Topic 3

SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)

Introduction
- In modern manufacturing and industrial processes, mining industries, public and private
utilities, leisure and security industries telemetry is often needed to connect equipment and
systems separated by large distances.
- Control system architecture can range from simple local control to highly redundant distributed
control. The SCADA system applies to facilities that are large enough that a central control
system is necessary.
- SCADA refers to the combination of telemetry and data acquisition. It encompasses the
collecting of the information, transferring it back to the central site, carrying out any necessary
analysis and control and then displaying that information on a number of operator screens or
displays. The required control actions are then conveyed back to the process.
- SCADA is a widely distributed computerized system primarily used to remotely control and
monitor the conditions of field based assets from a centralized location.
- The PLC is still one of the most widely used control systems in industry. As need to monitor
and control more devices in the plant grew, the PLCs were distributed and the systems
became more intelligent and smaller in size. PLCs and DCS (distributed control systems) are
used

Components of a SCADA system

- SCADA encompasses the transfer of data between a SCADA central host computer and
number of remote sites (RTU) and the central host and the operator terminals.
- The figure below shows a generic SCADA system that employs data multiplexing (MUX)
between the central host and the RTU.

- SCADA system consist of:

1. Remote terminal unit (RTU): They are primarily used to convert electronic signals received
from field devices into (or from) the language (known as the communication protocol) used to
transmit the data over a communication channel.
- It connects to sensors in the process, converting data to the supervisory system.
- PLC used as field devices because they are more economical, versatile, flexible and
configurable than special-purpose RTU’s
- RTU gathers data from field devices (pump, valves alarms etc) in memory, until the MTU
(master terminal unit) initiates a second command.

2. Communication network / system – used to transfer data between field data interface
devices and control units and the computers in the SCADA host computer (MTU)
- This is intended to provide the means by which data can be transferred between the central
host computer server and field based RTU.
- Communication network refers to the equipments needed to transfer data to and from different
sites.
- The medium used can either be cable, telephone or radio
- The way the SCADA system network (topology) is set up can vary with each system but there
must be uninterrupted, bidirectional communication between the MTU and the RTU for a
SCADA or data acquisition system (DAS) to function properly.
- This can be accomplished in various way i.e private wire lines, underground cables, telephone
radio, modern, microwave dishes, satellite and other atmospheric means and many times,
system employ more than one means of communicating to the remote site.
- Communication systems used for SCADA are often split into two distinct part: WAN and LAN.
- The interface between the two parts is commonly achieved through some form of multiplexing.
- Multiplexing allows different data streams to share single data link. It combines communication
paths to and from many RTUs into a single bit stream, usually using Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM).
- It may itself be a SCADA processing device that manages the local network and not only
combines data, but also reduces the amount of data that be interchanged within the central
host.

3. Central computer or master terminal unit (MTU)

- It is defined as the master or heart of a SCADA system and is located at the operator’s central
control facility.
- Most often it is a single computer or a network of computer servers that provide a man-
machine operator interface to the SCADA system.
- The computers process the information received from or sent to the RTU sites and present it
to human operator in a form that the operators can work with.
- Operators terminals are connected to the central host computer by a computer network so
that the viewing screens end associated data can be displayed for the operator.
- Some examples of the types of display screens offered by most systems include:
 System overview pages displaying the entire system often summarizing SCADA
sites that might be faulty
 Site mimic screens for each individual RTU location showing up to the minute site
information
 Alarm summary pages displayed current alarms and other types of alarms in which
have been acknowledged or not
 Trend screens enabling the operator to display the behaviour of a particular variable
over time.

4. Human machine interface (HMI)

- It is the apparatus which present process data to a human operator, and through which the
human operator controls the process.
- This displays this information in an easily understood graphical form, a rehives the data
received, transmit alarms and permit operator control as required.
- The HMI is essentially a PC system running powerful graphic and alarm software programs.
- It is usually linked to the SCADA system’s database and software programs, to provide
trending, diagnostic data and information management.

5. SCADA software
- SCADA software can be divided into two types: open and proprietary.
- Proprietary software often is configured for a specific hardware platform and may not
interface with the software or hardware produced by competing vendors.
- Commercial off-the shelf (COTS)/open software are more flexible, and will interface with
different types of hardware and software.
- The focus of proprietary software is on process and control functionality while COTS software
emphasizes on compatibility with a variety of equipment and instrumentation.
- Software products typically used within a SCADA system are as follows:-
 Central host computer operating system:- software used to control the central
host computer hardware.
 Operator terminal operating system – Software used to control the central host
computer hardware at the operators terminal. It contributes to the networking of the
central host and operator’s terminal.
 Applications – They are of two types; central host computer application and
operator terminal applications. These handles transmitted and reception of data to
and from the RTU and central computer. It also provides the GU/ which offers mimic
screens, alarm pages trend.
 Communication protocol drives: - required to control the translation and
interpretation of the data between ends of the communication links in the systems.

How does SCADA Work

- SCADA is a computer system for gathering and analyzing real time data
- The ability to monitor the entire control system in real time is facilitated by data acquisition
including meter reading and checking status of sensors that are communicated at standard
intervals depending on the system.
- The collected field data is transmitted through a communication network to the master terminal
unit which the data is processed.
- The MTU monitors and control data from various field devices (sensor) that are either in close
proximity or off site.
- Thus in summary, the SCADA system perform the following four functions:
 Data acquisition
 Networked data communication
 Data presentation
 Control

Data acquisition
- This is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions and
converting the resulting samples into digital numerical values that can be manipulated by a
computer.
- Data acquisition within SCADA system is accomplished first by the RTU scanning the field
data interface devices connected to the RTU.
- The time to perform this task is called the scanning internal. The MTU scans RTU to access
data in the process referred to as polling the RTU.
- Some systems allow the RTU to transmit field values and alarms to the central host without
being processed by the central host.
- The components of data acquisition systems include:
 Sensors that converts physical parameters to electrical signals
 Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form that can be converted
to digital values e.g implication, alternation multiplexing.
 Analog to digital converters, which converts conditioned signals to digital values.
 Data acquisition hardware acts as the interface between the computer and the outside
world. It primarily functions as a device that digitizes incoming signal so that the computer
can interpret them.

Types of data acquisition systems (DAS)

These depend on type of communication protocol used.
i) Wireless data acquisition system: consist of one or more wireless transmission sending
data back to a wireless receiver connected to a remote computer.
ii) Serial communication data acquisition system: are good choices when the
measurement needs to be made at a location which is distance from computer.
iii) USB DAS: The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a new standard for connecting P.C to
peripheral devices such as monitor, DAS.

Processing Data from the field

- Data can be of three main types:
i) Analog data (real numbers) which will be trended (placed in graphs)
ii) Digital data (ON/OFF) which may have alarms attached to one state or the other
iii) Pulse data (e.g. counting revolution of a meter) is analog data normally accumulated or
counted such data are treated within the SCADA operator terminal software displays as
analog data and may be trended.
- Data from the field are processes to detect alarm conditions, and if alarm is predicted, it will
be displayed on dedicated alarm list on the application software running on the central host
computer.
- Where variables in the field have been changing over time, the SCADA system usually offers
a trending system where the behaviour of a particular variable can be plotted on a GUI screen
(graphical user interface screen).

Tasks in SCADA system

i) Input/output task – This program is the interface between the control and monitoring
system and plant floor.
ii) Alarm task – this manages all alarms by detecting digital alarm point and comparing the
values of analog alarm points to alarm thresh hold.
NB: SCADA can be seen as a system with many data elements called points. Each point
is a monitor or sensor and there points can be either soft or hard. Hard data points can
be on actual monitor; soft point can be application or software calculation. Data elements
from hand and soft points are usually always recorded and logged to create a time stamp
or history.
iii) Trend task: it collects data to be monitored over time.
iv) Report task – Reports are produced from plant data. These reports are periodic, event
triggered or activated by the operator.
v) Display task – manages all data to be monitored by the operator and all control actions
requested.
Application of SCADA system
- In essence, SCADA application has two elements:-
i) The process/system/machinery needed to be monitored or controlled: - This can take the
form of a power plant, water system, network, traffic light system.
ii) A network of intelligent devices that interfaces with the first system through sensors and
control output. This network, which is the SCADA system, gives the capability to measure
and control specific elements of the first system.
- SCADA systems control are used in the following industries
i) Manufacturing: SCADA system manages parts inventories, regulate industrial
automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control.
ii) Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out of
order signals.
 iii) Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use SCADA
system to detect current flow and line voltage, monitor the operation of circuit breakers,
and to take sections of the power grid outline or offline.
iv) Building, facilities and environment: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC,
refrigeration units lighting and entry systems.
v) Water and Sewage: state and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and
regulate water flow, reservoir levels and pipe pressure.
vi) Mass transit: transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trains and
trolley buses, to automate traffic signals for rail system; to track and locate trains and
buses; and to control rail road – crossing gates.

Benefits of SCADA
i) Improved operation of the plant or process resulting in savings due to optimization of the
system.
ii) Reduces the operating and maintenance cost hence maximize the profits.
iii) Maximize productivity, ensure continuous production and increased productivity of the
personnel.
iv) Improved safety of the system due to better information and improved control.
v) Protection of the plant equipment.
vi) Safeguarding the environment from a failure of the system.
vii) Enhances reliability and robustness of critical industrial processes.
viii) Improved energy savings due to optimization of the plant.
ix) Improved and quicker receipt of data so that clients can be invoiced more quickly and
accurately.
x) Government regulations for safety and metering of gas (for royalties & tax etc).

Creating a functional SCADA system

(i) Phase 1: The DESIGN of the system architecture includes the communication system. Also
involved in this initial phase will be any site instrumentation that is not currently in existence,
but will be required to monitor desired parameters. Design stage translate the design basis
document into a system design and document the design clearly and completely so that it can
be constructed properly, commissioned completely, and operated and maintained reliably and
efficiently.
(ii) Phase 2: The SUPPLY of RTU, communication, and HMI equipment, which consists of a PC
system and the required powerful graphic and alarm software programs.
(iii) Phase 3: The PROGRAMMING of the communication equipment and the powerful HMI
graphic and alarm software programs.
(iv) Phase 4: The INSTALLATION of the communication equipment and the PC system. The
stage involves installing and placing into operation the SCADA system hardware and software
in compliance with the design documents.
(v) Phase 5: The COMMISSIONING of the system, where communication and HMI programming
problems are solved, and the system is proven to the client, and operator training and system
documentation is provided. Commissioning is the formal process of verifying and documenting
that the installed SCADA system complies with and performs in accordance with the design
intent, as defined in the design documentation

Design approaches/strategies for SCADA system

Local control system
- It describes a system architecture in which sensors, controllers and controlled equipments are
within close proximity and the scope of each controller is limited to a specific system or sub-
system.
- Local controllers are typically capable of accepting inputs from a supervisory controller to
initiate or terminate locally.
- Controlled automatic sequence, or to adjust control set points, but the control action itself is
determined in the local controller.

a) Local b) Centralized

Centralized control system

- Describes a system in which all sensors, actuators and other equipment within the facility are
connected to a single controller or a group of controllers located in a common control room.
- This type was common for power plants and other facilities using single-loop controllers.

Distributed control system

- It offers the best features of both local control and centralized control.
- In a DCS, controllers are provided locally to systems or group of equipment but networked to
one or more operator stations in a central location through a digital communication circuit.
- Control action for each system or subsystem takes place in a local controller but the central
operator station has complete visibility of the status of all systems and the input and output
data in each controller, as well as the ability to intervene in the control logic of the local
controller if necessary.
- In a DSC, data acquisition and control functions are performed by a number of distributed
micro-processor-based units, situated near to the devices being controlled or the instrument
from which data is being gathered.
- Input and output wiring runs are short and less vulnerable to physical description or electro-
magnetic interference.
- The data highway is normally capable of high speed
User Configurable Open System (UCOS)
UCOS is a control system that employs object-oriented techniques at every level of its system
architecture. It includes a number of subsystems which segment the functionality of UCOS.
This includes an Engineering Workstation Subsystem, an Operator Workstation Subsystem,
and a Field Control Unit (FCU) Controller Subsystem. The subsystems communicate via a
Control Network.
 Engineering Workstation (EWS) used for project development. The EWS is the
development tool where control schemes are configured then downloaded to the OWS,
FCU, and SDS. The entire project is configured using a single integrated tool based on
graphical Windows standards. Graphical techniques are also used to define the logical
relationships among the devices in a process area. Project configuration begins by defining
the system architecture: workstations, field control units (FCUs), I/O, networking, etc.
Graphical techniques are also used to define the logical relationships among the control
elements for multiple devices.
 Operator Workstation (OWS) for operator interface. This is used to monitor and control
the process. It uses the project screens created during project development and animates
them based on real-time data received from field control units and field data servers.
Authorized operators can monitor detailed activities for many types of devices and send
commands using standard faceplate command windows and group displays.
 Field Control Unit (FCU) for control logic execution and direct scanning of I/O. The FCU
provides I/O services by monitoring and controlling I/O across standard networks and data
highways. The FCU can provide simultaneous support for multiple vendors’ I/O and I/O
networks. The variety of platform and form-factor options supported by the FCU allows
incorporation of distributed, distinct I/O subsystems into common control strategies.
  Control Network. System supports redundant and non-redundant fiber optic and Ethernet
local networks using the TCP/IP networking protocol for standardized, advanced application
connectivity. The LAN/WAN can be extended to other sites inside or outside the plant using
such remote communications technologies as satellite, radio, microwave, and dial-up
running such standard protocols as TCP/IP, Modbus, OPC, DDE
 I/O Subsystem supporting I/O from all industry standard suppliers. The same logic can be
solved to manipulate different I/O subsystems from different manufacturers without having
to change any of the programming or operational parameters of the configured system.
 SCADA Data Server (SDS) for interfacing data from intelligent devices, such as PLCs,
Fieldbus technologies, RTUs, PLC I/O, and other third-party devices
 Process Historical Archiver (PHA) for storing and retrieving historical data collected by
the FCU, SDS or any other intelligent device in the system
 microFCU: is a small, low-powered PLC that executes sequential and regulatory logic and
directly scans onboard I/O. It can replace RTUs at a significant reduction in cost and power
consumption – plus it can provide local intelligent control of devices, which RTUs can't do.

