Laboratory Testing

2000
 THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
MINISTRY OF WORKS

Laboratory Testing
Manual 2000

I Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

June 2000

ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 3 - 1

Reproduction of extracts from this Manual may be made

subject to due acknowledgement of the source.
Although this Manual is believed to be correct at the time of
printing, Ministry of Works does not accept any contractual,
tortious or other form of liability for its contents or for any
consequences arising from its use. People using the informa-
tion contained in the Manual should apply and rely on their
own skill and judgement to the particular issue that they are
considering.

Printed by: Novum Grafisk AS, Skjetten Norway

Layout: Jan Edvardsen, IGG Oslo Norway

II Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Preface
The importance of standardized and consistent test procedures in road construction in order to establish quality can not
be over emphasized.

This Manual describes the procedures for laboratory testing of road construction and building materials carried out at
the Central Materials Laboratory (CML). The test procedures are in essence based on British Standard (BS) for testing
of soils, aggregates and concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) have been used for asphalt
testing. These procedures are in accordance with the requirements referred to in the Ministry of Works, Pavement and
Materials Design Manual of 1999 and Standard Specifications for Road Works of 2000.

It has been said that, “ One test result is worth a hundred expert opinions”, but this is only true if such a result is truly
accurate and relevant for its application. In practice, it is essential that test procedures are clearly specified and that
their fields of application and limitations are clearly understood. It is in this context this Manual has been compiled,
although simplified to a more practical approach to make it easier to do the tests. However, after saying so the
performances of the tests are in accordance with the relevant standards i.e. BS and ASTM.

The described test procedures are standards for testing of road construction materials and shall under no circumstances
be diverted from. Hence, consistent and high quality laboratory routines are essential, so are the quality assurance of
test results and test equipment. Only these can produce reliable results, which can be used to predict and explain the
performance of road construction materials.

Preparation of this Manual has been a component under the Institutional Co-operation between the Ministry of Works
and the Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA) to support and improve the capacity at the Central Materials
Laboratory (CML). The Government of Tanzania and the Norwegian Agency for International Development
(NORAD) have jointly financed the project.

Central Materials Laboratory, Dar es Salaam June, 2000

III Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Acknowledgements
This Laboratory Testing Manual − 1999 has been prepared as a component under the Institutional Co-operation
between Ministry of Works (MoW), Central Materials Laboratory (CML) and the Norwegian Public Roads
Administration (NPRA). The Government of Tanzania and the Norwegian Agency for International Development
(NORAD) have jointly financed the project, which forms part of a programme to establish technical standards and
guidelines for highway engineering.

This Manual has been prepared by a number of peoples, under the project management by the two project engineers:

Mr. S.S. Rutajama, CML

Mr. C. Overby, NPRA

The following persons have contributed to this Laboratory Testing Manual:

Mr. J. Y. Mrema, CML

Mr. A. Mtola, CML
Mr. O. Mtavangu, CML
Mr. H. Kapombe, CML
Mr. P. Mazzuki, CML
Mr. B. Mariki, CML
Mr. T. Lyanga, CML
Mr. O. Salehe, CML
Ms. N. Bugenyi, CML
Mr. S. Nergaard, NOTEBY
Mr. A. Soegaard, NOTEBY
Mr. E. O. Andersen, SINTEF
Mr. S. Hoseth, SINTEF
Mr. R. Johansen, ViaNova

The project management wish to acknowledge the significant contribution from all people involved giving critical
comments during various phases in compiling this report.

IV Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Table of contents

CML test Name of test Reference to test methods

method,
reference number
Tests on Soils and Gravels
1.1 Moisture Content BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.2 Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer) BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.3 Plastic Limit & Plasticity Index BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.4 Linear Shrinkage BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.5 Particle Density Determination - Pyknometer BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.6 Bulk Density for undisturbed samples BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.7 Particle Size Distribution - Wet sieving BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.8 Particle Size Distribution - Hydrometer Method BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.9 Compaction Test - BS Light and BS Heavy BS1377:Part 4:1990
1.10 CBR Test - One point method BS1377:Part 4:1990
BS1377:Part 4:1990 and
1.11 CBR Test - Three point method
TMH1:method A8:1986
1.12 Consolidation Test - Oedometer BS1377:Part 5:1990
1.13 Triaxial Test BS1377:Part 7:1990
1.14 Shear Box Test BS1377:Part 7:1990
1.15 Permeability Test - Constant Head BS1377:Part 5:1990
BS1377:Part 3:1990 and
1.16 Organic Content - Ignition Loss Method NPRA 014 test 14.445
1.17 Crumb Test BS1377:Part 5:1990
1.18 pH Value (pH meter) BS1377:Part 3:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
1.19 Preparation of Stabilised Samples for UCS
BS1924:Part 2:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
1.20 Compaction Test - Stabilised Materials BS1924:Part 2:1990
1.21 UCS of Stabilised Materials TMH1:method A14:1986
1.22 Initial Consumption of Lime - ICL BS1924:Part 2:1990
Tests on Aggregates and Concrete
2.1 Moisture Content of Aggregates BS812:Part 109:1990
2.2 Relative Density and Water Absorption BS812:Part 2:1975
2.3 Sieve Tests on Aggregates BS812:Part 103.1:1985
2.4 Flakiness Index (FI) and Average Least Dimension (ALD) BS812:Section 105.1:1989
2.5 Elongation Index BS812:Section 105.2:1990
2.6 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) BS812:Part 110:1990
2.7 Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) BS812:Part 111:1990
2.8 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) BS812:Part 112:1990
2.9 Los Angeles Abrasion Test (LAA) ASTM C535-89
2.10 Sodium Soundness Test (SSS) ASTM C88-90
2.11 Slump Test BS1881:Part 102:1983
2.12 Making of Concrete Test Cubes BS1881:Part 108:1983
2.13 Concrete Cube Strength BS1881:Part 116:1983
Tests on Asphalt and Bituminous Materials
3.1 Pre-conditioning of Bitumen Samples Prior to Mixing or Testing NPRA 014 test 14.511
3.2 Density of Bituminous Binders ASTM D70-97
3.3 Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup ASTM D92-90
3.4 Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT) ASTM D1754-87
3.5 Penetration of Bituminous Materials ASTM D5-86
3.6 Softening Point Test ASTM D36-70
3.7 Ductility ASTM D113-86
3.8 Viscosity Determination using the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus ASTM D4402-91
3.9 Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve ASTM C127-88
3.10 Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve ASTM C128-88
3.11 Calibration of Glass Pycnometers (0.5-1 litre) NPRA 014 test 14.5922
3.12 Mixing of Test Specimens; Hot Bituminous Mixes NPRA 014 test 14.5532
Determination of Maximum Theoretical Density of Asphalt Mixes
3.13 ASTM D2041-95 and D4469-85
and Absorption of Binder into Aggregates
3.14 Bulk Density of Saturated Surface Dry Asphalt Mix Samples ASTM D2726-96
3.15 Bulk Density of Paraffin-Coated Asphalt Mix Samples ASTM D1188-89
3.16 Bulk Density of Asphalt Mix Samples, Calliper Measurements NPRA 014 test 14.5622
3.17 Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous Mixes ASTM D3203 and AASHTO pp19-93
3.18 Marshall Test ASTM D1559-89
3.19 Marshall Mix Design ASTM D1559-89
3.20 Refusal Density Mix Design TRL Overseas Road Note 31, app. D:1990
3.21 Indirect Tensile Strength Test ASTM D3967 and NPRA 014 test 14.554
3.22 Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate Grading by Extraction ASTM D2172-88, method B
3.23 Effect of Water on Bituminous Coated Aggregates, Boiling Test ASTM D3625-96

V Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

VI Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
VII Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
VIII Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Soil Mechanics Testing
CML test Name of test Reference to test methods
method,
reference number
Tests on Soils and Gravels
1.1 Moisture Content BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.2 Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer) BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.3 Plastic Limit & Plasticity Index BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.4 Linear Shrinkage BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.5 Particle Density Determination - Pyknometer BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.6 Bulk Density for undisturbed samples BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.7 Particle Size Distribution - Wet sieving BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.8 Particle Size Distribution - Hydrometer Method BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.9 Compaction Test - BS Light and BS Heavy BS1377:Part 4:1990
1.10 CBR Test - One point method BS1377:Part 4:1990
BS1377:Part 4:1990 and
1.11 CBR Test - Three point method
TMH1:method A8:1986
1.12 Consolidation Test - Oedometer BS1377:Part 5:1990
1.13 Triaxial Test BS1377:Part 7:1990
1.14 Shear Box Test BS1377:Part 7:1990
1.15 Permeability Test - Constant Head BS1377:Part 5:1990
BS1377:Part 3:1990 and
1.16 Organic Content - Ignition Loss Method
NPRA 014 test 14.445
1.17 Crumb Test BS1377:Part 5:1990
1.18 pH Value (pH meter) BS1377:Part 3:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
1.19 Preparation of Stabilised Samples for UCS
BS1924:Part 2:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
1.20 Compaction Test - Stabilised Materials BS1924:Part 2:1990
1.21 UCS of Stabilised Materials TMH1:method A14:1986
1.22 Initial Consumption of Lime - ICL BS1924:Part 2:1990

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 1

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.1
Ministry of Works

Moisture Content

Notes
Objective
To determine the amount of water present in a soil expressed as a
percent- age of the mass of dry soil. This is termed the moisture content
of the soil.

Main Principles
The moisture content of a soil is assumed to be the amount of water
within the pore space between the soil grains which is removable by
oven- drying at a temperature not exceeding 110 °C. The moisture
content has a profound effect on soil behaviour.

