance
of any single state or coalition that could threaten the stability of the system. → leads to the
formation of alliances and counterbalancing behaviors among states.
○ Realists believe that states act in pursuit of their national interest
○ pessimism about concentration → argues that self-interest and concerns for security often
lead to competition and conflict rather than cooperation.
Schools of thought
● Neoliberalism
○ emerged as a response to realist theories of mid 20th century
○ emphasizes the importance of economic interdependence, international institutions, and cooperation
among states as key factors in shaping global politics.
○ stresses the significance of economic interdependence between states as a driving force in
international relations → rgues that cooperation among nations, especially in economic matters can
lead to mutual benefits and promote peace among states.
○ highlights the role of international institutions, organizations, and regimes in facilitating cooperation
and managing conflicts between states
○ supports free-market principles and advocates for reducing barriers to trade, promoting open markets,
deregulation, and privatization, saying that helps contribute to prosperity and can foster peaceful
relations among states
○ introduces the concept of complex interdependence, emphasizing that states are not solely driven by
military power and security concerns but are also interconnected through multiple channels such as
economic, social, cultural, and political ties → can increase cooperation
○ recognizes the significance of soft power and diplomacy