SCADA SECURITY / ACCESS CONTROL

- Access control is the selective restriction to access to a plant/place or other resources. Hence
the security access control is the act of ensuring that an authenticated user accesses only
what they are authorized to and no more.
- SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, however the security of
these system is important because compromise or destruction of these system may impact
multiple areas of society or industries.
- It is important to be able to detect possible attacks and respond in an appropriate manner in
order to minimize the impacts.
 Protect: Deploying specific protection measures to prevent and discourage electronic
attack against the process control systems.
  Detect: Establishing mechanisms for rapidly identifying actual or suspected electronic
attacks.
 Respond: Undertaking appropriate action in response to confirmed security incidents
against the process control systems.

Defence in Depth
- Where a single protection measure has been deployed to protect a system, there is a risk that
if a weakness in that measure is identified and exploited there is effectively no protection
provided.
- No single security measure itself is foolproof as vulnerabilities and weaknesses could be
identified at any point in time. In order to reduce these risks, implementing multiple protection
measures in series avoids single points of failure.
- In order to safeguard the process control system from electronic attacks (e.g. hackers, worms
and viruses), it may be insufficient to rely on a single firewall, designed to protect the corporate
IT network.
- A much more effective security model is to build on the benefits of the corporate firewall with
an additional dedicated process control firewall and deploy other protection measures such
as anti-virus software and intrusion detection

Remote access
- Maintain an inventory of all remote access connections and types (e.g. virtual private network
or modems).
- Ensure that a valid business justification exists for all remote access connections and keep
remote connections to a minimum.
- Implement appropriate authentication mechanisms (e.g. strong authentication) for remote
access connections.
- Implement appropriate procedures and assurance mechanisms for enabling and disabling
remote access connections.
- Ensure that remote access computers are appropriately secured (e.g. anti-virus, anti- spam
and personal firewalls).

Anti-virus:
- Protect process control systems with anti-virus software on workstations and servers.
- Where anti-virus software cannot be deployed other protection measures should be
implemented (e.g. gateway anti-virus scanning or manual media checking)

E-mail and Internet access

- Disable all email and internet access from process control systems.

System hardening
- Undertake hardening of process control systems to prevent network based attacks.
- Remove or disable unused services and ports in the operating systems and applications to
prevent unauthorized use.
- Understand what ports are open and what services and protocols used by devices (especially
embedded devices such as PLCs and RTUs). This could be established by a port scan in a
test environment. All unnecessary ports and services should be disabled (e.g. embedded web
servers).
- Ensure all inbuilt system security features are enabled.
- Where possible restrict the use of removable media (e.g. CDs, floppy disks, USB memory
sticks etc.) and if possible removable media should not be used. Where it is necessary to use
 removable media then procedures should be in place to ensure that these are checked for
malware prior to use.

Backups and recovery

- Ensure effective backup and recovery procedures are in place, and are appropriate for the
identified electronic and physical threats. These should be reviewed and regularly tested.
- Test the integrity of backups regularly through a full restore process. Store backups at on and
off site locations.
- Media should be transported securely and stored in appropriately secure locations.

Physical security
- Deploy physical security protection measures to protect process control systems and
associated networking equipment from physical attack and local unauthorized access.
- A combination of protection measures is likely to be required which could include, drive locks,
tamper proof casing, secure server rooms, access control systems and CCTV.

Security patching
- Implement processes for deployment of security patches to process control systems.
- These processes should be supported by deployment and audit tools.
- The processes should make allowance for vendor certification of patches, testing of patches
prior to deployment and a staged deployment process to minimize the risk of disruption from
the change.
- Where security patching is not possible or practical, alternative appropriate protection
measures should be considered.

Personnel background checks

- Ensure all staff with operational or administration access to process control systems are
appropriately screened.

Passwords and accounts

- Implement and enforce a password policy for all process control systems that cover strength
of passwords and expiration times.
- It is recommended that passwords are changed frequently, but where this is not possible or
practical, alternative appropriate protection should be considered.
- Regularly review all access rights and decommission old accounts.
- Where possible change vendor passwords from default settings.
- Passwords may not be deemed necessary for some functions (e.g. view only mode).
- Consider stronger authentication methods for critical functions.
Document security framework
- Document a full inventory of the process control systems and components.
- Document the framework that provides the security for the process control systems and
regularly review and update to reflect current threats.
- This document should include details of the risk assessments, assumptions made, known
vulnerabilities and security protection measures deployed.
- Ensure all process control system documentation is secured and access limited to authorized
personnel
Topic 4: INDUSTRIAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK

Introduction
- Industrial communication refers to the wide range of hardware and software products and
protocols used to communicate between standard computer platforms and devices used in
industrial automation.
- Although a communication circuit can involve only two pieces of equipment with a circuit
between them, the term network typically refers to connecting many devices together to permit
sharing of data between devices over a single or redundant circuit.
- The industrial automation systems are often implemented as an open distributed architecture
with communication over digital communication networks.
- It is now common for users connected to a local area network to communicate with computers
or automation devices on other local area networks via gateways linked by a wide area
network.
- As the industrial automation systems becomes large and the number of automation devices
increases, it has become very important for industrial automation to provide standards which
make it possible to interconnect many different automation devices in a standard way.
- Considerable international standardization efforts have been made in the area of local area
networks. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standards permit any pair of automation
devices to communicate reliably regardless of the manufacturer.
- By definition, an industrial network requires geographical distribution of the physical
measurement I/O and sensors or functional distribution of applications. Most industrial
networks transfer bits of information serially.
- Serial data transfer has the advantage of requiring only a limited number of wires to exchange
data between devices. With fewer wires, we can send information over greater distances.
Because industrial networks work with several devices on the same line, it is easier to add a
new device to existing systems.
- To make all this work, our network must define a set of rules – a communication protocol -
- to determine how information flows on the network of devices, controllers, PCs, and so on.
- With improved communication protocols, it is now possible to reduce the time needed for the
transfer, ensure better data protection, and guarantee time synchronization, and real-time
deterministic response in some applications.
- Industrial networks also ensure that the system sends information reliably without errors and
securely between nodes on the network.

Network levels
- The industrial automation systems can be very complex, and it is usually structured into
several hierarchical levels. Each of the hierarchical level has an appropriate communication
level, which places different requirements on the communication network.
- Industrial networks may be classified in several different categories based on functionality:
field-level networks (sensor, actuator or device buses), control-level networks (control buses)
and information-level networks
Field level
- The lowest level of the automation hierarchy is the field level, which includes the field devices
such as actuators and sensors.
- The elementary field devices are sometimes classified as the element sublevel. The task of
the devices in the field level is to transfer data between the manufactured product and the
technical process.
- The data may be both binary and analogue. Measured values may be available for a short
period of time or over a long period of time. For the field level communication, parallel, multi-
wire cables, and serial interfaces such as the 20mA current loop has been widely used from
the past.
- The serial communication standards such as RS232C, RS422, and RS485 are most
commonly used protocols together with the parallel communication standard IEEE488.
- Those point-to-point communication methods have evolved to the bus communication
network to cope with the cabling cost and to achieve a high quality communication.
- Field-level industrial networks are a large category, distinguished by characteristics such as
message size and response time.
- In general, these networks connect smart devices that work cooperatively in a distributed,
time-critical network. They offer higher-level diagnostic and configuration capabilities
generally at the cost of more intelligence, processing power, and price.
- At their most sophisticated, fieldbus networks work with truly distributed control among
intelligent devices like FOUNDATION Fieldbus.
- Common networks included in the devicebus and fieldbus classes include CANOpen,
DeviceNet, FOUNDATION Fieldbus, Interbus-S, LonWorks, Profibus-DP, and SDS.
- Nowadays, the fieldbus is often used for information transfer in the field level. Due to timing
requirements, which have to be strictly observed in an automation process, the applications
in the field level controllers require cyclic transport functions, which transmit source
information at regular intervals.
- The data representation must be as short as possible in order to reduce message transfer
time on the bus.

Control Level
- At the control level, the information flow mainly consists of the loading of programs,
parameters and data.
- In processes with short machine idle times and readjustments, this is done during the
production process. In small controllers it may be necessary to load subroutines during one
manufacturing cycle.
- This determines the timing requirements. It can be divided into two: cell and area sublevels.

i) Cell sublevel:
- For the cell level operations, machine synchronizations and event handlings may require short
response times on the bus. These real-time requirements are not compatible with time
excessive transfers of application programs, thus making adaptable message segmentation
necessary.
- In order to achieve the communication requirements in this level, local area networks have
been used as the communication network. After the introduction of the CIM concept and the
DCCS concept, many companies developed their proprietary networks for the cell level of an
automation system.
- The Ethernet together with TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol) was
accepted as a de facto standard for this level, though it cannot provide a true real-time
communication.
- Many efforts have been made for the standardization of the communication network for the
cell level.
- The IEEE standard networks based on the OSI layered architecture were developed and the
Mini-MAP network was developed to realize a standard communication between various
devices from different vendors. Some fieldbuses can also be used for this level.

ii) Area sublevel:

- The area level consists of cells combined into groups. Cells are designed with an application-
oriented functionality.
- By the area level controllers or process operators, the controlling and intervening functions
are made such as the setting of production targets, machine startup and shutdown, and
emergency activities.

- Control-level networks are typically used for peer-to-peer networks between controllers such
as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), distributed control systems (DCS), and computer
systems used for human-machine interface (HMI), historical archiving, and supervisory
control.
- Control buses are used to coordinate and synchronize control between production units and
manufacturing cells.
- Typically, ControlNet, PROFIBUS-FMS and (formerly) MAP are used as the industrial
networks for controller buses.
- In addition, we can frequently use Ethernet with TCP/IP as a controller bus to connect upper-
level control devices and computers.

Information level
- The information level is the top level of a plant or an industrial automation system.
- The plant level controller gathers the management information from the area levels, and
manages the whole automation system.
- At the information level there exist large scale networks, e.g. Ethernet WANs for factory
planning and management information exchange.
- Ethernet networks are used as a gateway to connect other industrial networks.
- With respect to management Information System Communication in automated system, there
are three types of networks used:
o Local Area Network (LAN)
o Wide Area Network (WAN)
o Metropolitan area network (MAN)

1) Local Area Network (LAN)

- These types of networks connect network devices over a relatively short distance.
- Quite often, a networked office building, home or school contains a single LAN although it is
normal to come across a building that contains a few small LANs.
- On a few occasions, a LAN may also span over a group of nearby buildings. Such
networks are usually owned by one organization.
- It interconnects computers and filed devices/peripherals over a common medium so users
might share access to host computers, database, files, applications and peripherals.
- The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another
o Topology – The geometric arrangement of devices on the network e.g. star, ring etc.
o Protocols – The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocol also
determines whether the network uses peer to peer or client/server architecture.
o Medium/media – Devices can be connected by twisted pain wire, coaxial cable, or fibre
optic cables. Some networks do without connecting media instead communicate
through radio waves.

2) Wide Area Network (WAN)

- WAN is a data communication network that covers a relatively broad geographical area and
often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers e.g telephone companies.
- WAN technologies generally function at the lower layers of the OSI reference model (Open
system Interconnection) the physical layer, data link layer and network layer.
- It’s used to connect LANs and other types of networks together so that users and computers
in one location can communicate with users and computers in other location.
- LANs are connected to a WAN through a device referred to as a router. In IP networking, both
the LAN and WAN addresses are maintained by the router.
- Most WANs exist under distributed or collective ownership and management and unlike the
LANs, are not necessarily owned by one organization.

3) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

- This is a network that spans over a physical area like a city that is smaller than a WAN but
larger than a LAN.
- Quite often, such computer networks are owned and operated by single entities such as
government bodies or large corporations

4) Controller Area Network (CAN)

- The CAN protocol is a priority based bus network using a career sense multiple Access with
collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) medium access scheme.
- In this protocol, any station can access the bus when ever it becomes idle.
- This is a communication protocol specification that defines parts of the OSI physical and data
link layer. It meets real-time requirements encountered in any industries. The network
protocol can detect and correct transmission errors caused by electromagnetic interference
- It is suitable for industrial applications because:
o Low cost
o Suitability for harsh electrical environment
o Good real-time capabilities
o Ease of configuration
- CAN is particularly well suited to networking smart I/O devices sensors and actuators either
in a single machine or plant.

Networks Models/Layers
- Network model defines a set of network layer and how they interact. There are several
different network models depending on what organization/industry want.
- The most important are:
i) The TCP / IP model
ii) OSI network model
1. The TCP/IP model
- TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic communication
language or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a
private network (either an intranet or an extranet).
- TCP/IP is the de facto global standard for the Internet (network) and host–to–host (transport)
layer implementation of internet work applications because of the popularity of the Internet.
- The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet) is a layer protocol where it defines 4
layers’

i) Network access/interface layer

- It provides access to the physical-network. The purpose of a network interface is to allow your
PC to in order to access the wireless or fiber-optic network-infrastructure & send data to other
computer systems.
- Its main function is to connect host and devices using some protocol so that data or IP packet
can transmit over it.

ii) Internet layer

- Internet Layer provides connectionless communication across one or more networks. It is
concerned with network-to-network communication. This layer is responsible for addressing
& routing of data on the network.
- It is used to allow hosts to insert packets into any network and have them to deliver
independently to the destination.
- It specifies an official packet format and protocol known on internet protocol. Packet routing
is very essential task in order to avoid congestion.

iii) Transport layer

- It provides the means for the transport of data segments across the Internet-layer. It is
concerned with end-to-end communication.
- This layer sends the data to the internet-layer when transmitting & sends data to the
Application-layer when receiving.
- It specifies 2 end-to-end protocol; TCP and UDP (Transmission Control Protocol and user
datagram protocol).
o TCP is a reliable connection – oriented protocol that permits a byte stream originating
on one machine to be transported without error on any machine in the internet.
o UDP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCPs
sequencing on flow control and wish to offer their own.

iv) Application layer

- It provides the user with the interface to communication. This Application layer is where web
browser, TELNET, FTP, email, or other client application runs. This layer sends to & receives
data from the transport-layer
o The virtual terminal protocol (VTP) permits a user on one machine to log into a
distant machine and work there.
o The file transfer protocol (FTP) permits a user on one machine to log into a distant
machine and work there. It offers a way to more data efficiently from one machine to
another.
o Electronic mail (simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) sends emails to other
computers that support the TCP/IP protocol.
Advantages TCP/IP model:
• It can be used to establish/set up connection b/w different types of computers.
• It operates/works independently of the operating system.
• It support for a number of routing-protocols.
• It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
• It has a scalable, client-server architecture.
Disadvantages:
• It is complex to set up & manage.
• Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) is faster than TCP/IP model.
• The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX.

2. OSI network model

- Developed by international standards organization (ISO) to standardize protocols used in
version (TCP/IP) layers.
- The model is known as the OSI (open systems interconnectivity) reference model
because it is related with connecting open system i.e. systems that are open for
communication with other system.
- It describes seven layers as they relate to one host computer communicating to another host
computer.

i) Physical layer
- This is the lowest layer which describes the way actual data in the form of symbols that are
sent over a medium such as copper wire or fibre optic cabling. Item like signal level symbol
representation and connector pinout are defined at this layer. The main functions are
a) Hardware specification – the details of the physical cables, network interface cards,
wireless radios etc are part of this layer.
b) Encoding and signaling – How are the bits encoded in the medium is also decided by
this layer.
c) Data transmission and reception: the transfer of each bit of data and assures the
transmission of each bit with a high probability.
d) Topology and network design: the type of network topologies to be used and which part
of the network in the routes going to be placed, where the switches will be used etc.

ii) Data link layer

- This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by using the services of the physical layer
which transmits bits over the medium in an unreliable fashion.
- It maintains a reliable connection between adjacent nodes or stations over a physical channel
- To distinguish one from another, a method of node addressing must be defined.
- To ensure only one node has access at any one time, a method of medium access control
(MAC) must be implemented.
- Information sent over the data link layer is called frames. This layer is concerned with:
a) Framing – breaking input data into frames and caring about the frame boundaries and
the size of each frame (a few hundred bytes)
b) Acknowledgement: sent by receiving end to inform the source that the frame was
received without any error.
c) Sequence numbering – to acknowledge which frame was received.
d) Error detection: the frames may be damaged lost or duplicated leading to errors. The
error control is on link to link basis.
e) Retransmission – The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive
acknowledgment.
f) Flow control – necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.

iii) Network layer

- It is concerned with logical addressing process of nodes and routing schemes. The basic
functions of the layer are routing and congestion control.
- Routing deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred) from source to
destination.
- Congestion control involves the control of packets minimizing dropping of packets,
transmitting fine and delays.
- It is required when communication must span multiple networks – interconnecting.

iv) Transport layer

- This layer is concerned with the variable transmission of messages sent between two host
computers.
- It is responsible for the end to end communication control. This is different from the data link
layer which only concerned with the transmission of frames.
- A message usually requires many – frames to be sent before the complete message can be
received.
- This requires fragmenting the message into many pieces to be re-assembled at the other end.
Missing fragments must be re-sent. The transport layer addresses this issue.
- Other functions are:-
o Multiplexing and de-multiplexing
o Error control mechanism on end to end basis
o Flow control – regulate flow of information
o Connection establishment / release.

v) Session layer
- The layer is concerned with the establishment and termination of communication sessions
between processors in host computers.
- It also ensures that the data transfer starts from where it breaks, keeping it transparent to the
end user.

vi) Presentation layer

- The presentation layer translates the format of data between sender and receiver.
- It is responsible for the data interpretation, which allows for inter- operability among different
equipments.

vii) Application layer

- This layer provides the services that are required by specific applications. It contains
application protocols with which the user gains access to the network.
- The choice of which specific protocols end their associated functions are to be used at the
application level is up to the individual user. For example commonly used protocols or HTTP(
for web browsing), FTP (or file transfer)
- HTTP – Hyper text transfer protocol – permits applications such as browser to upload and
download web pages.

Operation of OSI layer

- From the figure, if a node wants to sent a data packet from the application, it must first call for
the sending service of its application layer which in turn will call the sending function in the
next layer, and so on till the data is sent at the physical medium to other node.
- This node will reverse the sequence till the received data reaches the application. Layer of
its node then to the application which will use this data.
- Any communication system that is based on the OSI seven layer has high flexibility and
compatibility with product from different vendors.
- However OSI system is often too complex for network architecture hence has a considerable
overhead in both the communication and the processing.

- Strictly speaking, a network requires only layers 1, 2, and 7 of the protocol model to operate.
- In fact, many device bus networks use only these three layers. The other layers are added
only as more services are required (e.g., error-free delivery, routing, session control, data
conversion, etc.).
- Most of today’s local area networks contain all or most of the OSI layers to allow connection
to other networks and devices.

Advantages:
• It provides wide variety of choice.
• It does not depend or rely on a specific computer system.
• It interprets the product functionality at each-stage.
• It encrypts the data for security purpose.
• It is easy to add multiple-network models.

Disadvantages:
• Many applications do not require/need the data integrity, which is provided by OSI-model.
• In order to fast set up OSI requires agreement between three-parties: users & service
provider.
• Complex.
• This model is not adapted at all to telecommunication applications on computer.
3. Field bus model
- Due to complexity of the OSI model, modification has been done on the industrial networks,
where only three layers are left.
- The resulting fieldbus is referred to as a 3 – layer architecture. These layers are:-
o Application layer
o Data link layer
o Physical layer

- Several characteristics and functions in the data link layer are key to the distributed real time
control capabilities of fieldbus.
a) The data link layer is based on a token passing protocol.
b) The Link Active Scheduler (LAS) is a centralized device that acts as the arbitrator of the
bus.
c) The LAS executes a schedule that makes possible deterministic communication.
d) The LAS distributes time to the network to permit all devices to share the same sense of
time.
- The user application layer defines blocks that represent the functions and data available in a
device.
- Rather than interface to a device through a set of commands as commonly used with
communication protocols, fieldbus user interacts with device through a set of blocks that
define device capabilities in a standardized way.
- The data link layer has important aspect which is medium access control.

Medium Access Control (MAC)

- In a field bus or industrial network, several stations share the same communications media in
order to save wiring costs. However, since the medium is shared, not all devices can
communicate simultaneously.
- Therefore there must be rules to govern who gains access to the medium and those rules are
called medium access control (MAC). Thus MAC addresses identify network devices in LANS.
- This process of media access requires that each node be able to shut down its transmitter
without interfering with the network’s operation.
- This can be done in one of the following ways:
o with a modem that can turn off its carrier
o with a transmitter that can be set to a high independence state
o with a passive current-loop transmitter, wired in series with the other transmitters, that
shorts when inactive
- Although many access methods exist, the most commonly used ones are polling, collision
detection, and token passing.
 1) Polling
- The access method most often used in master/slave protocols is polling.
- In polling, the master interrogates, or polls, each station (slave) in sequence to see if it has
data to transmit. The master sends a message to a specific slave and waits a fixed amount of
time for the slave to respond.
- The slave should respond by sending either data or a short message saying that it has no
data to send. If the slave does not respond within the allotted time, the master assumes that
the slave is dead and continues polling the other slaves.
- Interslave communication in a master/slave configuration is inefficient, since polling requires
that data first be sent to the master and then to the receiving slave.
- Since master/slave configurations use this technique, polling is often referred to as the
master/slave access method.

2) Carrier Sense, Multiple Access (CSMA)

- The basic media access method that uses first-come-first served principle.
- It is probabilistic media access control (MAC) protocol in which a node verifies the absence
other traffic before transmitting on a shared transmission medium, such as an electrical bus
or a band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
- It is based on the principle sense before transmitting or ‘listen before talk’.
- CSMA/CD collision detection – performance by terminating transmission as soon as a
collision detected, thus shortening the time required before a retry can be attempted.
- This method handles collision as they occur, but if the bus is constantly busy, collision can
occur so often that performance drops drastically. Thus this method works well as long as the
network does not have an excessive amount of traffic.
- CSMA/CA collision avoidance – is used to improve the performance by attempting to be
less ‘greedy’ on the channel.
- If the channel is sensed busy before transmission then the transmission is differed for a
random interval.
- If the channels sensed ‘idle’ then the station is permitted to transmit. Once the channel is
clear a station sends a signal telling all other stations not to transmit, and then sends its
packet.

3) Token passing protocol

- With this approach, each participant to the network is guaranteed some time to transmit a
message on a permission basis.
- This permission occurs when a participant receives the one token that exist in the network
(token is a small frame)
- The token is passed from one participant to another in a circular fashion in what is called
logical ring.
- Once a participant receives the token, the participant must initiate a transmission or pair the
token to the next participant in an orderly fashion.
- The token is usually passed from one participant to another with the highest address
regardless of the next participant’s physical location.
- The participant with the highest address will pair the token to a participant with the lowest
address.
- It’s not necessary to have one master to hand out the token.
- Participant could be peer to one another and simply agree that they will not possess the token
for more time than previously agreed.
- Token passing networks are deterministic, which means that its possible to calculate the
maximum time that will pair before any end station will be capable of transmitting.
- Token ring networks are ideal for application, in which delays must be predictable and robust
network operation is important.
- Factory automation environment are examples of such applications.

Physical layer
Physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.

Types of medium
Medium can be classified into two categories
a) Guided media – means that signals is guided by the presence of physical media i.e.
signals are under control and remains in the physical wire e.g. copper wire
b) Unguided media – means that there is no physical path for the signal to propagate. This
is done through electromagnetic waves.

Communication links
In a network nodes are connected through links.
The communication through links can be classified as
i) Simplex – communication can take place only in one direction e.g. radio, T.V
ii) Half duplex – communication can take place in one direction at a time. Suppose node
A and B are connected, then half duplex communication means that at a time data can
flow from A to B or from B to A but not simultaneously.
iii) Full duplex – communication can take place simultaneously in both direction mobile
phone.

Links can be further classified as

i) Point the point – in this communication only two nodes are connected to each other
side and non else.
ii) Multipoint – It is a kind of shaving communication in which signals can be received by
all nodes. This is also called broadcast.

Media standard
Industry standard for communications media define both the physical and electrical (or optical)
characteristics of both the conductors and the connectors used to mate them to communication
ports.