The oven-drying method is regarded as standard laboratory practice.

References
BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990.

Required equipment
· a drying oven with temperature of 105 °C to 110 °C
· a balance readable to 0,1 g
· a metal container
· a desiccator

Test Procedure
Step 1: Clean and dry the container, then weigh it to the nearest 0.1 g (ml)
Step 2: A representative sample shall be crumbled and loosely placed
in the container.
- For fine-grained soils the sample weight shall be min. 30 g.
- For medium-grained soils the sample weight shall be min. 300 g.
The aCtUal drying time neCeSSary Will - For coarse-grained soils the sample weight shall be min. 3 kg.
depend on of the type of Soil, bUt 12
hoUrS Will be adeqUate for moSt SoilS.
Step 3: The container with sample shall immediately be weighed (m2)
and placed in the oven to dry at 105 °C for minimum 12
For calcrete and coral rock materialS the hours.
drying temperatUre Shall be limited to 60 ˚C.
Step 4: After drying, weigh the container and the contents (m3)

Calculations
Calculate the Moisture Content of the soil specimen, w, as a percentage
of the dry soil mass to the nearest 0.1%, from the equation:
m2 - m3
W=( )x 100 (%)
m3 - ml

where
ml is the mass of the container (in g)
m2 is the mass of the container and wet soil (in g)
m3 is the mass of the container and dry soil (in g)
2 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.1
Ministry of Works

Moisture Content

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test results, individual values and average value
d) The final moisture content (w) is reported to two significant figures.

Form for the test

The enclosed form “Moisture Content” shall be used.

Practical Considerations
One may control that the material is completely dry by holding a
beaker with cold water directly above the sample. If the sample is not
dry, moi- sture will condense on the outside of the glass.

Maintenance
The balance and the drying oven shall be checked and calibrated regularly
(every month) with respect to weight and temperature.

It is important that the containers are kept clean and dry.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 3

4 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.2
Ministry of Works

Liquid Limit (Cone penetrometer method)

Notes
Objective
The liquid limit is the empirically established moisture content at which a
soil passes from the liquid state to the plastic state.

The liquid limit provides a means of identifying and classifying fine-

grained cohesive soils especially when also the plastic limit is known.
Variations in the moisture content in a soil may have significant effect on
its shear strength, especially on fine-grained soils.

Main Principles
The cone penetrometer method is the preferred method to the Casagrande
test as it is essentially a static test depending on soil shear strength.

BS 1377 alSo deSCribeS a one-point Cone This method covers the determination of the liquid limit of a sample in its
penetrometer method. natural state, or a sample from which material retained on a 425 mm test
sieve has been removed. It is based on the measurement of penetration
into the soil of a standardised cone.

References
BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990.

Required equipment
· Test sieves of sizes 425 µm
· An airtight container
· A flat glass plate
· Two palette knives or spatulas
· A penetrometer
· A cone of stainless steel, 35 mm long with a smooth,
polished surface and an angle of 30 ° having a mass of 80 g.
· A metal cup 55 mm in diameter and 40 mm deep with the
rim parallel to the flat base
· An evaporating dish or a damp cloth
· Apparatus for moisture content determination
· A wash bottle containing clean water
· A metal straight edge
If the Soil in the natUral State ContainS · A stopwatch
little or no material retaining larger than
425 µm, Sieving iS not neCeSSary, eg.
blaCk Cotton Soil and red Coffee Soil. Any Sample preparation
CoarSe partiCleS Can be removed by
hand. Step 1: Take a sample of the soil of sufficient size to give a test
The Sample material mUSt not be oven specimen weighing about 400 g which passes the 425 µm sieve.
dried prior to teSting. This should be enough material for both Plastic Limit and Linear
Shrinkage tests in addition to the Liquid Limit test.
It iS neCeSSary to prepare the material Step 2: Transfer the soil to a glass plate. Add water and mix
one day in advanCe.
thoroughly with two palette knives until the mass becomes a
thick homogeneous paste.
Step 3: Place the paste in an airtight container and allow to stand for 16
- 24 hours to enable the water to permeate through the soil.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 5

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.2
Ministry of Works

Liquid Limit (Cone penetrometer method)

Notes
Test Procedure
Step 1: Take the 400 g soil sample and place it on a glass plate. Mix
the paste for at least 10 minutes using the two palette knives.
The SeqUenCe of the teSting mUSt be With Add more distilled water if necessary so that the first cone
inCreaSing moiStUre Content. penetro meter reading is about 15 mm.
Step 2: Push a portion of the mixed soil into the cup with a palette
knife, taking care not to trap air, gently tapping the cup against a
firm surface if necessary. Strike off excess soil with the
straightedge to give a smooth level surface.
Step 3: With the penetration cone locked in the raised position lower
the cone so that it just touches the surface of the soil. When the
cone is in the correct position, a slight movement of cup will
just mark the soil surface. Lower the dial gauge to contact the
cone shaft and record the reading of the dial gauge to the nearest
0.1 mm.
Step 4: Release the cone for a period of 5 ± 1 sec. After locking the
cone in position, lower the dial gauge to contact the cone shaft
and record the reading of the dial gauge to the nearest 0.1 mm.
Record the difference between the readings as the “cone
penetration”.
If the Soil haS to be left for a While on the Step 5: Lift out the cone and clean it carefully.
glaSS plate dUring the proCedUre, Cover
the Soil With a damp Cloth or the Step 6: A little more wet soil shall be added to the cup and the process
evaporating diSh to prevent the Soil from repeated. If the difference between the first and second
drying oUt When the penetration valUe iS penetration readings is less than 0.5 mm, the average of the two
aboUt 20 mm, Set aSide aboUt 150 g of penetrations shall be recorded. If the second penetration is more
the Sample for Linear Shrinkage and 50 g than 0.5 mm and less than 1 mm different from the first, a third
for PlaStiC Limit teStS.
test shall be carried out. If the overall range is then not more
The drying temperatUre for moiStUre than 1 mm, record the average of the 3 penetrations. If the
Content determination iS generally 105 ˚C overall range is more than 1 mm, the soil shall be removed from
to 110 ˚C. HoWever, for CalCrete and the cup, remixed and the test repeated until consistent results are
Coral roCk materialS the drying obtained.
temperatUre Shall be 60 ˚C.
Step 7: Take a moisture content sample of about 20 g from the
area penetrated by the cone and determine the moisture
content.
Step 8: The penetration test shall be repeated at least three more times
using the same sample of soil to which further increments of
water have been added. The amount of water added shall be
such that a range of penetration values of approximately 15
mm to 25 mm is covered by the four test runs.
Step 9: Each time soil is removed from the cup for the addition of
water, wash and dry the cup.
6 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.2
Ministry of Works

Liquid Limit (Cone penetrometer method)

Notes
1. Calculations
Calculate the moisture content of each specimen.

m2 - m3 )
w= ( x 100 (%)
m3 - ml

where

ml is the mass of the container (in g)

m2 is the mass of the container and wet soil (in g)
m3 is the mass of the container and dry soil (in g)

2. Plot the relationship between the moisture content and cone

penetration with the moisture content as the abscissae and the
cone penetration as ordinates, both on linear scales.

3. Draw the best straight line fitting the points.

4. The Liquid Limit (wL) of the soil sample is the moisture

content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20 mm and
shall be expressed to the nearest whole number.

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test result, i.e. the Liquid Limit of the soil sample
d) Whether the material was tested in the natural state or after sieving

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
Take care not to damage the point of the cone by accidentally dropping
the cone on the base plate.

To avoid corrosion on the cone, it must be kept clean at all times. The
cone corrodes easily, and rust could appear after just a few hours if it is
left unclean.

Maintenance
Check the condition of the cone point with the test gauge.
Check that the cone is falling freely without friction when released.
Check the weight of the cone.
Keep the equipment clean at all times.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 7

7igure l. Details of cone forliquid limit test

8 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.3
Ministry of Works

Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index

Notes Objective
The Plastic Limit is the empirically established moisture content at which
a soil becomes too dry to be plastic.

It is used together with the Liquid Limit to determine the Plasticity Index
which when plotted against the Liquid Limit on the plasticity chart
provides a means of classifying cohesive soils. The Plasticity Index is the
difference between the Liquid Limit and the Plastic Limit. The Plasticity
Index is the range of moisture content in which a soil is plastic; the finer
the soil, the greater the Plasticity Index.

Main Principles
This method covers the determination of the liquid limit of a sample in its
natural state, or a sample from which material retained on a 425 µm test
sieve has been removed.

References
BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990.

Required equipment
· Two flat glass plates, one for mixing soil and one for rolling threads
· Two palette knives or spatulas
· Apparatus for moisture content determination
· Clean water
· A length of rod, 3 mm in diameter and 100 mm long

Sample preparation
This test commonly is performed as a continuance of the Liquid Limit test,
and material for the test could conveniently be prepared as part of the
Liquid Limit test.

Otherwise a 40 g sample should be prepared in the same way as specified

for the Liquid Limit test.