Some common network conductor, physical standards and then characteristics are listed below:-

Standard Conductor Connection Transmission Maximum Typical

designation type speed distance application
RS – 232 Copper M/C Point to point 265 kbps 15m Laptop comp
with a pin to PLC
connector
RS – 485 Copper UTP or Multi-drop 10 mbps 1000m PLC to field
STD devices
CAT 5 Copper UTP or Multi-drop 100 mbps Depends on PLC to PLC
STD protocol
RG 6 Copper coax Multi-drop 5 mbps 1000m PLC to PLC
video
Single mode Point to point 1 Gbps 50km No typical
fibre applications
 Multi-mode Point to point 1 Gbps 1000m PLC to control
fibre Room and
PLC to PLC

In guided transmission media, two kind of materials used:

I) Copper – twisted pair
Coaxial fibre
II) Optical fibre

Twisted pair
- Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external
sources.
- The wires are twisted together in a helical form and the purpose of twisting is to reduce
crosstalk interference between neighbouring pairs.
- Twisted pair is much cheaper than coaxial cable but it is susceptible to noise and
electromagnetic inference and attenuation is large.
- When electrical current flow through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around
the wire.
- When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the
exact, opposite of each other.
- Thus the two magnetic fields cancel each other out. They also cancel out any outside
magnetic fields. Twisting the wires can enhance this cancellation effect.
- Twisted pair can be further classified into two categories:
o Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

i) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

- UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of wires and used in variety of networks.
- Each of the eight individual copper wires in UTP cable is covered by an insulating material.
In addition the wires in each pair are twisted around each other.
- UTP cable must follow precise specification governing how many twists or braids permitted
per meter of cable
- It is often installed using a registered Jack 45 (RJ 45) connector. The RJ-45 is an eight wire
connector used commonly to connect computers into a LAN especially Ethernets.
- When used as a networks, UTP cable has four pairs of either 22 – or 24 American wire gauge
(AWG) copper wire.
- UTP used as a networking medium has an impedance of 1000 ohms whereas for telephone
is 6000.
- Commonly used type of UTP cabling are as follows:-
i) Category (CAT 1) used for telephone communication. It is not suitable for transmitting data.
ii) Category 2 (CAT 2) capable of transmitting data at speed up to 4 megabits per sec (mbps)
iii) Category 3 (CAT 3) used in 10 BASE – T network. It can transmit data at speeds up to
10mbps, with a possible bandwidth of 16mhz.
iv) Category 4 (CAT 4) used in token ring, 10 BASE – T networks. It can transmit data at
speeds up to 16mbps and performance of up to 20mhz
 v) Category 5 (CAT 5). This type of cable is used in structured cabling for computer network
such as Ethernet. The cable standard provides performance of up to 100mhz and suitable
for 10 BASE-T, 100 BASE – TX(fast Ethernet) and 1000 BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet)
vi) Category 5e (CAT 5e) – category 5 enhanced used in network running at speeds up to
1000 mbps (1Gbps) in category 6 (CAT 6) – consist of four pairs of 24 American wire gauge
(AWG) copper wire. It provides lower crosstalk, a higher signal to noise ratio, and are
suitable for 10 GBASE – T (10- Gigabit Ethernet)
vii) Category 6 (CAT 6) patch cable is normally terminated in 8P8C module connectors (RJ
45).
Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

2 4 Mbps LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet

5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

Connectors use either T568A or T568B pin assignment, although performance is comparable
provided both ends of a cable are the same. RJ45 or 8P8C connector is clipped from left to right
with the plastic latching tab facing away from the viewer. (8P8C – eight positions, eight
conductors)

PIN T568A T568B T568 A T568B

PAIR PAIR COLOUR COLOUR
1 3 2 White green White orange
2 3 2 Green Orange
3 2 3 White orange White green
4 1 1 Blue Blue
5 1 1 White blue White blue
6 2 3 Orange Green
7 4 4 White brown White green
8 4 4 Brown Brown
The following summarizes the features of UTP cable
- Speed and throughput – 10 – 1000 mbps
- Average cost per node – least expensive
- Media and connector size – small
- Maximum cable length – 100m (shout)

ii) Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)

- This cable combines the technique of shielding cancellation and wire twisting.
- Each pain of wire is wrapped in a metal foil. The foil pairs of wires are then wrapped in an
overall metallic braid or foil usually 150R cable.
- As specified for use in Ethernet network installation, STP reduces electrical noise both within
the cable (pair to pair coupling or cross talk) and from outside the cable (EMI or RFI).
- STP usually is installed wire STP data connector which is created especially for the STP cable
- However, STP cabling can also use the same RJ connector that UTP cable uses.
- Although STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive and difficult to
install.
- In addition, the metallic shielding must be grounded at both ends. If it’s improperly grounded,
the shield acts like an antennae and picks up unwanted signals.
- Because of its cost and difficulty with termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet network.
- The feature of STP cable are:-
o Speed and throughput – 10 to 100 mbps
o Average cost per node – moderately expensive
o Media and connect to site – medium to large
o Maximum cable length – 100m (short)

2. Coaxial cable (coax)

- It consists of a hollow other cylindrical conductor that surround a single inner wire made of
two conducting elements.
- One of these elements, located in the centre of the cable is a copper conductor surrounding
the copper is a layer of flexible insulation.
- Over this insulating material is a woven copper braid or metallic foil that acts both as the
second wire in the circuit and as shield for the inner conductor.
- This second layer or shield can help reduce the amount of outside interference.
BNC connector
- The cable supports 10 to 100 mbps and relatively
cheap. It can be cabled over longer distances than the
twisted-pair cable.
- It lowers with variety of sizes; the largest diameter (1cm) is specified for use as Ethernet
backbone cable because it has greater transmission length and noise rejection
characteristics. Mostly referred as thicknet coaxial cable with outside diameter of 0.3cm is
thin net.
- The most common connectors used with thinnet are British Naval Connector (BNC) or
(Bayonet Neill Concelman)
- The basic BNC is a made type mounted at each end of a cable.
- This connector has T centre Pin connected to the centre cable conductor and a metal tube
connected to the outside cable shield.
- A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable to any female connectors.

Optical fibre
- It’s a glass or plastic fibre designed to guide light along its length. The optic fiber therefore
acts as a conduit (or wave-guide) for pulses of light generated by a light source.
- The light source is typically either an injection laser diode (ILD) or LED operating at
wavelengths of 0.85, 1.2 or 1.5 µm (micrometers). The optic fiber is coated with a protective
colored sheath to provide stability and allow easy identification.
- Fibre optics is widely used in fibre optic communication, which permits transmission over
longer distance and at higher data rates.
- Light is kept in the core of the optical fibre by total interval reflection. This causes the fibre to
act as a wave guide.
- A transverse mode of a beam of electromagnetic radiation in a particular intensity pattern of
radiation measure in a plane perpendicular (i.e transverse) to the propagation direction of the
beam.
- Transverse modes occur because of boundary condition imposed on the wave by the wave
guide.
- Fiber optic cables offer the following advantages over other types of transmission media:
o Light signals are impervious to interference from EMI or electrical crosstalk
o Light signals do not interfere with other signals
o Optical fibers have a much wider, flatter bandwidth than coaxial cables and equalization
of the signals is not required
o The fiber has a much lower attenuation, so signals can be transmitted much further than
with coaxial or twisted pair cable before amplification is necessary
o Optical fiber cables do not conduct electricity and so eliminate problems of ground loops,
lightning damage and electrical shock
o Fiber optic cables are generally much thinner and lighter than copper cables
o Fiber optic cables have greater data security than copper cables

- Fibres which support only a single mode are called single mode fibre while fibres which
support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multimode fibre.

Single mode fibre

- It supports one confined transverse mode by which light can propagate along the fibre.
- They are used for most communication links longer than 200 metres single modem fibre is
used in many applications when data is sent at multi-frequent (WDM – wave division
multiplexing)
- So only one cable is needed.

Multimode fibre
- Multimode fibre supports many propagation path end generally have a larger diameter core.
- It is used for short distance communication links or for application when high power must be
transmitted.
- As each mode travels at its own propagation velocity, multimode fibre suffers from modal
dispersion which limits the maximum length a signal can be transmitted through it.
- There are two types:
i) Step Index multimode
ii) Graded Index multimode
i) Step Index Multimode fibre
- A refractive index profile characterized by a uniform refractive index within the core or a sharp
decrease in refractive Index at the core – clad interface.
- In a step index multimode fibre, rags of light are guided along the fibre core by total internal
reflection.
- Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle, greater than the critical angle for
these boundaries are completely reflected.

ii) Graded Index multimode fibre

- An optical fibre whose core has a refractive index that decreases with increasing radial
distance from the fibre axis which causes light rays to follow sinusoidal path down the fibre.
- The resulting curved paths reduce multipath dispersion because high angle rays pass more
through the lower index periphery of the core, rather than the high – index centre.
- The idea index profile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index and the
distance from the axis.

Wireless media
- Wireless media carry electromagnetic signal at radio and microwave frequencies that
represent the binary digits of data communications.
- Wireless networks are useful for the following situation:
o Spaces where cabling would be impossible or inconvenient
o Temporary installations.
- Transmission and reception are achieved using an antenna transmitter sends out the EM
signal into the medium. Receiver picks up the signal from the surrounding medium.
- Directional Transmission – Transmitter sends out a focused EM beam. Transmitter end
receiver antennae must be carefully aligned. It is more suitable for higher frequency signal.
- Omni directional transmission – Transmitted signals spread out in all directions. It may be
received by many antennae
- There are several ways of transmission
a) Radio – This is effective for short ranges and is in expensive and easy to install.
Depending on frequency radio offers different bandwidth. Wireless local area networks
use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio
technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication
between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of open-
standards wireless radio-wave technology known as Wifi.
Some of limitations are: can create interference with communication devices, susceptible
to eavesdropping.
b) Terrestrial microwave – two antennae are used for communication. A focused beam
emerges from an antennae and is received by the other antenna, provided that antenna’s
should be facing each other with no obstacle in between due to curvature of earth
terrestrial microwave can be used fro long distance communication with high bandwidth.
Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers
resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low-gigahertz range, which
limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km
(30 mi) apart.
 c) Satellites – satellite acts as a switch in sky. On earth VSAT (very small aperture terminal)
are used to transmit and receive data from satellite. Satellites communicate via microwave
radio waves, which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are
stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the
equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data,
and TV signals.
d) Cellular radio technology: defined cellular service areas around a radio transreceiver
and computerized control. It uses several radio communications technologies. The
systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-
power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next
area.
e) Infrared communication: can transmit signals for small distances, typically no more than
10 meters. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical
positioning of communicating devices.

Types of wireless network

- The IEEE and telecommunication industry standard for wireless data communications cover
both the data link and physical layers.
- For common data communication standards that apply to wireless media are:-
1. Standard IEEE 802.11- Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, is a wireless LAN (WLAN) technology
that uses a contention or non deterministic system with a carrier sense multiple access /
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) media access process
2. Standard IEEE 802:15 – Wireless Personnel Area Network (WPAN) standard, commonly
known as “Bluetooth’ uses a device pairing process to communicate over distances from 1 to
10 metres.
3. Standard IEEE 802.16 – Commonly known as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access) uses a joint to multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband access.
4. Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) – includes physical layer specification
that enable the implementation of the layer 2 general packet radio service (GPRS) protocol to
provide data transfer over mobile cellular telephoning network.

The physical layer specification are applied to areas that include –

- Data to radio encoding
- Frequency and power transmission
- Signal reception and decoding
- Antenna design and construction

Wireless LAN
- A Common wireless data implementation is enabling devices to wirelessly connect via a LAN.
- In general, a wireless LAN requires the following network devices:-
a) Wireless access point (WAP) – concentrates the wireless signals from users and
connects usually through a copper cable, to the existing copper based network
infrastructure such as Ethernet.
b) Wireless NIC adapter – provides wireless communication capability to each network host.
- There are a number of WLAN Ethernet-based standards used:
o IEEE 802:11a - Operates in the 5 GHZ frequency band at speed of up to 54 mbps. It
covers smaller areas and less penetrating building structures.
o IEEE 802:11b - operates in the 2.4 GHZ frequency band at speed of up to 11mbps. It
has longer range and able to penetrate building structures.
o IEEE 802.11n – operates in 2.4 GHz frequency band ac data rates 100 to 210 mbps
with distance range of 70m.
 Standard Max Speed Typical Range
802.11a 54 Mbps 50 m
802.11b 11 Mbps 100m
802.11g 54 Mbps 100m
802.11n 100 Mbps 100m +

Advantages of wireless networks:

 Mobility - access can be available throughout industry or organization. More and more
businesses are also offering free WiFi access ("Hot spots").
 Fast setup - If your computer has a wireless adapter, locating a wireless network can be
as simple or will connect automatically to networks within range.
 Cost - Setting up a wireless network can be much more cost effective than buying and
installing cables.
 Expandability - Adding new nodes to a wireless network is as easy as turning the node
on (as long as you do not exceed the maximum number of devices).

Disadvantages of wireless networks:

 Security – susceptible to security breach. Protect sensitive data with backups, isolated
private networks, strong encryption and passwords, and monitor network access traffic to
and from wireless network.
 Interference - Because wireless networks use radio signals and similar techniques for
transmission, they are susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices.
 Inconsistent connections - Because of the interference caused by electrical devices
and/or items blocking the path of transmission, wireless connections are not nearly as
stable as those through a dedicated cable.
 Speed - The transmission speed of wireless networks is improving; however, faster
options (such as gigabit Ethernet) are available via cables.

LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN)

- LAN interconnects computer and devices over a common medium so users share access to
host computers, databases, files, applications and peripheral.
- The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another.
o Topology
o Protocol
o Media
- The four primary devices used in LAN are:
o Hubs
o Bridges
o Switches
o Routers
- There devices operates on the following layers:
o OSI layer 1 (physical) – Hubs, repeaters. Hubs are considered to be multi-port
repeaters
o OSI layer 2 (data link) bridges switches
o OSI layer 3 (network) – routers.
- LAN transmits in three modes
i) Unicast – a single packet is sent from the source to a destination on a network. The source
node addresses the packet by using the network address of the destination node.
ii) Multi-cast – A single packet is copied and forwarded to a specific subset of nodes on the
network. The source node addresses the packet by using a multicast address. The packet
is then sent to the network, which makes copies of the packet and sends a copy to each
segment with a node that is part of the multicast address.
iii) Broadcast. This is the term used to describe communication where a piece of information is
sent from one joint to all other points. In this case there is just one sender, but the information
is sent to all connected receivers. Broadcast transmission is supported on most LANS and
may be used to send the same message to all computers on the LAN.

LAN Topologies
- A network topology is the basic design of a computer network.
- Networking is a collection of computers or other hardware devices that are connected together
either physically or logically, using special hardware and software, to allow them to exchange
information and cooperate.
- Topology which is a pattern of interconnection among nodes influences a networks cost and
performance.
- There are several topologies used:
o Point to point topology
o Bus topology
o Star topology
o Ring topology
o Mesh topology

1. Star topology
It is a physical topology in which a multiple nodes are connected to a central component
known as Hub. Signals are transmitted and received through the hub. The hub may actually
be a file server, central computer that contains a centralized file and control system with all its
nodes attached directly to the server.

Advantages
- Network runs even if one host fails
- More suitable for larger network
- It is easier to add or remove nodes, and to modify the cable layout
- Network administration and error detection is easier because is isolated to central node.

Disadvantages
- Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the central switch
- If the hub fails the entire network fails
- Broadcasting and multicasting is not easy.
2. Bus topology
Bus consists of a single cable called a backbone that connects all workstation on the network
using a single line.
All transmissions must pass through each of the connected devices to complete the desired
request.
Each workstation has its own individual signal that identifies it and allows for the requested
data to be returned to the correct originator

Advantages
- Broadcasting and multicasting is much simpler
- It is simple and flexible
- It is easy to extend a bus topology by adding or removing nodes from a bus
- Least expensive since less amount of cabling is required and no network switches are
required.

Disadvantages
- Limited in size and speed
- There can be a security problem, since every node may see every message – even those that
are not destined for it , sniffing is easier
- Diagnosis / troubleshooting (fault-isolation), can be difficult, since the fault can be anywhere
along the bus.
- There is no automatic acknowledgment of messages, since messages get absorbed at the
end of the bus and do not return to the sender.
- The bus cable can be a bottleneck when network traffic gets heavy. This is because nodes
can spend much of their time trying to access the network.

3. Ring topology - All the nodes in a ring network are connected in a closed circle of cable
messages that are transmitted travel around the ring until they reach the computer that they
are addressed to the signal being refreshed by each node.
In a ring topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of each device and
passed on to the net device

Advantages
- Has minimum cable requirement
 - Each node can regenerate the signal
- Broadcasting and multicasting is simple since you just need to send out one message.
- The message can be automatically acknowledged.

Disadvantages
- Failure of one node brings the whole network down
- Diagnosis/troubleshooting (fault isolation is difficult)
- Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network

Mesh topology
This is a topology where each node must not only capture and disseminate its own data but also
serve as a relay for other nodes i.e. it must collaborate to propagate the data in the network.
A mesh network whose nodes are all connected to each other is a fully connected network.
Advantages
- Point to point line configuration makes identification and isolation of faults easy.
- Network can be easily expanded
- If one node fails, other continue to work
- It is more secure
Disadvantages
- Quite expensive due to cabling and installation cost is high.

LAN Network devices

- These devices interconnect individual computers and ensure that they communicate
efficiently.
- Network interfaces, hubs, bridges, switches, routers and firewalls work together in a number
of ways to create these different kinds of network roadways.

The functions of network devices are:

- To regulate the speed at which the network information travels
- To manage the flow of traffic, opening, closing or directing it to specific streets as the need
arises.
- To help protect sensitive information within the network.

i) Network Interface card (NIC)

- This is a chipset on PCB that provide physical access from the node to the LAN medium.
- Its responsible for fragmenting the data transmission and formatting the data packets with the
necessary header and trailer.
- It function at the lower two layers of OSI model, that is both an OSI layer 1 (physical layer)
and layer 2 (data link layer) device, as it provides physical access to a networking medium
and provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows
users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly
- It contains a microprocessor that can relieve the attached device of some routine.

.
ii) Bridges
- A bridge is a device that connects two or more local area network or two or more segments
of the same network.
- Bridge connects two networks (e.g 10 BASET Ethernet and Local Tank Connection) so that
they can share information with each other.
- In addition to connecting networks, they filter information so that network traffic intended for
one portion of the network does not congest the rest of network.
- Bridges may consist either standalone hardware devices or of software running on a client or
server.
- Like switches, bridges learn the MAC addresses of all connected clients, servers and
peripherals and associate each address with a bridge port (network connection).
- When a bridge (or switch) receives an incoming frame, it opens and reads its destination MAC
address.
- If the port that will receive the frame is different from the port connected to the sender, the
bridge drops the frame.
- If the bridge cannot determine which port is associated with a destination address, it passes
the frame along to all ports.

iii) Hubs
- This is a small box that gathers the signal from each individual device optionally amplifies
each signal and then sends the signal out to all other connected devices.
- Amplification helps to ensure that devices on the network receive variable information. Hubs
are also called concentrators or repeaters.
- They come in various sizes, 12 port or 24 port etc. All the client, servers and peripherals
connected to a hub (or to a set of interconnected hubs) share the bandwidth (data delivery
capacity) of that network.
- They form a single collision domain – on area of an Ethernet network in which data sent to or
from a device may potentially collide with the data from other devices.
iv) Switches
- Like a hub, an Ethernet switch is a device that gathers the signals from devices that are
connected to it, and then regenerates a new copy of each signal.
- Switches are more powerful than hubs and can substantially increase the network
performance
- Most common switches operate by learning the MAC addresses of all connected clients,
servers and peripheral and associating each address with one of its ports.
- When a switch receives an incoming signal it creates a temporary circuit between the sender
and receiver.
- The temporary circuit provides two important benefits.
o The circuit allows the sender and receiver momentarily to exchange information
without intrusion from other devices on the network.
 o The circuit ensures the information travels directly between the communicating
computers.
- The switch installed should be compatible with physical network and data link protocols.

v) Routers
- Like bridges, routers are devices whose primary purpose is to connect two or more networks
and to filter network signals so that only desired information travels between them.
- Routers regulate network traffic more precisely and are aware of many possible paths across
the network and can choose the best one for each data packet to travel.
- They operate primarily by examining incoming data for its network routing and transport
information.
- This information includes the source and destination network routing addresses.
- Routers can be programmed to prevent information from being sent to or received from certain
networks or computers based on all or part of their network routing addresses.

vi) Multiplexers
- Multiplexers (mux) acts as both concentrators and contention devices that enable multiple
relatively low speed terminal devices to share a single high capacity circuit (physical path)
between two points in a network.
vii) Modems
- These are devices that allow digital data signals to be transmitted across an analogue link.
- Modem stand for Modulator Demodulator, and it changes signal to an analogue frequency
and send this tone across the analogue link.
- At the other end, another modem receives the signal and converts it back to digital.

viii) Wireless Access Point (WAP)

- WAP is a device that allows wireless communication devices to connect to a wireless network
using WI-FI, blue tooth or related standard.
- The WAP usually connects to a wired network, and can relay data between the wireless
devices and wired devices or the network.

ix) Amplifiers and repeaters

- Electromagnetic energy attenuates over a distance whether the energy passes through a
conductor or air. In addition to attenuating, the signal accumulates noise as it transverse the
network, the amplifier boosts the noise along with the signal. The resulting signal to noise
ratio (SNR) can produce unacceptable results.
- These boosting units receive a weakened incoming signal and transmit a stronger outgoing
signal, which propagates across the network, weakening until it reaches other boosting unit,
and so on.
- Analog networks make use of devices known as amplifiers. Digital networks employ repeaters
- Amplifiers are spaced every 6km or so in a typical analog voice. The exact spacing is sensitive
to: transmission medium and carrier frequency which affects bandwidth, transmission speed
and attenuation level.
- The repeater essentially generates the binary value (10 rO) of the weak incoming signal based
on its relative voltage level and regenerates a strong signal of the same value without noise.
This process enhances the signal quality.
- Repeaters are spaced at approximately the same intervals as amplifiers.
- Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret the
data being transmitted, they operate on the physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model.

x) Fire wall
- A firewall is part of a computer system or network that is designed to block unauthorized
access while permitting actual communication.
- It is also a device or set of devices configured to permit, deny, encrypt, decrypt or proxy all
computer traffic between difficult security. Domain based upon a set of rules and other criteria.
- It can be implemented in both hardware or software or a combination of both.
- Firewalls can be an effective means of protecting a local system or network of systems from
network based security threats while at the same time affording access to the outside world
via wide area networks and the internet.
- Firewall provides an additional layer of defense, insulating the internal systems from external
networks.
- Firewall has the following capabilities.
 o A firewall defines a single choke point that keeps unauthorized user out of the
protected network, prohibits potentially vulnerable services from entering or leaving
the network and provides protection from various kinds of IP Spooting and routing
attacks.
o A firewall provider a location for monitoring security related events. Audit and alarm
can be implemented on the firewall system.
o A firewall is a convenient platform for several internet functions that are not security
related.
- However firewalls have their limitations including:-
o It cannot protect against attacks that by passes the firewall
o It may not protect fully against internal threats such as a disgruntled employee.
o An improperly secured wireless LAN may be accessed from outside the organization.
- A firewall may act as a packet filter. It can operate as a positive filter, allowing passing only
packets that meet specific criteria or as a negative fitter, rejecting any packet that meets
certain criteria.

Types of firewalls
1. Packet filtering firewalls
- It applies a set of rules to each incoming and outgoing IP packet and then forwards or discards
the packet. It is typically configured to filter packets going in both direction (from and to the
internal network)
- It generally falls into two subcategories; stateful and stateless.
- Stateful firewalls maintain context about active section, and use that state information to
speed packet processing. If a packet does not watch on existing connection, it will be
evaluated according to the ruleset for new connections.
- Stateless firewalls require less memory and can be faster for simple filters that require less
time to filter them to look up a session.
- The major advantage of packet filtering firewalls is its simplicity. Also, packet filters typically
are transparent to user end are very fast..
- However packet filtering firewall has the following weaknesses:-
o Most do not support advanced user authentication schemes
o It is vulnerable to attacks and exploits that take advantage of problems within the
TCP/IP specification and protocol stack such as network layer address spoofing.
o It is susceptible to security breaches caused by improper configuration.
o It does not examine upper layer data, hence it cannot prevent attacks that employ
application

2) Application – level firewall

- Also called application proxy, acts as a relay of application – level traffic.
- The user contacts the gateway using TCP/IP application and the gateway asks the user for
the name of the remote hot to be accessed.
- It works on the application level of the TCP/IP stack and may intercept all packets traveling to
or from an application.
- They block other packets (usually dropping them without acknowledgement to the sender)
- It functions by determining whether a process should accept any given connection. It
accomplishes their function by hooking into socket cause to filter the connection between the
application layer and the lower layer of the OSI model.
- It work much as like a packet filter but application filters apply filtering rules (allow/block) on a
per process basis instead of filtering connections on a per port basis.
- The major advantages of these fire walls are:
o It is more secure than packet filters
o It is easy to log and audit all incoming traffic at the application level.
- However the disadvantage is:
o The additional processing overhead on each connection.