Test Procedure
Step 1: Take the 40 g soil paste sample and place it on a glass plate.
Step 2: Allow the soil to dry partially until it becomes plastic enough
to be shaped into a ball.
The Sample may be pUt oUt in the SUn
Step 3: Mould the ball of soil between the fingers and roll it between
for a Short period to Speed Up the drying
proCeSS. A hairdryer may alSo be USed. the palms of the hands until the heat of the hands has dried the
Alternatively a drying oven at a loW soil sufficiently for slight cracks to appear on its surface.
temperatUre may be USed.
Step 4: Divide this sample into 2 sub-samples of about 20 g each and
carry out separate determination on each portion. (Divide each
of the 2 sub-samples into 4 more or less equal parts).
Step 5: Mould the soil in the fingers to equalize the distribution of
moisture. Then form the soil into a thread about 6 mm
diameter between the first finger and thumb of each hand.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 9

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.3
Ministry of Works

Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index

Notes
Step 6: Roll the thread between the fingers, from finger-tip to the
second joint, of one hand and the surface of the glass plate. Use
enough pressure to reduce the diameter of the thread to about 3
mm in 5 to 10 complete, forward and back, movements of the
hand.
Step 7: Pick up the soil, mould it between the fingers to dry it
Do not gather the pieCeS of Soil together
further, form it into a thread and roll it out again as specified
in order to reform the thread after it haS above.
CrUmbled. Step 8: The procedure shall be repeated until the thread shears both
longitudinally and transversely when rolled to about 3 mm
diameter. The metal rod may be used to gauge the diameter.
The drying temperatUre for moiStUre The first crumbling point is the Plastic Limit.
Content determination iS generally 105 ˚C
to 110 ˚C. HoWever, for CalCrete and Coral Step 9: Gather together the pieces of crumbled soil thread and
roCk materialS the drying temperatUre transfer them to a suitable container for determination of the
Shall be 60 ˚C. moisture content and replace the lid immediately.
It iS important to perform 2 Separate Step 10: Repeat the rolling procedure on the other 3 portions of the sub-
teStS and aChieve 2 Separate moiStUre sample, placing them all in the same container for determination
Content determinationS. of the moisture content.
Step 11: Repeat the rolling procedure on the 2nd sub-sample as described
above so that 2 completely separate determinations are made.

Calculations
1) Calculate the moisture content of both samples. If the 2 results
differ by more than 0.5 % moisture content, repeat the whole
test.
2) Calculate the average of the 2 moisture content values and express
the value to the nearest whole number. This is the Plastic Limit
(wP).

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test result, i.e. the Plastic Limit of the soil sample
d) Whether the material was tested in the natural state or after sieving

If it is not possible to perform the Plastic Limit, the soil is reported as

non- plastic (NP).
10 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.3
Ministry of Works

Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index

Notes
Derivation of Plasticity Index
The Plasticity Index (IP) is defined as the difference between the Liquid
Limit (wL) and the Plastic Limit (wP), and is calculated from the
equation:
IP = wL - wP

This value is also reported to the nearest whole number.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
The hands of the operator should be clean and dry when performing the test.

Maintenance
The equipment shall be kept clean at all times.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 11

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.4
Ministry of Works

Linear Shrinkage

Notes
Objective
The Linear Shrinkage teSt offerS a
Convenient method to Confirm that the teSt
Shrinkage due to drying is significant in clays, but less so in silts and
reSUltS for the PlaStiCity Index are sands. If the drying process is prolonged after the plastic limit has been
reaSonable. MoSt typeS of Soil exhibit a reached, the soil will continue to decrease in volume, which is also rele-
relationShip betWeen the PlaStiCity Index vant to the converse condition of expansion due to wetting.
and the Linear Shrinkage of the material.
The Linear Shrinkage iS ConSidered a
more reliable indiCator than the PlaStiCity
The Linear Shrinkage value is a way of quantifying the amount of
Index for materialS With very loW plaStiCity shrinkage likely to be experienced by clayey material. Such a value is also
(i.e. ? 6 %) relevant to the converse condition of expansion due to wetting.

Main Principles
Linear Shrinkage method covers the determination of the total linear
shrinkage from linear measurements on a bar of soil of the fraction of a
soil sample passing a 425 µm test sieve, originally having the moisture
content of the Liquid Limit.

References
BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990.

Required equipment
· A flat glass plate
· Two palette knives or spatulas
· A drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of 105 °C - 110 °C
· Clean water
· A brass mould for Linear Shrinkage test
· Silicone grease or petroleum jelly
· Vernier callipers or steel rule with accuracy 0.5 mm

Sample preparation
It iS reCommended that thiS teSt alWayS iS
This test commonly is performed as a continuance of the Liquid Limit
CondUCted aS part of the LiqUid Limit and Plastic Limit tests, and material for the test could therefore
teSting aS a CheCk on the PI reSUlt. conveniently be prepared as part of the Liquid Limit test.

Otherwise a 150 g sample should be prepared in the same way as

specified for the Liquid Limit test. A sample of material passing through
a 425 µm sieve, or alternatively a sample of natural soil without coarse
particles, shall be thoroughly mixed with distilled water until the mass
The maiStUre Content mUSt be to Within 1%
of LiqUid Limit.
becomes a smooth homogeneous paste with a moisture content at about
the Liquid Limit of the soil.

Test Procedure
Step 1: Clean the mould thoroughly and apply a thin film of silicone
grease or petroleum jelly to its inner faces to prevent the
soil adhering to the mould.
Step 2: Take the 150 g soil paste sample at approximately the Liquid
Limit.

12 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.4
Ministry of Works

Linear Shrinkage

Notes Step 3: Place the soil/water mixture in the mould such that it is slightly
proud of the sides of the mould. Gently jar the mould, or
carefully tap the mould against a firm surface, to remove any
air pockets in the mixture.
Step 4: Level the soil along the top of the mould with the palette knife
and remove all soil adhering to the rim of the mould by
wiping with a damp cloth.
For highly plaStiC material even 3 dayS of Step 5: Place the mould where the paste can air dry slowly for 1 − 2 days
airdrying may be deemed neCeSSary. Do until the soil has shrunk away from the walls of the mould.
not be tempted to pUt the Sample too early
in the oven. Step 6: Then complete the drying at 105 °C to 110 °C.
ShoUld the SpeCimen CraCk or Warp Step 7: Cool the mould and measure the mean length of the soil bar by
badly, or CUrve SUCh that the pressing it against the end of the mould where there is a better
meaSUrementS are impoSSible, the teSt fit, while measuring the distance between the opposite side of the
ShoUld be repeated at a SloWer drying mould and the soil bar.
rate.
Calculations
1) Calculate the Linear Shrinkage of the soil as a percentage of
the original length of the specimen, L0 (in mm), from the
equation :
LD
Percentage of Linear Shrinkage = (1- )100
L0

where

LD is the length of the oven-dry specimen (in mm).

Report the Linear Shrinkage of the soil to the nearest whole percentage.

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test result, i.e. the Linear Shrinkage of the soil sample
d) Whether the material was tested in the natural state or after sieving

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
Due to the long time required for air drying, Linear Shrinkage is a time
consuming test. However, it is important to take the time required in
order to produce reliable results.

Maintenance
The equipment shall be kept clean at all times.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 13

7igure 2. Mould for linear shrinkage test

14 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 15
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.5
Ministry of Works

Partice Density Determination - Small

Pyknometer Method

Notes
Objective
Particle density is the term used instead of Specific Gravity of particles.
Knowledge of the particle density is essential in relation to other tests,
especially for calculating porosity and voids and for computation of
particle size analysis from a sedimentation procedure (Hydrometer
analysis). It is also important when compaction and consolidation
properties are considered.

Main Principles
The small pyknometer method is suitable for soils consisting of
particles finer than 2 mm. Larger particles may be ground down to
smaller than 2 mm before testing.

References

BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990.

Required equipment
· 2 nos. 50 mL density bottles (pyknometers) with stoppers
· Constant temperature water bath
· Vacuum desiccator
· Vacuum pump and suitable rubber tubing
· Drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of 105 °C - 110 °C
· Distilled water in a wash bottle
· Test sieve 2 mm
· Balance readable to 0.01 g
· Mortar and piston.

Sample preparation
Oven-drying of the material iS An oven-dried soil sample of about 100 g shall be prepared. Large
reqUired, SUn-drying iS not SUffiCient. particles shall be ground to pass a 2 mm sieve.

Two specimens, each between 5 g and 10 g shall be obtained by

riffling and stored in airtight containers.

Test Procedure
Step 1: A density bottle with stopper shall be dried with a cloth
and weighed to the nearest 0.01 g (ml).
Step 2: The first soil specimen shall be transferred to the density bottle
direct from the sealed container. The weight of the bottle with
soil sample and stopper shall be recorded to the nearest 0.01 g
Boiled Water Will be almoSt air-free and (m2).
may be USed.
Step 3: Air-free distilled water shall be added so that the soil in
Take Care dUring thiS operation to enSUre the bottle is just covered.
that air trapped in the Soil doeS not bUbble
too violently. Step 4: Place the bottle containing soil and water, without the stopper,
in the vacuum desiccator. Evacuate the desiccator gradually.
The bottle shall be allowed to remain in the desiccator for at
least one hour until no further loss of air is apparent.
16 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.5
Ministry of Works

Partice Density Determination - Small

Pyknometer Method

Notes Step 5: Release the vacuum and remove the lid of the desiccator.
Vibrate the bottle till no more air is released. Replace the lid and
evacuate again as specified above.
Step 6: Remove the bottle from the desiccator and add air-free water
until the bottle is full. Insert the stopper and immerse the
bottle up to neck in the water bath for at least 1 hour.
Step 7: If there is an apparent decrease in volume of water, remove
the stopper, add water to fill the bottle and replace the stopper.
Return the bottle to the bath and again allow the contents to
attain the constant temperature.
Remember to CheCk that there are no Step 8: The stoppered bottle shall then be taken out of the bath,
airbUbbleS in the Pyknometer. Tap the wiped dry carefully, and weighed to the nearest 0.01 g (m3).
Pyknometer CarefUlly to releaSe any
entrapped air. Step 9: Clean out the bottle, fill it completely with air-free water, insert
the stopper and immerse in constant temperature water bath for
1 hour. If required, top up the bottle as described in step 7.
Step 10: Take the stoppered bottle out of the bath, carefully wipe it dry
and weigh it to the nearest 0.01 g (m4).
Many SoilS have SUbStantial proportionS Step 11: The steps 1 − 10 shall be repeated using the second specimen of
of heavier or lighter partiCleS. SUCh SoilS the same soil so that two values of particle density can be
Will give erratiC denSity valUeS, and a obtaied. If the results differ by more than 30 kg/mS, the test shall
nUmber of repeat teStS may be reqUired
to obtain a good average valUe. be repeated.

Calculations
1. Calculate the Particle Density, ρs (in kg/mS), from the equation:
ρs =
m2 - ml x 1000
(m4 - ml) - (m3 - m2 )

where

ml is the mass of density bottle (in g)

m2 is the mass of bottle and dry soil (in g)
m3 is the mass of bottle, soil and water (in g)
m4 is the mass of bottle full of water only (in g).

2. Calculate the average of the two results if they differ by no

more than 30 kg/m3.

Express the average value of the Particle Density to the nearest 1 kg/mS.

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) The average value of the Particle density of the soil specimen.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 17

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.5
Ministry of Works

Partice Density Determination - Small

Pyknometer Method

Notes
Form for the test
The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
The Pyknometers may be calibrated once and for all to obtain fixed
values for volume and mass of the Pyknometers.

Maintenance
Cleaning of the Pyknometers are important, and the material must not be
left standing in the Pyknometers longer than necessary.

18 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 19
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.6
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density and Unit Weight for undisturbed

samples

Notes
Objective
From the Bulk Density of a soil, the Unit Weight of the soil may easily be
derived. The Unit Weight of a soil is an essential parameter in most
geotechnical engineering analyses, e.g. stability of slopes, consolidation
settlement, earth pressure and bearing capacity analyses.

Main Principles
The Bulk Density of a soil is the ratio of the total mass to the total
volume. The Unit Weight of the soil is the ratio of the total weight (a
force) to the total volume.

This procedure describes a practical way of determining the Bulk Density

and Unit Weight on undisturbed samples obtained by means of a U-100
sampling tube, a 54 mm sampling tube or from a block sample.

It may be convenient to include the determination of several other

parame- ters when determining the Bulk Density of a sample, i.e. the Dry
Density, the Void Ratio, the Degree of Saturation and the Unit Weight.

The described method is a “Linear References

MeasUrement Method”. An alternative
method is the “lmmersion in Water BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990.
Method”, as described in BS 1377.
Required equipment
· Balance readable to 1 g
· Sample extruder
· Apparatus and equipment for moisture content determination (optional)

Test Procedure - cylindrical tube sample

Step 1: After registration cylindrical tube sample, the lids shall
be unscrewed and the wax removed.
Step 2: Weigh the cylinder with the sample inside. The mass shall
be recorded to the nearest 1 g (mT).
Step 3: The length of the sample in the cylinder is determined by
measuring the length of the cylinder (l1) and the depths from
both ends of the cylinder ( l2 and l3). The average depths to the
sample is recorded since the sample surface is never even.
Step 4: Extrude the sample by following relevant procedures for
further tests to be carried out on the sample.
Step 5: When the sample has been extruded, weigh clean and dry
the cylinder and record its mass (mC).
To be decided by the Engineer. Step 6: (Optional) The moisture content shall be determined on three
different specimens from the sample, in order to achieve the
average condition of the sample. Ref. CML test procedure no.
1.1.

20 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.6
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density and Unit Weight for undisturbed

samples

Notes
Test Procedure - Block sample
Step 1: Depending on the soil, the sample is cut to either a rectangular
prism form or a cylindrical form, preferably by a cylindrical
or rectangular tube which is pushed into the soil.
Step 2: Trim the ends of the sample.
Step 3: Weigh the tube with the sample inside. The mass shall
be recorded to the nearest 1 g (mT).
Step 4: Record the internal dimensions of the tube, or the dimensions
of the sample if no tube is used.
Step 5: Extrude the sample by following relevant procedures for
further tests to be carried out on the sample.
Step 6: When the sample has been extruded, weigh clean and dry
the tube and record its mass (mC).
To be decided by the Engineer
Step 7: (Optional) The moisture content shall be determined on three
different specimens from the sample, in order to achieve the
average condition of the sample. Ref. CML test procedure no.
1.1.

Calculations
1. The Bulk Density of the sample, ρ (in kg/mS), is calculated from
the equation:
M
ρ= =
mT - x 1000
mc
V V
where

mT is the mass of the cylinder/container + sample (in g)

mC is the mass of the empty cylinder/container (in g)
V is the volume of the sample (in cmS)

2. The Unit Weight of the sample, η (in kN/mS), is derived from

the equation:
W Mg
p= = = ρ x g = ρ x 9,81 x 10-3
V V
where

g is the acceleration due to gravity (= 9,81 m/sS)

The value of the Bulk Density shall be expressed to the nearest 1

kg/mS, and the Unit Weight to the nearest 0.01 kN/mS.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 21
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.6
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density and Unit Weight for undisturbed

samples

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) The value of the Bulk Density of the soil sample
d) The value of the Unit Weight of the soil sample
e) The Dry Density, Void Ratio and Degree of Saturation (if required).

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Example

U-100 tube:

Length of cylinder ll cm 100

Sample to edge l2 cm 10
Sample to edge l3 cm 15
Length of sample L = ll - l2 - l3 cm 75
Internal diameter D cm 10,2
Area of sample A = π/4 x D2 cm2 81,67
S
Volume of sample V=LxA cm 6 125
Mass of cylinder + sample mT g 22 028
Mass of cylinder mC g 10 850
Mass of sample M = mT - mC g 11 1782
ρ=
M x 1000
Bulk Density kg/mS 1825
V
Unit Weight r = ρ x 9,81 x 10-3 kN/mS 17,90

For a rectangular prism specimen the Bulk Density is calculated from:

M
ρ= x 1000
LBH
where L, B and H are the dimensions of the trimmed specimen.

22 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 23
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.7
Ministry of Works

Particle Size Distribution- Wet Sieving

Notes
Objective
A particle size distribution analysis is a necessary classification test for
soils, especially coarse soils, in that it presents the relative portions of
different sizes of particles. From this it is possible to determine whether
the soil consists of predominantly gravel, sand, silt or clay sizes and, to a
limited extent, which of these sizeranges is likely to control the enginee-
ring properties of the soil.

Main Principles
lf the material do not contain silt or clay The procedure given involves preparation of the sample by wet sieving to
particles, the sample may be dry sieved remove silt and clay sized particles. Followed by dry sieving of the
only.
remaining coarse material.

This method covers the quantitative determination of particle size

distribution in an essentially cohesionless soil, down to fine sand size.
The combined silt clay can be obtained by difference. If the soil does not
contain particles retained on a 2 mm test sieve in significant quantity, the
hydrometer method shall be used.

References
BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990.

The apertUre sizes of the test sieves shoUld Required equipment

adeqUately cover the range for the · Test sieves: 75 mm, 63 mm, 50 mm, 37.5 mm, 28 mm, 20 mm,
particUlar soil being tested, bUt it will not be 14 mm, 10 mm, 6.3 mm, 5 mm, 3.35 mm, 2 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 µm,
necessary to Use every size for every test.
425 µm, 300 µm, 212 µm, 150 µm, 75 µm.
Test sieve 63 µm may be Used if 75 µm · Lid and receiver.
test sieve is not available.
· A balance readable and accurate to 0.5 g.
· Riffle boxes.
· A drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 105oC
to 110oC.
· Evaporating dishes.
· Metal trays.
· Scoop.
· Sieve brushes.
· Sodium hexametaphosphate.
· Rubber tubing about 6mm bore.
· Mechanical sieve shaker (optional).

Sample preparation
Under damp conditions (eg. rainy seasons), The test sample shall be obtained by air-drying for at least 12 hours
it may be reqUired to oven-dry the sample depending on the type of the sample.
for min. 12 hoUrs at 60oC.
A representative sample shall be obtained by riffling or quartering to
give a minimum mass of about 2.5 kg.

24 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.7
Ministry of Works

Particle Size Distribution- Wet Sieving

Notes
Test procedure
Step 1: Weigh the air-dried (or oven dried) test sample to 0.1 % of
its total mass (ml).
Step 2: Place the sample and sieve through a 20 mm sieve size, brush
any particles too coarse to pass through the sieve with
wirebrush until the individual particles are clean of any finer
material.
Step 3: Sieve the fraction retained on the 20 mm test sieve on the
appropriate larger test sieves and weigh the amount retained
on each test sieve.
Step 4: Weigh the material passing a 20 mm test sieve (m2).
Step 5: Riffle the sample to get a convenient fraction of about 0.5 kg
and weigh that fraction (m3).
Step 6: Spread the riffled fraction in the large tray or bucket and
cover with water.
Step 7: If the soil is cohesive add sodium hexametaphosphate to the
water first, at a concentration of 2 g/litre. Stir the mixture well
to wet the soil, allow the soil to stand for at least 1hour in this
lf the particle size distribUtion is to be solution stirring frequently.
extended below 75 µm (i.e. a Hydrometer
analysis is to be performed), the fines Step 8: Wash the material through a 75 µm sieve, allowing the material
mUst be collected in a tray and not rUn to passing sieve 75 µm to run to waste. Ensure that neither test
waste. sieve is overloaded in the process, either with material or with
water.
Step 9: Transfer all the material retained on the sieve into a tray or
evaporating dish and dry in an oven at 105oC to 110oC. Allow
it to cool and weigh (m4).
Step 10: Sieve the dried fractions through the appropriate sieves down to
the 75 µm test sieve. Weigh the amount retained on each sieve
and any fines passing the 75 µm test sieve and record.