3) Proxies
- A proxy server may act as firewall by responding to put packets (connection requests) in the
manner of an application, while blocking other packets.
- It is a gateway from one network to another for a specific network application in the sense that
it functions as a proxy on behalf of the network user.
- Proxies make tampering with an internal system from the external network more difficult and
misuse of one internal system would not necessarily cause a security breach exploitable from
outside the firewall.
Protocols and standards
- Protocol is a kind of agreement about the exchange of information in a distributed system. It
is a set of rules that two or more devices must follow if they are to communicate with each
other.
- Protocol includes everything from the meaning of data to the voltage levels on connection
wires.
- A network protocol defines how a network will handle the following problems and tasks:
o communication line errors
o flow control (to keep buffers from overflowing)
o access by multiple devices
o failure detection
o data translation
o interpretation of messages
- Networking standards can be classified as proprietary, open or de facto
o Proprietary standards are owned by one particular organization.
o If that organization has sufficient market clout and the industry lacks alternative to its
standard, it may be adopted the whole industry, becoming a de facto standard.
o Open standard are not owned by any one – they are created by neutral organizations
to ensure that compatible products can be designed and developed by many different
companies.

Serial Interface Standards

- Many devices used in industrial applications use EIA standards RS – 232, RS 422 or RS 485
to connect to computers and to one another.
- The EIA RS–XXX standard specifies only the electrical characteristics – not the software
protocol
- The whole purpose of a serial interface is to provide a single path for data transmission
wirelessly or a over a cable.
- Serial interfaces can be used to provide standardized logic levels from transmitter to receiver,
define transmission medium and connectors and specify timing and data rates.
- The definition of logic levels, medium and connectors is part of layer 1 of OSI model (physical
layer) while data handling is part of MAC layer or layer 2(Data link layer)

Type of transmission lines unbalanced Differential Differential

Max number of drivers 1 1 32
Max number of receivers 1 10 32
Max cable length (m) 15m 1.5km 1.2km
Max data rate 20kbps 10mbps 10mbps

i) Rs 232
- The RS-232 interface standard (officially called TIA-232) defines the electrical and
mechanical details of the interface between Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data
Communications Equipment (DCE), which employ serial binary data interchange.
- The current version of the standard refers to DCE as Data Circuit-terminating Equipment.

- Its used for many purposes such as connecting mouse, printer as well as industrial
instrumentation
- RS – 232 is limited to point to point connections between pc serial ports and devices.
- The RS-232 standard consists of three major parts, which define:
• Electrical signal characteristics
• Mechanical characteristics of the interface
• Functional description of the interchange circuits
- The standard defines a logic 1 and voltage between -3v and -25v and a logic 0 as a voltage
level between +3V and +25v
- Many RS 232 connections are one-way or simplex However, using the special signaling and
control voltages available, this way or half duplex operation is possible.
- The two connected devices alternate transmitting and receiving operations.
- The central signal in the interface defines the protocol for transmitting and receiving data.
- These signals tie the two communicating devices when they are busy, transmitting, ready and
receiving.
- The transmitting device is the DTE (devices that are either the source or destination of data
frames) such as computer, work station.
- The receiving device is the DCE (device that receive and forward frames across the network)
– such as printer, modem, interface card.
- The control signal used on the common nine-pin connector are:-
a) Data carrier detect (DCD) – the DCE tells the DTE it is receiving a valid input signal (Pin
1)
b) Data set ready (DSR) – The DCE tells the DTE it is connected and ready to receive (pin
6)
c) Received data (RD): This is the actual signal received from DTE (Pin 2).
d) Request to send (RTS) – This signal from the DTE tells the DCE it is ready to transmit (pin
7)
e) Signal ground:- This is the common ground connection for all signals (pin 5)
f) Transmit data (TD) – This is the transmitted signal from the DTE (pin 3)
g) Data terminal ready (DTR) – This line is from the DTE to the DCE indicating readiness to
send or receive data (pin 4)
h) Clear to send (CTS) – This line from the DCE tells the DTE it is ready to receive data (pin
8)
i) Ring indicator (R1) – This line was used in order modem connection but it is not used
anymore (pin 9)
Here are some typical wiring diagrams for each interface type:

Limitations of RS -232
- Limited distance – cable length limited to 1.5 meter
- Not multi-drop – it can only connect on RS – 232 device per port.
- Susceptible to noise – RS 232 is single-ended, which means that they transmit and
receive lines are referenced to a common ground.

(ii) RS – 422 (EIA – 422)

- It is similar to RS 232, and can be programmed in the same way. This is a technical standard
that specified electrical characteristics of a digital signaling circuit.
- Differential signaling can transmit data at rates as high as 10 mbps along a cable of 1500m.
- The advantage offered by this standard includes the differential receiver, a differential driver
and high data rates.
o Long Distance Runs - Up to 1500m is generally supported, and with repeaters, even
further distances can be achieved.
o Multi-Drop - Usually, up to 32 devices can be connected per port, and even more
using repeaters.
o Noise Resistant - Since it uses a separate FLOATING transmit and receive pair (four
wires), it offers better noise immunity than RS-232.
- However RS 422 cannot implement a truly multipoint communication network such as with
RS 485, but one driver can be connected to up to ten receivers.

(iii) RS 485 (TIA 485)

- It defines not only a single device to device interface but also a communication bus that can
be used to form simple networks of multiple devices.
- It specifies differential signaling on two lines rather than single ended with a voltage
referenced to ground
- A logic 1 is a level greater than -200mv and a logic 0 is a level greater than +200 mv
- The standard transmission medium is twisted-pair cable of 22 or 24 AWG solid wire. Two
lines are minimum but reference wire can be used.
- Four wire can be used if full duplex operation is desired.
- Maximum cable length is defined as 1.2 km at maximum data rate of 100mbps
- A common configuration is bus network topology with multiple drops or connections.
- The standard species a maximum of 32 drivers (transmitters) and 32 receivers.
- Line drivers are disconnected from the line when not transmitting. All receivers are fully
connected and the bus line is terminated in a load matching resistance.
Applications of serial interface
- RS 232 standard is deployed in a wide range of low data rate short range applications.
- It is particularly effective in equipment used in noisy environment such as factories, process
control and utilities sites.
- Common equipment include low-speed modems, industrial control equipment like PLC,
computer, numerical controlled (CNC) machine tools, robots, embedded control computers,
medical instrument and equipment and embedded controller development systems.
- The RS 485 – Interface is also widely used in industrial applications where higher speeds and
longer distances are needed.
- It is used in the same type of equipment as defined for the RS 232 interface puts devices like
point of sale (pos) terminal, metering instruments, and large special automated machines.

Ethernet
- The term refers to the family of LAN module covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines
what is the CSMA/CIS protocol
- The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical
layer in the use with Ethernet.
- Three data rates are defined for operation over optical fibre and twisted-pair cables.
o 10 BASE – T Ethernet
o Fast Ethernet (100 BASE – T Ethernet)
o Gigabit Ethernet 1000 BASE-T Ethernet
- The protocol has the following characteristics:
o Easy to understand, implement, manage and maintain
o Allows low cost network implementation
o Provides extensive topologies flexibility for network installation
o Guarantees successful, interconnection and operation of standard – compliant
products, regardless of manufacture
- Twisted-pair Ethernet standards are such that the majority of cables can be wired ‘straight
through’ pin1 to pin1 pin 2 to pin 2 and so on, but others may need to be wired in the ‘crossover’
form (receive to transmit and transmit to receive)

Industrial Ethernet
- This refers to the use of standard Ethernet protocols with rugged connectors and extended
temperature switches in an industrial environment for automation or process control.
- Components used in plant process areas must be designed to work in harsh environment of
temperature extremes, humidity and vibration that exceeds the ranges for information
technology equipment intended for installation in controlled environment.
- The use of fibre Ethernet reduces the problem of electrical noise and provides electrical
isolation to prevent equipment damage.
- Some industrial networks emphasis deterministic delivery of transmitted data, whereas
Ethernet used collision detection which made transport time for individual data packets difficult
to estimate with increasing network traffic.
- In addition to physical compatibility and low level transport protocols a practical industrial
Ethernet system must also provide interoperability of high levels of the OSI model.
- An industrial network use network switches to segment a large system into logical sub-
networks, divided by address, protocol or application.
- Using network switches allows the network to be broken up into many small collision domains.
- This reduces the risk of a faulty or misconfigured device generating excess network traffic.

Benefits of industry-standard networks

- Modern control and business systems require open, digital communications.
- Industrial networks replace conventional point-to-point RS-232, RS-485, and 4-20 mA wiring
between existing measurement devices and automation systems with an all-digital, 2-way
communication network.
- Industrial networking technology offers several major improvements over existing systems.
- With industry-standard networks, we can select the right instrument and system for the job
regardless of the control system manufacturer.
- Other benefits include:
o Reduced wiring -- resulting in lower overall installation and maintenance costs
o Intelligent devices -- leading to higher performance and increased functionality such
as advanced diagnostics
o Distributed control -- with intelligent devices providing the flexibility to apply control
either centrally or distributed for improved performance and reliability
o Simplified wiring of a new installation, resulting in fewer, simpler drawings and overall
reduced control system engineering costs
o Lower installation costs for wiring, marshalling, and junction boxes
I/O BUS NETWORKS
- I/O bus networks allow PLCs to communicate with I/O devices in a manner similar to how
local area networks let supervisory PLCs communicate with individual PLCs.
- This configuration decentralizes control in the PLC system, yielding larger and faster control
systems.
- The topology, or physical architecture, of an I/O bus network follows the bus or extended bus
(tree) configuration, which lets field devices (e.g., limit, photoelectric, and proximity switches)
connect directly to either a PLC or to a local area network bus.
- Remember that a bus is simply a collection of lines that transmit data and/or power. Figure
illustrates a typical connection between a PLC, a local area network, and an I/O bus network
- The basic function of an I/O bus network is to communicate information with, as well as supply
power to, the field devices that are connected to the bus.
- In an I/O bus network, the PLC drives the field devices directly, without the use of I/O modules;
therefore, the PLC connects to and communicates with each field I/O device according to the
bus’s protocol.
- In essence, PLCs connect with I/O bus networks in a manner similar to the way they connect
with remote I/O, except that PLCs in an I/O bus use an I/O bus network scanner.
- An I/O bus network scanner reads and writes to each field device address, as well as decodes
the information contained in the network information packet.
- A large, tree topology bus network (i.e., a network with many branches) may have up to 2048
or more connected discrete field devices.
- The field devices that connect to I/O bus networks contain intelligence in the form of
microprocessors or other circuits). These devices communicate not only the ON/OFF state of
input and output controls, but also diagnostic information about their operating states.
- I/O bus networks can be separated into two different categories—one that deals with low-level
devices that are typical of discrete manufacturing operations and another that handles high-
level devices found in process industries.
- These bus network categories are:
• Device bus networks
• Process bus networks
- Device bus networks interface with low-level information devices (e.g., push buttons, limit
switches, etc.), which primarily transmit data relating to the state of the device (ON/OFF) and
its operational status (e.g., operating OK). These networks generally process only a few bits
to several bytes of data at a time.
- Process bus networks, on the other hand, connect with high-level information devices (e.g.,
smart process valves, flow meters, etc.), which are typically used in process control
applications. Process bus networks handle large amounts of data (several hundred bytes),
consisting of information about the process, as well as the field devices themselves.
- The majority of devices used in process bus networks are analog, while most devices used in
device bus networks are discrete.
- However, device bus networks sometimes include analog devices, such as thermocouples
and variable speed drives that transmit only a few bytes of information.
- Device bus networks that include discrete devices, as well as small analog devices, are called
byte-wide bus networks. These networks can transfer between 1 and 50 or more bytes of
data at a time.
- Device bus networks that only interface with discrete devices are called bit-wide bus
networks. Bit-wide networks transfer less than 8 bits of data from simple discrete devices
over relatively short distances.
Protocol Standards
- Neither of the two I/O bus networks has established protocol standards; however, many
organizations are working towards developing both discrete and process bus network
specifications.
- In the process bus area, two main organizations, the Fieldbus Foundation (which is the result
of a merger between the Interoperable Systems Project, ISP, Foundation and the World FIP
North American group) and the Profibus (Process Field Bus) Trade Organization, are working
to establish network and protocol standards.
- Other organizations, such as the Instrument Society of America (ISA) and the European
International Electronics Committee (IEC), are also involved in developing these standards.
- This is the reason why some manufacturers specify that their analog products are compatible
with Profibus, Fieldbus, or another type of protocol communication scheme.

- Although no proclaimed standards exist for device bus network applications, several de facto
standards are emerging due to the availability of company specific protocol specifications from
device bus network manufacturers.
- These network manufacturers or associations provide I/O field device manufacturers with
specifications in order to develop open network architecture, (i.e., a network that can interface
with many types of field devices).
- In this way, each manufacturer hopes to make its protocol the industry standard.
- One of these de facto standards for the byte-wide device bus network is DeviceNet, originally
from PLC manufacturer Allen-Bradley and now provided by an independent spin-off
association called the Open DeviceNet Vendor Association.
- Another is SDS (Smart Distributed System) from Honeywell. Both of these device bus protocol
standards are based on the control area network bus (CANbus), developed for the automobile
industry, which uses the commercially available CAN chip in its protocol.
- InterBus-S from Phoenix Contact is another emerging de facto standard for byte-wide device
bus network.
- The de facto standards for low-end, bit-wide device bus networks include Seriplex, developed
by Square D, and ASI (Actuator Sensor Interface), a standard developed by a consortium of
European companies.
- Again, this is why I/O bus network and field device manufacturers will specify compatibility
with a particular protocol (e.g., ASI, Seriplex, InterBus-S, SDS, or DeviceNet) even though no
official protocol standard exists.