Calculations
1. For samples containing particles larger than 20 mm in size,
calculate the proportion by mass of material retained on each of the
coarse sieves as a percentage of ml.

For example:
Percentage retained on 28 mm sieve
m(28mm)
= m 100
1

2. Calculate the corrected mass of material retained on each of

the sieves between 20 mm and 75 µm by multiplying bym2
,then
m
calculate this mass as a percentage of ml.
S

For example:
Percentage m2retained on 10 mm sieve
= m(10mm) ( 100
)( )
mS m1
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 25
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.7
Ministry of Works

Particle Size Distribution- Wet Sieving

Notes
3. Calculate the cumulative percentage by mass of the sample
passing each of the sieves, from the general relationship:
(% passing this sieve ) = (% passing previous sieve) − (%
retained on this sieve).

4. Calculate the fraction passing the 75 µm test sieve by difference.

The mass of the fines lost by washing equals (m3 – m4). To this is
added the mass of any fine material (mГ) passing the 75 µm
when
dry sieved, and the percentage finer than 75 µm is equal to:

{(m -mm ) + m }x m( m ) x100

S S4 F 1 2

5. Plot the grading as a curve on a semi-logarithmic chart.

Report
The test report shall include the following information:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) The particle size distribution curve

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical considerations
Take care to ensure that sieving is complete, the minimum period of
shaking should be 10 minutes.

Never put a sieve in the drying oven for drying the material, as this will
destroy the sieve.

Maintenance
Test sieves should be inspected for defects before each use. A more
detailed examination should be made at regular intervals to discover signs
of wear, warping, tears, splits holes, blockages and any other defects in
the mesh.

Bibliography
Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Vol. 1, Second edition by K. H. Head.
26 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 27
28 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.8
Ministry of Works

Particle Size Distribution- Hydrometer Method

Notes
Objective
ln an ordinary Wet sieving analysis,
however, the material finer than 0.075 mm
Hydrometer method combined with wet or dry sieving enable a continuous
is washed to waste. particle size distribution curve of a soil to be plotted from the size of the
coarsest particles down to clay sizes.

Main Principles
A doUble hydrometer test is recommended The Hydrometer method covers the quantitative determination of the
as indicative laboratory testing for particle size distribution in a soil from the coarse sand size to the clay size
identification of dispersive soils. This by means of sedimentation. The test is normally not required if less than
involves testing on two identical portions of 10
the soil sample, one with and one withoUt % of the material passes the 75 µm test sieve in a wet or dry sieving
the Use of dispersing agent. The ratio
between the measUred clay fractions analysis.
provides a measUre of the dispersability of
the material, ref. Appendix A6.2 of the The analysis requires that the particle density of the soil specimen is
Pavement and Materials Design ManUal known or can be assumed.
and BS1377:Part 5.

References
BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990
.
Required equipment
· Hydrometer
· 2 nos. 1L graduated measuring glass cylinders of about 60
mm diameter
A 63 µm test sieve may be Used if a 75 µm · Thermometer readable to 0.5 oC
test sieve is not available. · Mixer
· Drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of 105 °C - 110 °C
· Distilled water
· Test sieves comprising at least 2 mm, 600 µm, 212 µm, 75 µm
and receiver.
· A balance readable to 0.1 g.
· Stopwatch
· Plastic wash bottle
· Evaporating dish
· Dispersing agent, Sodium Hexametaphosphate solution
· Nomographic Chart (ref. Stoke’s law).
Dissolve 33 g of sodiUm hexametaphos-
phate and 7 g of sodiUm carbonate in
distilled water to make 1 L solUtion. Sample preparation
The dry mass of soil required depends on the type of soil. Appropriate
The reqUired amoUnt of material for the quantities are about 100 g for a sandy soil and 50 g for a clay or silt.
Hydrometer test is aboUt 40 – 50 g
(passing 75 µm).
Test Procedure
Step 1: Weigh the sample to 0.1 g to obtain its initial dry mass, ml.
lf organic matter is present in the soil in
Step 2: Place the sample in a wide-mouthed conical flask.
significant qUantity, pretreatment with
hydrogen peroxide is reqUired, ref. BS.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 29

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.8
Ministry of Works

Particle Size Distribution- Hydrometer Method

Notes
Dispersion

Step 3: Add 100 mL of the dispersant solution to the soil. Shake

the mixture thoroughly until all the soil is in suspension.
The longer yoU mix, the finer the material Step 4: Mix the suspension in the mixing machine for about 5
becomes.
minutes until the soil is broken down to individual particles.
Check that all clay particles (lUmps) are
dissolved. Step 5: Transfer the suspension from the flask to the 75 µm sieve
placed on the receiver, and wash the soil using a jet of distilled
water from the wash bottle. The amount of water used shall
not exceed 500 mL.
Step 6: Transfer the suspension that has passed through the sieve to the
1 L measuring cylinder, and make up to the 1 L graduation
mark. This suspension shall be used for the sedimentation
analysis.
Step 7: The material retained on the 75 µm sieve shall be transferred
to an evaporating dish and oven-dried.
Step 8: When cool, resieve this material on relevant sieves down to 75 µm.
The total amoUnt of material for the Weigh the material retained on each sieve to 0.1 g.
sedimentation analysis shoUld be 40 – 50
g.
Step 9: Add any material passing the 75 µm sieve to the
measuring cylinder.

Sedimentation
Step 10: Make a separate solution in a 1 L measuring cylinder consisting
of 100 mL of the dispersant solution and dilute with distilled
water to the 1 L mark. This cylinder shall be placed alongside
the cylinder with the soil suspension to achieve the same
When the cylinder is Upside doWn, make temperature.
certain that no soil is stUck to the bottom of
Step 11: Mix the soil suspension in the measuring cylinder by placing
the cylinder.
the palm of one hand over the open end and turn it vigorously
lf there is a lot of froth forming on top of the end- over-end about 60 times in 2 minutes.
sUspension, this may be removed by
adding a small amoUnt of pUre alcohol from Step 12: Place the cylinder quickly on a table and start the timer.
a Wash bottle. Step 13: Immerse the Hydrometer in the suspension and allow it to float
freely.
The times indicated may be deviated from if Step 14: Take hydrometer readings at the upper ring of the meniscus
reqUired. This Will be taken into accoUnt in after periods of approximately ½ min, 1 min, 2 min and 4 min.
the sUbseqUent calcUlations.
without removing the Hydrometer.
Step 15: Remove the Hydrometer slowly, and rinse it in distilled
water and place it in the other cylinder with the dispersant
solution. Record the top of the meniscus reading, R0.
Step 16: Reinsert the hydrometer in the soil suspension and record
readings after periods of approximately 8 min., 15 min, 30 min,
1 h, 2 h, 4 h, and 24 h from the start of sedimentation. Insert and
withdraw the hydrometer after each reading.
Step 17: Observe and record the temperature of the suspension once d
uring the first 15 min and then after each subsequent reading.
30 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.8
Ministry of Works

Particle Size Distribution- Hydrometer Method

Notes
Calculations

Fine sieving

1. Calculate the proportion of soil retained on each sieve as a

percent age of the dry mass of soil used, m (in g),

For example:
Percentage retained on the 600 µm sieve:
m(600 µm)
=(
m ) x 100
2. Calculate the cumulative percentages by mass passing each of
the sieves from the general relationship:

(Cumulative % passing this sieve) = (cumulative % passing

previous sieve) − (% retained on this sieve)

Sedimentation

3. Calculate the true hydrometer reading, R2 (in mm), from the equation:

Rh = Rh’ + Cm

A description of how to calibrate a Hydro- where Cm is the meniscus correction. Cm = 0.5.

meter is given in BS 1377 : Part 2 : 1990.
R2’ is the observed hydrometer reading.

Enter the values in Table 1.

4. Obtain the effective depth, Hv (in mm), corresponding to the

reading, R2, from the Hydrometer scale calibration curve. Enter
the value of Hv in Table 1.
The eqUivalent particle diameter, D, can
also be calcUlated mathematically, ref. 5. The equivalent particle diameter, D (in mm), shall be determined by
BS 1377. using the nomographic chart for the application of Stoke’s law.
Each Hydrometer has its own calibrated nomographic chart.

6. Calculate the modified hydrometer reading, Rd, from the

equation: Rd = Rh’ − R0’

where

R0’ is the hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus

in the dispersant solution. R0’ = 1.9 for 100 mL dispersant
solution.

Enter the value of Rd in Table 1.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 31
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.8
Ministry of Works

Particle Size Distribution- Hydrometer Method

Notes
7. Calculate the percentage by mass, K, of particles smaller than
the corresponding equivalent particle diameter, D (in mm) from
the equation:
100 ρs
K= ( )R
m(ρs - 1) d

where

The total dry mass of the sample Used for m is the mass of the dry soil used (in g)
the test is inserted here, whether or not any ρs is the particle density (in Mg/mS = ton/mS).
particles were retained on the 75 µm sieve.
Enter the value of K corresponding to each value of D as shown in Table 1.

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Results of the sedimentation analysis shall be reported and
plotted on a semi-logarithmic chart.
d) Results of the sieve analysis (if appropriate)

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
The sodium hexametaphosphate solution is unstable and shall be freshly
prepared (not older than 1 month). The date of preparation shall be
written on the bottle.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Date Time Elapsed Temperature T Reading Rh’ + Cm Hr D Rh´- R0´= Rd K
time, t (min) (oC) Rh´ = Rh (mm) (mm) %

Table 1 Hydrometer Test Data

t is the elapsed time from start of sedimentation
T is the temperature at that time
Rh’ is the hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus, consisting of
the decimal part only
(eg. a hydrometer reading of 1.0325 would be recorded as a value of 32.5)
Cm is the meniscus correction
Hr is the effective depth corresponding to Rh, obtained from the calibration curve
D is the equivalent particle diameter
R0’ is the Hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus in the dispers
ant solution
Rd is the modified Hydrometer reading
K is the percentage by mass of particles less than D

32 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure 3 Hydrometer for determination of fine particle size

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 33

34 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 35
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.9
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship

(BS Light & BS Heavy)

Notes
Objective
The objective of this test is to obtain relationships between compacted dry
density and soil moisture content, using two magnitudes of manual
compactive effort. The test is used to provide a guide for specifications on
field compaction.
There is a similar third type of test which The first is a light compaction test using a 2.5 kg rammer (Standard
makes Use of a Vibrating Hammer for the Proctor). The second is a heavy compaction test using a 4.5 kg rammer
compaction effort.(There is also a static
compaction method). with a greater drop on thinner layers of soil (Modified Proctor). For both
tests a compaction mould of 1 litre internal volume is used for soil in
which all particles pass a 20 mm test sieve.
For coarser material this type of test is
generally not considered applicable. For soils containing up to 10 % material coarser than 37.5 mm and up
to 30 % material coarser than 20 mm, equivalent tests are carried out in
the larger CBR mould.

Main Principles
The dry density which can be achieved for a soil depends on the degree
of compaction applied and the moisture content.
The moisture content which gives the highest dry density is called
the optimum moisture content for that type of compaction. In general
the optimum moisture content is less than the Plastic Limit.

References
BS 1377 : Part 4 : 1990.

Method using 2.5 Kg rammer (BS Light)

Required equipment
· A cylindrical compaction mould with internal diameter of 105 mm
and internal height of 115 mm and a volume of 1.0 L (1000 cm3).
The mould shall be fitted with a detachable baseplate and a
removable extension (collar) approximately 50 mm height.
· Subsidiary mould (CBR mould), diameter 152 mm, height 127 mm.
· A metal rammer having a 50 mm diameter circular face and
weighing 2.5 kg. The rammer shall be equipped with an
arrangement for controlling the height of drop to 300 mm.
· A balance readable to 1 g.
· Palette knives or spatulas
· A straightedge, e.g. a steel strip
· A 20 mm and 37.5 mm test sieves and receiver
· A container suitable for mixing the quantity of material to be used
· Water proof containers and scoop
· A large metal tray
· Measuring cylinder, 200 ml or 500 ml
· Suitable tools for extracting specimen from mould
· Apparatus for moisture content determination

36 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.9
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship

(BS Light & BS Heavy)

Notes
Sample preparation
Increments of water content of aboUt 2 % Prepare 5 representative samples each of about 3 kg of material passing
are sUitable for sandy and gravelly soils
and aboUt 3 % for cohesive soils.
the 20 mm test sieve. (For the use of the 1 litre mould). Break up lumps of
fine material by rolling on a flat surface.
For coarser material where max. 10 % is retained on the 37.5 mm sieve
and max. 30 % is retained on the 20 mm sieve, a CBR mould shall be
used. The material coarser than 37.5 mm shall be removed and weighed,
and replaced by the same quantity of material of the fraction 20 mm - 37.5
mm. In this case, each of the 5 samples should be of about 6 kg.
It is advised to tUrn the container Upside Mix each sample thoroughly with different amounts of water to give a
down at sUitable intervals. suitable range of moisture contents. The range of moisture contents shall
be such that at least 2 values lie either side of the optimum moisture
The finer the material, the longer cUring content.
time is reqUired.
On coarse material 1 batch only may be Seal each of the 5 portions in an airtight container and allow to cure for a
Used. Water is then added for each minimum of 4 hours.
individUal point.

Test Procedure - 1 litre mould

Step 1: The mould with the base plate attached shall be weighed to
the nearest 1 g (ml).
Step 2: Attach the extension collar and place the mould on a solid base,
e.g. a concrete floor.
If it is difficUlt to evalUate the reqUired
heights, 3 eqUal portions coUld be Step 3: Place a quantity of moist soil in the mould such that when com-
weighed by assUming a reasonable pacted it occupies a little over 1/3 of the height of the mould
density. body.
Remember to Use the collar even for the
first layer, to avoid damaging the edge Step 4: Place the rammer with guide on the material in the mould.
of the moUld. Lift the rammer handle until it reaches the top of the guide,
then release handle allowing to drop freely on the sample.
Step 5: Change position of guide and again drop rammer. Repeat the
For coarser material when a CBR moUld process, systematically covering entire surface of sample. A
is Used, 62 blows shall be applied to each
total of 27 blows shall be applied.
layer.
Step 6: Remove rammer and fill next layer of soil in the mould, and
repeat the above process twice more by applying 27 blows to
both the second and the third layer. The mould should be
filled, but surface should not be more than 6 mm proud of the
upper edge of the mould body.
Step 7: When all three layers are compacted, remove the extension
collar, strike off excess soil and level the surface of the
compacted soil to the top of the mould using the straightedge.
Replace any coarse particles removed in the levelling process
by finer material from the sample well pressed in.
Step 8: Weigh the soil and the mould with baseplate attached to 1 g
(m2). Step 9: Remove the compacted sample from the mould. Take
Sample for moistUre content may not
be taken before compaction.
a represen-
tative sample of min. 300 g of the soil for determination of its
moisture content.
Step 10: Discard the remainder of the sample. (The sample must not be
re- used in a later test).
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 37
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.9
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship

(BS Light & BS Heavy)

Notes
Step 11: This whole process shall be carried out for all 5 portions of the
When the weight of sample in the moUld sample.
decreases, yoU may stop the test.
Calculations
1. Calculate the Bulk Density of each compacted specimen from
the equation:
m2 - m1
Bulk Density, ρ = V x 1000 (in kg/m3)

where

ml is the mass of mould and baseplate (in g)

m2 is the mass of mould, baseplate and compacted soil (in g)
V is the volume of the mould (in cm3)

2. Calculate the Dry Density, ρd (in kg/mS), of each

Dry Density, 100 ρ

ρd = 100 +w

where

w is the moisture content of the soil (in %)

The maximUm may lie between two 3. Plot the Dry Densities obtained from a series of determinations as
observed points, bUt when drawing ordinates against the corresponding Moisture Contents as
the cUrve care shoUld be taken not to abscissae. Draw a curve of best fit to the plotted points and identify
exaggerate its peak. the position of the maximum on this curve. Read off the values of
dry density and moisture content, to three significant figures,
corresponding to that point, see figure 1.
4. On the same graph, plot the curves corresponding to the 0 %, 5
% and 10 % air voids, calculated from the equation:
Va
1-
100
ρd =
1 w
ρs +100 ρw

where

ρd is the dry density (in kg/mS)

ρs is the particle density (in kg/mS)
ρw is the density of water (in kg/mS)
Va is the volume of air voids in the soil, expressed as
a percentage of the total volume of soil
w is the moisture content (in %)
38 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.9
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship

(BS Light & BS Heavy)

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) The experimental points and the smooth curve drawn through
them showing the relationship between Moisture Content and Dry
Density.
d) The Dry Density corresponding to the maximum Dry Density on
the curve, reported as the Maximum Dry Density to the nearest
whole number (in kg/m3).
e) The corresponding Moisture Content reported as the
Optimum moisture Content to two significant figures (in %).
f) The amount of material (stone) retained on the 20 mm and 37.5
mm sieves reported to nearest 1 % by dry mass.
g) The particle density and whether measured or assumed

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Method using 4.5 kg rammer (BS Heavy)

In this test the compactive effort is greater than described in the above
test. The mass of the rammer is increased to 4.5 kg, the height of the drop
to 450 mm, and the number of compacted layers are increased from three to
For the coarser material where max. 10 % five.
is retained on the 37.5 mm sieve and max.
30 % is retained on the 20 mm sieve, the
The test is performed on material passing the 20 mm test sieve using the
material coarser than 37.5 mm shall be 1 L mould, or on material passing 37.5 mm test sieve using the CBR
removed and weighed, and replaced by mould as described above.
the same qUantity of material of the
fraction 20 mm - 37.5 mm. The sample preparation and the testing procedure is identical to the
above test with the exception of:
- The rammer used is 4.5 kg in weight with a drop of 450 mm.
For coarser material when a CBR moUld - The moist soil shall be compacted in 5 equal layers into the mould
is Used, 62 blows shall be applied to each
layer. The number of blows applied to each layer shall be 27, i.e. the same as
for the above described test.
Calculations, plotting of curves and expression of results including the
test report are the same as for the above test.

Practical Considerations
Preferably use a jack to remove the sample from the mould. Do not use a
metal hammer/mallet as this will destroy the mould.
It should be emphasized that material must not be re-used in the
compaction test by adding more water to the same sample and obtaining
the DD/MC curve in such a manner.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 39
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.9
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship

(BS Light & BS Heavy)

Notes
Maintenance
The moulds must be kept clean with smooth inside walls.