1. Byte-Wide Device Bus Networks

- The most common byte-wide device bus networks are based on the InterBusS network and
the CANbus network.

i) InterBus-S
- InterBus-S is a sensor/actuator device bus network that connects discrete and analog field
devices to a PLC or computer (soft PLC) via a ring network configuration.
- The InterBusS has built-in I/O interfaces in its 256 possible node components, which also
include terminal block connections for easy I/O interfacing.
- This network can handle up to 4096 field I/O devices (depending on the configuration) at a
speed of 500 kbaud with cyclic redundancy check (CRC) error detection.
- A PLC or computer in an InterBus-S network communicates with the bus in a master/slave
method via a host controller or module.
- The topology of the network is a ring, with data being sequentially shifted from point to point
on the ring under the control of a network master.
- Each device is the ring acts as a shift register, transmitting and receiving data simultaneously
at 500 KHz.
- The actual serial data transmission between stations conforms to RS- 485.
- Interbus–S (interbus–S remote Bus) has also been extended to include a sub-protocol called
interbus – sensor loop (or interbus–S local Bus).
- This subprotocol provides an alternate physical layer, with a single twisted pair carrying power
and data on the same lines and a reduction in the minimum size of the shift register in each
station from 16 to 4 bits.
- Each interbus sensor loop system can act as a single station on an interbus-S network, on
the sensor loop can be connected directly to a controller or master.
- Interbus–S devices are usually implemented with a special ASIC (application specific
integrated circuit).

ii) CANbus networks

- CANbus networks are byte-wide device bus networks based on the widely used CAN
electronic chip technology, which is used inside automobiles to control internal components,
such as brakes and other systems.
- A CANbus network is an open protocol system featuring variable length messages (up to 8
bytes), nondestructive arbitration, and advanced error management. A four-wire cable plus
shield— two wires for power, two for signal transmission, and a “fifth” shield wire—provides
the communication link with field devices.
- This communication can either be master/slave or peer to peer. The speed of the network
(data transmission rate) depends on the length of the trunk cable.

- The DeviceNet byte-wide network can support 64 nodes and a maximum of 2048 field I/O
devices.
- The SDS network can also support 64 nodes; however, this number increases to 126
addressable locations when multiport I/O interfaces are used to multiplex the nodes.
- Using a 4-to-1 multiport I/O interface module, an SDS network can connect to up to 126
nonintelligent I/O devices in any combination of inputs and outputs.
- This multiport interface to nonintelligent field devices contains a slave CAN chip inside the
interface, which provides status information about the nodes connected to the interface.
- In a DeviceNet network, the PLC connects to the field devices in a trunkline configuration,
with either single drops off the trunk or branched drops through multiport interfaces at the
device locations.
- Because an SDS network can transmit many bytes of information in the form of variable length
messages, it can also support many intelligent devices that can translate one, two, or more
bytes of information from the network into 16 or 32 bits of ON/OFF information.
- An example of this type of intelligent device is a solenoid valve manifold.
- This kind of manifold can have up to 16 connections, thereby receiving 16 bits (two bytes) of
data from the network and controlling the status of 16 valve outputs.
- However, this device uses only one address of the 126 possible addresses. Thus, in this
configuration, the SDS network can actually connect to more than just 126 addressable
devices.
- The CANbus device bus network uses three of the ISO layers and defines both the media
access control method and the physical signaling of the network, while providing cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) error detection.
- The media access control function determines when each device on the bus will be enabled.

2. Bit-wide device bus networks

- Bit-wide device bus networks are used for discrete applications with simple ON/OFF devices
(e.g., sensors and actuators).
- These I/O bus networks can only transmit 4 bits (one nibble) of information at a time, which is
sufficient to transmit data from these devices
- The smallest discrete sensors and actuators require only one bit of data to operate.
- By minimizing their data transmission capabilities, bit-wide device bus networks provide
optimum performance at economical costs. The most common bit-wide device bus networks
are ASI, InterBus Loop, and Seriplex

i) ASI Bit-Wide Device Bus Network.

- ASI (Actuator sensor interface) was developed for low-cost, flexible method for connecting
sensor and actuators at the lowest levels of industrial control system.
- The ASI network protocol is used in simple, discrete network applications requiring no more
than 124 I/O field devices.
- These 124 inputs and output devices can be connected to up to 31 nodes in either a tree,
star, or ring topology. The I/O devices connect to the PLC or personal computer via the bus
through a host controller interface.
- It provides a two-wire, non-twisted cable for interconnection of devices. Devices may draw
current from the two wires for powering circuitry, and data communications are modulated on
top of the nominal d.c level at a bit rate of 167KHZ, under control of the master. One single
parity bit per station is used for error detection.
- The maximum cable length is 100 meters (330 ft) from the master controller.
- The ASI network protocol is based on the ASI protocol chip, thus the I/O devices connected
to this type of network must contain this chip.
- Typical ASI-compatible devices include proximity switches, limit switches, photoelectric
sensors, and standard off-the-shelf field devices.
- However, in an application using an off-the-shelf device, the ASI chip is located in the node
(i.e., an intelligent node with a slave ASI chip), instead of in the device.
- Figure below illustrates an I/O bus network that uses both the ASI bit-wide network and the
byte-wide CANbus network. Note that the ASI network connects to the byte-wide CANbus
network through a gateway.

ii) InterBus Loop Bit-Wide Device Bus Network

- The InterBus Loop from Phoenix Contact Inc. is another bit-wide device bus network used to
interface a PLC with simple sensor and actuator devices.
- The InterBus Loop uses a power and communications technology called PowerCom to send
the InterBus-S protocol signal through the power supply wires (i.e., the protocol is modulated
onto the power supply lines).
- This reduces the number of cables required by the network to only two conductors, which
carry both the power and communication signals to the field devices.
- Since the InterBus-S and InterBus Loop networks use the same protocol, they can
communicate with each other via an InterBus Loop terminal module.
- The InterBus Loop connects to the bus terminal module, located in the InterBus-S network,
which attaches to the field devices via two wires.
- An InterBus Loop network can also interface with non-intelligent, off -the-shelf devices by
means of module interfaces containing an intelligent slave network chip.

iii) Seriplex Bit-Wide Device Bus Network.

- The Seriplex device bus network can connect up to 510 field devices to a PLC in either a
master/slave or peer-to-peer configuration.
- The Seriplex network is based on the application specific integrated circuit, or ASIC chip,
which must be present in all I/O field devices that connect to the network.
- I/O devices that do not have the ASIC chip embedded in their circuitry (i.e., off-the-shelf
devices) can connect to the network via a Seriplex I/O module interface that contains a slave
ASIC chip.
- The ASIC I/O interface contains 32 built-in Boolean logic function used to create logic that will
provide the communication, addressability, and intelligence necessary to control the field
devices connected to the network bus.
- A Seriplex network can span distances of up to 5,000 feet in a star, loop, tree, or multidrop
configuration.
- This bit-wide bus network can also operate without a host controller. Unlike the ASI network,
the Seriplex device bus network can interface with analog I/O devices; however, the digitized
analog signal is read or written one bit at a time in each scan cycle
Process Bus Network
- A process bus network is a high-level, open, digital communication network used to connect
analog field devices to a control system.
- It is used in process applications, where the analog input/output sensors and actuators
respond slower than those in discrete bus applications (device bus networks).
- The size of the information packets delivered to and from these analog field devices is large,
due to the nature of the information being collected at the process level.
- The two most commonly used process bus network protocols are Fieldbus and Profibus.
- Although these network protocols can transmit data at a speed of 1 to 2 megabits/sec, their
response time is considered slow to medium because of the large amount of information that
is transferred.
- Nevertheless, this speed is adequate for process applications, because analog processes do
not respond instantaneously, as discrete controls do.
- Process bus networks can transmit enormous amounts of information to a PLC system, thus
greatly enhancing the operation of a plant or process.
- For example, a smart, process bus–compatible motor starter can provide information about
the amount of current being pulled by the motor, so that, if current requirements increase or a
locked-rotor current situation occurs, the system can alert the operator and avoid a potential
motor failure in a critical production line.
- Implementation of this type of system without a process bus network would be too costly and
cumbersome because of the amount of wire runs necessary to transmit this type of process
data.
- Process bus networks will eventually replace the commonly used analog networks, which are
based on the 4–20 mA standard for analog devices.
- This will provide greater accuracy and repeatability in process applications, as well as add
bidirectional communication between the field devices and the controller (e.g., PLC). A PLC
or computer communicates with a process bus network through a host controller interface
module using either Fieldbus or Profibus protocol format.
- Block transfer instructions relay information between the PLC and the process bus processor.
The process bus processor is generally inserted inside the rack enclosure of the PLC.
i) Fieldbus Process Bus Network
- The Fieldbus process bus network from the Fieldbus Foundation (FF) is a digital, serial,
multiport, two-way communication system that connects field equipment, such as intelligent
sensors and actuators, with controllers, such as PLCs.
- This process bus network offers the desirable features inherent in 4–20 mA analog systems,
such as:
• a standard physical wiring interface
• bus-powered devices on a single pair of wires
• intrinsic safety options
- However, the Fieldbus network technology offers the following additional advantages:
• reduced wiring due to multidrop devices
• Compatibility among Fieldbus equipment
• reduced control room space requirements
• Digital communication reliability

Fieldbus Protocol
- The Fieldbus network protocol is based on three layers of the ISO’s seven-layer model. These
three layers are layer 1 (physical interface), layer 2 (data link), and layer 7 (application).
- It has optimized the OSI architecture for process control by removing the middle layers that
are generally associated with non-time critical applications such as file transfer.
- The section comprising layers 2 and 7 of the model are referred to as the Fieldbus
communication stack.
- In addition to the ISO’s model, Fieldbus adds an extra layer on top of the application layer
called the user layer.
- This user layer provides several key functions, which are function blocks, device description
services, and system management.

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

- The physical layer of the Fieldbus process bus network conforms with the ISA SP50 and IEC
1152-2 standards.
- These standards specify the type of wire that can be used in this type of network, as well as
how fast data can move through the network.
- Moreover, these standards define the number of field devices that can be on the bus at
different network speeds, with or without being powered from the bus with intrinsic safety
(IS).
- Intrinsically safe equipment and wiring does not emit enough thermal or electrical energy to
ignite materials in the surrounding atmosphere.
- Thus, intrinsically safe devices are suitable for use in hazardous environments(e.g., those
containing hydrogen or acetylene).
- The Fieldbus has two speeds—a low speed of 31.25 kbaud, referred to as H1, and a high
speed of 1 Mbaud or 2.5 Mbaud (depending on the mode—AC current or DC voltage mode),
called H2.
- At a speed of 31.25 kbaud, the physical layer of the Fieldbus process network can support
existing 4–20 mA wiring.
- This increases cost-effectiveness when upgrading a plant or process’s network
communication scheme. At this H1 speed, the Fieldbus network can also support intrinsically
safe network segments with bus-powered devices.

Communication Stack (Layers 2 and 7)

- The communication stack portion of the Fieldbus process bus network consists of layer 2 (the
data link layer) and layer 7 (the application layer).
- The data link layer controls the transmission of messages onto the Fieldbus through the
physical layer.
- It manages access to the bus through a link active scheduler, which is a deterministic,
centralized bus transmission regulator based on IEC and ISA standards.
- The application layer contains the Fieldbus messaging specification (FMS) standard, which
encodes and decodes commands from the user layer, Fieldbus’s additional 8th layer.
- The FMS is based on the Profibus process bus standard. Layer 7 also contains an object
dictionary, which allows Fieldbus network data to be retrieved by either tag name or index
record

User Layer (Layer 8)

- The user layer implements the Fieldbus network’s distributed control strategy.
- It contains three key elements, which are function blocks, device description services, and
system management.
- The user layer, a vital segment of the Fieldbus network, also defines the software model for
user interaction with the network system.
- Function Blocks: are encapsulated control functions that allow the performance of
input/output operations, such as analog inputs, analog outputs, PID control, discrete
inputs/outputs, signal selectors, manual loaders, bias/gain stations, and ratio stations. The
function block capabilities of Fieldbus networks allow Fieldbus-compatible devices to be
programmed with blocks containing any of the instructions available in the system. Through
these function blocks, users can configure control algorithms and implement them directly
through field devices.
- Device Description Services. Device descriptions (DD) are Fieldbus software mechanisms
that let a host obtain message information, such as vendor name, available function blocks,
and diagnostic capabilities, from field devices. Device descriptions can be thought of as
“drivers” for field devices connected to the network, meaning that they allow the device to
communicate with the host and the network. All devices connected to a Fieldbus process
network must have a device description. When a new field device is added to the network, the
host must be supplied with its device description.
- System Manager. The system management portion of the user layer schedules the execution
of function blocks at precisely defined intervals. It also controls the communication of all the
Fieldbus network parameters used by the function blocks. Moreover, the system manager
automatically assigns field device addresses.