The rammer must always be free of material sticking to its face. Also the
inside of the guide must be checked regularly such that the rammer
always falls freely inside the guide.

Precision
For some highly permeable soils such as clean gravels, uniformly
graded and coarse clean sands, the results of the laboratory compaction
test may provide only a poor guide for specification of field
compaction.

For these soils one of the maximum dry density tests described in clause
4 in BS 1377:Part 4:1990 would be more appropriate.
40 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
7igure 4 Mould for compaction test ( lL mould)

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 41

7igure 5 2.5 kg rammer for compaction test

42 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure 6 4.5 kg rammer for compaction test

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 43

7igure 6 Dry density/moisture content relationship curve

44 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 45
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.10
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio Test - One Point

Method

Notes
Objective
The preferred test method in the Pavement The strength of the subgrade is the main factor in determining the
and Materials ManUal is the 3-point
method, ref. CML test 1.11.
required thickness of flexible pavements for roads and airfields. The
The one point method coUld be Used as an strength of a subgrade, subbase and base course materials are expressed
indicator of CBR in “emergencies” of in terms of their California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value.
insUfficient sample size. It shoUld not be
Used in compliance control for road projects. The CBR-value is a requirement in design for pavement materials of
natural gravel.

Main Principles
This method covers the laboratory determination of the California
Bearing Ration (CBR) of a compacted sample of soil dynamically
The method described here is for a mate-
rial compacted to 100 % of MDD for BS compacted by metal rammers − one point method.
Heavy compaction or 100 % of MDD for BS
Light compaction. The CBR value is the resistance to a penetration of 2.5 mm of a standard
cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter, expressed as a percentage of the
Static compaction or dynamic compaction known resistance of the plunger to 2.5 mm in penetration in crushed
by vibrating hammer can also be Used, to
achieve any specified density, ref. BS 1377.
aggregate, (taken as 13.2 kN).

References
BS 1377 : Part 4 : 1990

Required equipment
· Test sieves, sizes 20 mm and 5 mm.
· A cylindrical metal mould, i.e. the CBR mould, having a nominal
internal diameter of 152 mm and a height of 127 mm. The mould
shall be fitted with a detachable baseplate and a removable
Choice of rammer depends on the reqUired extension. The internal face shall be smooth, clean and dry before
degree of compaction, i.e. BS Light or BS
use.
Heavy.
· A metal rammer of either 2,5 kg or 4,5 kg
· A steel rod
· A steel straightedge
· A spatula
· A balance, capable of weighing up to 25 kg readable to 5 g.
· Apparatus for moisture content determination.
· Filter papers 150 mm in diameter.

Sample preparation
The CBR test shall be carried out on material passing the 20 mm test
sieve. If the soil contains particles larger than this, the fraction retained
on the 20 mm test sieve shall be removed and weighed before preparing
the test sample. If this fraction is greater than 25 %, the test is not
applicable.

The moisture content of the soil shall be chosen to represent the design
condition for which the test results are required.
46 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.10
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio Test - One Point

Method

Notes
Take a portion of material large enough to provide about 6 kg of material
passing a 20 mm sieve.

The OptimUm MoistUre Content (OMC) Bring the sample to the required moisture content. The soil shall be
is normally reqUired. thoroughly mixed and shall normally be sealed and stored for at last 24
A coarse material may be tested at once
h before compacting into the mould.
withoUt cUring.
The specified effort of compaction shall correspond to the 2.5 kg rammer
method - BS Light or the 4.5 kg rammer method - BS Heavy (or to an
intermediate value).

Test procedure
Three portions for the 2.5 kg method and Step 1: Divide the prepared quantity of soil into three (or five) portions
five portions for the 4.5 kg method. equal to within 50 g and seal each portion in an airtight
container until required for use, to prevent loss of moisture.
Step 2: Stand the mould assembly on a solid base, e.g. a concrete floor
or plinth.
One-third for the 2.5 kg method and one- Step 3: Place the first portion of soil into the mould and compact it, so
fifth for the 4.5 kg method. that after 62 blows of the appropriate rammer the layer occupies
about or a little more than one-third (or one-fifth) of the height
of the mould. Ensure that the blows are evenly distributed over the
surface.
Step 4: Repeat using the other two (or four) portions of soil in turn, so
that the final level of the soil surface is not more than 6 mm
above the top of the mould body.
Step 5: Remove the collar and trim the soil flush with the top of the
mould with the scraper, checking with the steel
straightedge.
Step 6: Weigh the mould, soil and baseplate to the nearest 5 g (mS).

Soaking
Required equipment
· A perforated baseplate, fitted to the CBR mould in place of
the normal baseplate (see figure 8).
· A perforated swell plate, with an adjustable stem to provide a
seating for a dial gauge. (see figure 9).
· Tripod, mounting to support the dial gauge.
· A dial gauge, having a travel of 25 mm and reading to 0,01 mm.
· A soaking tank, large enough to allow the CBR mould with
baseplate to be submerged, preferably supported on an open mesh
platform.
· Annular surcharge discs, each having a mass known to + 50 g.
Halfcircular segments may be used.
· Petroleum jelly.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 47
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.10
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio Test - One Point

Method

Notes
Soaking procedure

At CML all baseplates are perforated.

Step 1: If a solid baseplate have been used, this shall be removed
from the mould and replaced with a perforated baseplate.
Step 2: Fit the collar to the other end of the mould, packing the
screw threads with petroleum jelly to obtain a watertight
joint.
Step 3: Place the mould assembly in the empty soaking tank. Place a
One sUrcharge disc of 2 kg simUlates the
effect of approximately 70 mm of filterpaper on top of the sample followed by the perforated
sUperimposed constrUction on the format- swell plate. Fit the required number of annular surcharge discs
ion being tested. around the stem on the perforated plate.
Step 4: Mount the dial gauge support on top of the extension
collar, secure the dial gauge in place and adjust the stem on
the perforated plate to give a convenient zero reading.
Record the time taken for water to appear
at the top of the sample. If this has not Step 5: Fill the soaking tank with water to just below the top of the
occUrred in three days, flood the top of the mould extension collar. Start the timer when the water has
sample and leave to soak for a fUrther day just covered the baseplate.
giving the normal soaking period of 4 days.
Step 6: Record readings of the dial gauge each day.
Step 7: Take off the dial gauge and its support, remove the mould
assembly from the soaking tank and allow the sample to
drain for 15 min.
Step 8: Remove the surcharge discs, perforated plate and
extension collar. Remove the perforated baseplate and refit
the solid baseplate if available.
Step 9: If the sample has swollen, trim it level with the end of the mould.

The sample is then ready for test in the soaked condition.

Penetration test procedure

Required equipment

· A cylindrical metal plunger.

· A CBR compression machine. The machine shall be capable of
applying at least 45 kN at a rate of penetration of the plunger of
1 mm/min to within ± 0,2 mm/min.
· A loading ring.
· A dial gauge with 25 mm travel, reading to 0,01 mm for
measuring the penetration of the plunger into the specimen.
· A stopwatch
· The CBR mould
· Surcharge discs
48 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.10
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio Test - One Point

Method

Notes
Procedure

Step 1: Place the mould with baseplate containing the sample, with the
top face of the sample exposed, centrally on the lower platen
of the testing machine.
Step 2: Place the appropriate annular surcharge discs on top of the
sample Step 3: Fit into place the cylindrical plunger on the surface of
the sample.
Step 4: Apply a seating force to the plunger, depending on the expected
CBR value as follows:
For CBR value up to 5% apply 10 N
The seating force is not taken into
For CBR value from 5% to 30% apply 50
accoUnt dUring the test. N For CBR value above 30% apply 250 N
Step 5: Record the reading of the loading ring as the initial zero
reading (or reset the loading ring to read zero).
Step 6: Secure the penetration dial gauge in position. Record its
initial zero reading, or reset it to zero.
Step 7: Start the test so that the plunger penetrates the sample at
a uniform rate 1mm/min.
Step 8: Record readings of the force gauge at intervals of penetration of
0,25 mm, to a total penetration not exceeding 7,5 mm (see form
F).
Step 9: If a test is to be carried out on both ends of the sample, raise the
plunger and level the surface of the sample by filling in the
depres- sion left by the plunger. Check for flatness with the
straightedge.
Step 10: Remove the baseplate from the lower end of the mould, fit it
If the sample has been soaked the securely on the top end and invert the mould. Trim the exposed
moistUre content after soaking will gene- surface if necessary.
rally exceed the initial moistUre content.
Step 11: Carry out the test on the base by repeating steps 1 − 8.
Step 12: After completing the penetration test or tests, determine the
moisture content of the test sample.

Calculation and plotting

Force-penetration curve (see form 4.F and 4.G)

1) Calculate the force applied to the plunger from each reading of

the loading ring observed during the penetration test.
2) Plot each value of force as ordinate against the corresponding
penetration as abscissa and draw a smooth curve through the
points.
The normal curve is convex upwards as shown in figure 12, test 1, and
needs no correction.
If the initial part of the curve is concave as for test 2 in figure 12, a
correction is necessary. Draw a tangent at the point of the steepest slope,
and produce it to intersect the abscissa. This is the corrected zero point.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 49

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.10
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio Test - One Point

Method

Notes
If the curve continues to curve upwards as for test 3 in figure 12, it is
considered that the penetration of the plunger is increasing the soil density
and subsequently its strength. No correction is necessary.