Profibus Process Bus Network

- Profibus (PROcess FIeld BUS) is a digital process bus network capable of communicating
information between a master controller (or host) and an intelligent, slave process field device,
as well as from one host to another.
- Profibus actually consists of three inter-compatible networks with different protocols designed
to serve distinctive application requirements. The three types of Profibus networks are:
Profibus-FMS, Profibus-DP and Profibus-PA
- Profibus-FMS network is the universal solution for communicating between the upper level,
the cell level, and the field device level of the Profibus hierarchy.
- Cell level control occurs at individual (or cell) areas, which exercise the actual control during
production. The controllers at the cell level must communicate with other supervisory systems.
- The Profibus-FMS utilizes the Fieldbus message specification (FMS) to execute its
extensive communication tasks between hierarchical levels.
- This communication is performed through cyclic or acyclic messages at medium transmission
speeds.
- Profibus-DP (Decentralized Peripherals) network is a performance-optimized version of
the Profibus network. It is designed to handle time-critical communications between devices
in factory automation systems.
- The Profibus-DP is a suitable replacement for 24-V parallel and 4–20 mA wiring interfaces.
- Profibus-PA (Process Automation) network is the process automation version of the
Profibus network. It provides bus-powered stations and intrinsic safety according to the
 transmission specifications of the IEC 1158-2 standard. The Profibus-PA network has device
description and function block capabilities, along with field device interoperability.
- Profibus-PA is designed for use in an explosion / hazardous areas. The physical layer (cable)
allows power to be delivered over the bus to field instruments, while limiting current flows so
that explosive conditions are not created, even if a malfunction occurs.
- Profibus networks support both peer-to-peer and multipeer communication in either broadcast
or multicast configurations.

- In broadcast communication, an active station sends an unconfirmed message to all other

stations.
- Any of these stations (including both masters and slaves) can take this information. In
multicast communication, an active station sends an unconfirmed message to a particular
group of master or slave stations.
- The physical layer or layer 1, of the ISO model defines the network’s transmission medium
and the physical bus interface.
- The Profibus network adheres to the EIA RS-485 standard, which uses a two-conductor,
twisted-pair wire bus with optional shielding.
- The maximum number of stations or device nodes per segment is 32 without repeaters and
127 with repeaters.
- The network transmission speed is selectable from 9.6 kbaud to 12 Mbaud, depending on the
distance and cable type. Without repeaters, the maximum bus length is 100 m at 12 Mbaud.
- The type of connector used is a 9-pin, D-sub connector.
Modbus Network
- It is a serial communication protocol published by Modicons for use with its PLCs.
- Simple and robust, it has since become a de facto standard communication protocol, and it is
now commonly available means of connecting electronic devices.
- The main reasons for the use of Modbus in the industrial environment are:
- Developed with industrial application in mind
 - Openly published and royalty free
- Easy to deploy and maintain
- Moves raw bits or words without placing many instructions.
- It allows for communication between many (approx 240) devices connected to the same
network.
- It is used to connect a supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit (RTU) in SCADA
systems.
- A Modbus command contains the Modbus address of the device it is intended for. All Modbus
commands contain checking information, ensuring that a command arrives undamaged.
- The basic Modbus command can instruct an RTU to change a value in one of its registers,
control or read an 1/0 port as well as command the device to send back one or more values
contained in its registers.
- Modbus Messaging protocol is an Application layer (OSI layer 7) protocol that provides
client/server communication between devices connected to different types of buses or
networks.
- The Modbus Messaging protocol is only a protocol and does not imply any specific hardware
implementation. Also note that the Modbus Messaging protocol used with Modbus Serial is
the same one used with Modbus Plus and Modbus TCP.
- Modbus messaging is based on a client/server model and employs the following messages:
- Modbus requests, i.e. the messages sent on the network by the clients to initiate
transactions. These serve as indications of the requested services on the server side
- Modbus responses, i.e. the response messages sent by the servers. These serve as
confirmations on the client side.
- Modbus (or to be more exact; the Modbus Messaging protocol) is just a protocol, Modbus
Plus is a complete system with a predefined medium and Physical layer (OSI layer 1)
implementation.
4 to 20 mA Current Loop
- The 4 to 20 mA current loop is a widely used method for transferring information from one
station (the transmitter) to another station (the receiver). Therefore, this system allows for only
two stations.
- A typical current loop system assigns a sensing range (e.g., 0 to 100°C) to the current range
between 4 and 20 mA.
- A loop exists (i.e., two wires) between the transmitter and receiver.
- The transmitter can impress a certain current in the loop (using a controlled current source)
so that the receiver can measure the current in the loop (e.g., by placing a small resistor in
series with the loop and measuring the voltage drop across the resistor).
- After measuring the current, the receiver can then determine the present level of the sensed
signal within the defined sensing range.
- This method uses current signaling, instead of voltage signaling, and therefore is relatively
unaffected by potential differences between the transmitter and the receiver.
- This is similar to the benefit of differential (voltage) signaling, which also requires two wires.
- Another characteristic of this method is that it is not primarily digital in nature, as many other
sensor communication systems are.
- The measured value can vary continuously in the range of 4-20 mA, and therefore can easily
represent an analog sensing range, rather than a set of digital signals. Also, the signal is
continuously variable and available.
- Another characteristic of this method is that the integrity of the loop can be verified.
- As long as the loop is unbroken and the transmitter is in good working order, the current in
the loop should never fall below 4 mA.
- If the current approaches 0 mA, then the receiver can determine that a fault exists — perhaps
a broken cable.
- These systems are widely used in various process control industries (e.g., oil refining) for
connecting sensors (transmitters) with control computers.
- Because one station is always the transmitter and one station is always the receiver, this is a
unidirectional, half duplex communication system.

HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer)

- The HART system (and its associated protocol) was originally developed by Rosemount and
is regarded as an open standard, available to all manufacturers.
- Its main advantage is that it enables the retention of the existing 4-20mA instrumentation
cabling whilst using, simultaneously, the same wires to carry digital information superimposed
on the analog signal.
- HART is a hybrid analog and digital system, as opposed to most field bus systems, that are
purely digital.
- HART products generally fall into one of three categories: field devices, host systems, and
communication support hardware.
 Field devices include transmitters, valves, and controllers. There are HART transmitters
for almost any standard process measurement including pressure, temperature, level,
flow, and analytical (pH, ORP, density).
 Host systems range from small handheld communicators to PC based maintenance
management software to large scale distributed control systems.
 Communication support hardware includes simple single loop modems as well as an
assortment of multiplexers that allow a host system to communicate with a large number
of field devices.
- It uses a Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) technique based on the Bell 202 standard.
- HART can be used in either one of the two network configuration :
 Point-to-point mode
 Multi-drop mode
- The HART protocol has two formats for digital transmission of data:
 Poll/response mode
 Burst (broadcast) mode
- HART follows the basic Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The OSI model
describes the structure and elements of a communication system. The HART protocol uses a
reduced OSI model, implementing only layers 1, 2 and 7

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

- The HART communication protocol is based on the Bell 202 telephone communication
standard and operates using the frequency shift keying (FSK) principle.
- The digital signal is made up of two frequencies— 1,200 Hz and 2,200 Hz representing bits 1
and 0, respectively.
- Sine waves of these two frequencies are superimposed on the direct current (dc) analog signal
cables to provide simultaneous analog and digital communications.
- Because the average value of the 1200/2400Hz sine wave superimposed on the 4-20mA
signal (FSK signal) is always zero, hence, the 4-20mA analog information is not affected.
- The HART FSK signaling enables two-way digital communication and makes it possible for
additional information beyond just the normal process variable to be communicated to or from
a smart field instrument.
- The HART protocol communicates at 1200 bits per second without interrupting the 4-20mA
signal and allows a host application (master) to get two or more digital updates per second
from a field device.
- A minimum loop impedance of 230 W is required for communication.

HART Networks
- HART devices can operate in one of two network configurations—point-to-point or multidrop.
- The connection can be in form of:
- In conjunction with the 4-20mA current signal in point-to-point mode,
- in conjunction with other field devices in multi-drop mode
- in point-to-point mode with only one field device broadcasting in burst mode

i) Point-To-Point:
- In point-to-point mode, the traditional 4–20 mA signal is used to communicate one process
variable, while additional process variables, configuration parameters, and other device data
are transferred digitally using the HART protocol.
- The 4–20 mA analog signal is not affected by the HART signal and can be used for control in
the normal way.
- The HART communication digital signal gives access to secondary variables and other data
that can be used for operations, commissioning, maintenance, and diagnostic purposes
ii) Multidrop:
- The multidrop mode of operation requires only a single pair of wires and, if applicable, safety
barriers and an auxiliary power supply for up to 15 field devices.
- All process values are transmitted digitally. In multidrop mode, all field device polling
addresses are >0, and the current through each device is fixed to a minimum value (typically
4 mA).
- Thus, setting the smart device polling address to a number greater than zero implies a multi-
drop loop.
- Obviously the 4-20mA concept only applies to a loop with a single transducer; hence for a
multi-drop configuration the smart device sets its analog output to a constant 4mA and
communicates only digitally.

Communication Modes
- The HART protocol can be used in various modes for communicating information to/from
smart field instruments and central control or monitoring equipment
- These protocols are: Poll/response mode and Burst (broadcast) mode.

i) Poll/Response Mode (Master/Slave Mode)

- HART is a master-slave communication protocol, which means that during normal operation,
each slave (field device) communication is initiated by a master communication device.
- The master polls each of the smart devices on the highway and requests the relevant
information.
- Two masters can connect to each HART loop. The primary master is generally a distributed
control system (DCS), programmable logic controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC). The
secondary master can be a handheld terminal or another PC.
- Slave devices include transmitters, actuators, and controllers that respond to commands from
the primary or secondary master.
- This mode, allows digital information from the slave device to be updated twice per second in
the master. The 4-20 mA analog signals are continuous and can still carry the primary variable
for control.

ii) Burst Mode (Broadcast mode)

- This mode is an optional communication mode.
- In burst mode, the master instructs the slave device to continuously broadcast a standard
HART reply message (e.g., the value of the process variable).
- The master receives the message at the higher rate until it instructs the slave to stop bursting.
- This mode frees the master from having to send repeated command requests to get updated
process variable information
- Data update rates of 3-4 per second are typical with “burst” mode communication and will vary
with the chosen command. Burst mode should be used only in single slave device networks.

HART Commands
- The HART command set provides uniform and consistent communication for all field devices.
- Layer 7, the Application layer, consists of three classes of HART commands: Universal,
Common Practice, and Device Specific
- Host applications may implement any of the necessary commands for a particular application.
i) Universal
- All devices using the HART protocol must recognize and support the universal commands.
- Universal commands provide access to information useful in normal operations (e.g., read
primary variable and units).
ii) Common Practice
- Common practice commands provide functions implemented by many, but not necessarily all,
HART communication devices.
iii) Device Specific
- Device-specific commands represent functions that are unique to each field device.
- These commands access setup and calibration information, as well as information about the
construction of the device. Information on device-specific commands is available from device
manufacturers.

Benefits of HART Communication

- The HART protocol is a powerful communication technology used to exploit the full potential
of digital field devices.
- Preserving the traditional 4–20 mA signal, the HART protocol extends system capabilities for
two-way digital communication with smart field instruments.
- The HART protocol offers the best solution for smart field device communications and has the
widest base of support of any field device protocol worldwide.
- More instruments are available with the HART protocol than any other digital communications
technology.
- Almost any process application can be addressed by one of the products offered by HART
instrument suppliers.
- Unlike other digital communication technologies, the HART protocol provides a unique
communication solution that is backward compatible with the installed base of instrumentation
in use today.
- This backward compatibility ensures that investments in existing cabling and current control
strategies will remain secure well into the future.
- Other benefits include:
- Improved plant operations: HART-communicating devices provide accurate information
that helps improve the efficiency of plant operations. During normal operation, device
operational values can be easily monitored or modified remotely.
- Operational flexibility: The HART protocol allows two masters (primary and secondary)
to communicate with slave devices and provide additional operational flexibility. A
permanently connected host system can be used simultaneously, while a handheld
terminal or PC controller is communicating with a field device
- Instrumentation investment protection:. HART field instruments protect the investment
(existing plants and processes e.g. wiring, analog controllers, smart instrumentation) by
providing compatible products with enhanced digital capabilities. These enhanced
capabilities can be used incrementally.
- Digital communication: A digital device provides advantages such as improved accuracy
and stability. The HART protocol enhances the capabilities of digital instruments by
providing communication access and networking.