Calculation of California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm are used for calculating the CBR
value.
1. Record the plunger force value at 2.5 mm penetration from
the (corrected) force-penetration curve.
2. Calculate the corresponding CBR value from the equation:

CBR value (in %) = P

100
x where 13.2
P is the plunger force (in kN) at 2.5 mm penetration.
3. Record the plunger force value at 5.0 mm penetration from
the (corrected) force-penetration curve.
4. Calculate the corresponding CBR value from the equation:

CBR value (in %) = P

100
x where 20.0
P is the plunger force (in kN) at 5.0 mm penetration.
4. The higher of these two values is taken as the CBR value.
5. If a test is carried out on both ends of the sample, the
above calculation procedure, steps 1 − 5, is repeated.

Density Calculations
1) Calculate the internal volume of the mould, Vm (in cmS).
2) Bulk density. The initial bulk density, ρ (in kg/mS), of the sample,
is calculated from the equation:
mS - m2
ρ= x 1000
Vm
where

mS is the mass of soil, mould and baseplate (in

g) m2 is the mass of the mould and baseplate
(in g) Vm is the volume of the mould body (in
cmS).

3) Dry density. The initial dry density, (in kg/mS), of the sample is
ρd
calculated from the equation:

50 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.10
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio Test - One Point

Method

Notes
100
pd =(100 + w ) p

where

w is the moisture content of the soil (in %).

4) If the dry density of the soaked soil is required, calculate it from

the equation:

pds = ρd
1 + Ax
1000Vm
where

A is the area of cross section of the mould (in mm2)

x is the increase in sample height after swelling (in mm).

Report
The test report shall include the following:
1. Type of material and sample identification
2. Reference to this procedure
3. Force-penetration curves, showing corrections if appropriate
4. The CBR values (from top and bottom), to the nearest whole num
ber. If the result from each end of the sample are within ± 10 %
of the mean value, the average result may be reported.
5. The initial sample density and the moisture content and dry
density if required
6. The final moisture contents below the plunger after testing
7. (Whether soaked or not)
8. Period of soaking and amount of swell
9. The proportion by dry mass of any over-size material removed
from the original soil sample before testing.

Practical Considerations
Use an extruder for removing the sample (no hammering).

Make certain that the mould is fastened tightly to the baseplate.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 51

7igure 9 Plug and collar extension for use with cylindrical mould for the determination of the California Bearing Ratio

52 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure l0 Apparatus for measuring the swelling of a sample during soaking for the CBR test

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 53

7igure ll General arrangement of apparatus for the CBR test

54 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure l2 Typical CBR test result curves

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 55

56 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.11
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio test - Three Point

Method

Notes
Objective
The strength of the subgrade is the main factor in determining the
required thickness of flexible pavements for roads and airfields. The
strength of subgrade, subbase and base course materials are expressed in
terms of their California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value.

The CBR-value is a requirement in design for pavement materials of

natural gravel.

Main Principles
This method covers the laboratory determination of the California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) of a compacted sample of soil - three point method,
which is the prescribed method in the Pavement and Materials Design
Manual.

The CBR value is the resistance to a penetration of 2.5 mm of a standard

cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter, expressed as a percentage of the
known resistance of the plunger to 2.5 mm in penetration in crushed
aggregate, (taken as 13.2 kN).

References
BS 1377 : Part 4 : 1990 and TMH 1 : 1986 : A8

Required equipment
· Test sieves, sizes 20 mm and 5 mm.
All mOUldS at CML are fitted With
perfOrated baSeplateS inStead Of SOlid · Three cylindrical metal moulds, i.e. CBR moulds, having a
baSeplateS Which iS the nOrmal BS nominal internal diameter of 152 mm and a height of 127 mm. The
Standard. HOWever, the USe Of perfOrated moulds shall be fitted with a detachable baseplate and a removable
baSeplateS iS qUite allright.
extension. The internal face shall be smooth, clean and dry before
use.
· Two metal rammers of weights 2,5 kg and 4,5 kg.
· A steel rod
· A steel straightedge
· A spatula
· A balance, capable of weighing up to 25 kg readable to 5 g.
· Apparatus for moisture content determination.
· Filter papers 150 mm in diameter.
· Perforated baseplates, fitted to the CBR moulds in place of
the normal baseplate (see figure 8).
· Perforated swell plates, with an adjustable stem to provide a
seating for a dial gauge. (see figure 9).
· Tripod, mounting to support the dial gauge.
· A dial gauge, having a travel of 25 mm and reading to 0,01 mm
to be fitted to the tripod for measuring swell.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 57
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.11
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio test - Three Point

Method

Notes
· A soaking tank, large enough to allow the CBR mould with base
plate to be submerged, preferably supported on an open mesh
platform.
· Annular surcharge discs for soaking, each having a mass known to
+ 50 g. Halfcircular segments may be used. Combined weight 4,5 kg.
· Petroleum jelly.
· A cylindrical metal plunger/piston with diameter 49,65 mm.
· A CBR compression machine. The machine shall be capable of
applying at least 45 kN at a rate of penetration of the plunger of
1 mm/min to within ± 0,2 mm/min.
· A loading ring.
· A dial gauge with 25 mm travel, reading to 0,01 mm for
measuring the penetration of the plunger into the specimen.
· A stopwatch
· Annular surcharge discs for penetration test. Combined weight 5.5 kg.

The particleS retained On the 20 mm Sample preparation

Sieve may be crUShed lightly tO paSS
The CBR test shall be carried out on material passing the 20 mm test
that Sieve.
sieve. If the soil contains particles larger than this, the fraction retained on
If the fractiOn retained On the 20 mm teSt the 20 mm test sieve shall be removed and weighed before preparing the
Sieve iS > 25 %, the teSt iS likely tO give test sample. If this fraction is greater than 25 %, the test is generally
a cOnServative impreSSiOn Of the Strength considered unreliable in emulating site conditions, and such test results
Of the material. must consequently be treated with care.

Take a portion of material large enough to provide about 25 kg of

material passing a 20 mm sieve.

Bring the sample to the optimum moisture content (OMC ± 0,3 %)

according to the BS Heavy compaction test. The soil shall be thoroughly
mixed and shall normally be sealed and stored for at last 24 h before
compacting into the moulds.

Test Procedure – Moulding

Step 1: Weigh the moulds with baseplates attached to the nearest 5 g
(m2). Step 2: Measure the internal dimensions of the moulds to 0,5
mm.
Step 3: Attach the extension collar to the moulds and cover
the baseplates with a filter paper.
Step 4: The moist material (at OMC) is transferred to a mixing tray. It
is thoroughly but rapidly mixed and then covered by a damp
sack which should be kept over the material until compaction is
com- pleted so as to keep the moisture content as constant as
possible.
Step 5: Stand the mould assemblies on a solid base, e.g. a concrete
floor or plinth.
58 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.11
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio test - Three Point

Method

Notes
Step 6: The first mould is now tamped full of material using the 4,5 kg
rammer, five layers and 62 blows per layer. Each layer should
occupy about or a little more than one-fifth of the height of the
mould. Ensure that the blows are evenly distributed over the
surface. The final level of the soil surface should be about 5 −
10 mm above the top of the mould body.
Step 7: Remove the collar and trim the soil flush with the top of the
mould with the scraper, checking with the steel
straightedge.
Step 8: Weigh the mould, soil and baseplate to the nearest 5 g (mS).
Step 9: A representative sample for moisture content is now taken
from the mixing tray.
Step 10: The second mould is then tamped full of material using the 4,5
kg rammer, five layers and 30 blows per layer. The moulded
mate- rial is trimmed off, weighed and another representative
sample for moisture content is taken from the mixing tray.
Step 11: The third mould is then tamped full of material, but in this case
only three layers of material are compacted and on each layer 62
blows of the 2,5 kg rammer is applied. The moulded material is
again trimmed off and weighed.

The compactive effort used for the three moulds is summarized below:
(a) 4,5 kg rammer, five layers and 62 blows per layer.
(b) 4,5 kg rammer, five layers and 30 blows per layer.
(c) 2,5 kg rammer, three layers and 62 blows per layer.

The average of the two moisture content determinations taken after the
compaction of the first and second moulds, is taken as the moulding
moisture content for all three moulds.

Make certain that the baSeplate iS Test Procedure - Soaking

tightly ScreWed On, SO that there iS Step 1: Place a filter paper on top of each sample and fit
nO gap betWeen the baSeplate and the
Sample.
perforated baseplates on top of the moulds and invert the
moulds.
Step 2: Remove the baseplates from the moulds. Fit the collar to the
end of the mould, packing the screw threads with petroleum
TO enSUre that that the Water haS free jelly to obtain a watertight joint.
acceSS tO the bOttOm Of the material in the
mOUld, SUitable meanS mUSt be fitted tO
Step 3: Place the mould assembly in the empty soaking tank. The
the bOttOm Of the SOaking tank. surface of the moulded material which was against the base
plate should now be facing upwards. Place a filterpaper on top
One SUrcharge diSc Of 2 kg SimUlateS of the sample followed by the perforated swell plate. Fit annular
the effect Of apprOximately 70 mm Of surcharge discs weighing 4.5 kg around the stem on the
SUperimpOSed cOnStrUctiOn On the fOrmat-
perforated swell plate.
iOn being teSted.
Step 4: Mount the dial gauge support on top of the extension collar,
secure the dial gauge in place and adjust the stem on the
perforated plate to give a convenient zero reading.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 59
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.11
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio test - Three Point

Method

Notes
Step 5: Fill the soaking tank with water to just below the top of the
RecOrd the time taken fOr Water tO mould extension collar. Start the timer when the water has
appear at the tOp Of the Sample. If thiS just covered the baseplate.
haS nOt OccUrred in three dayS, flOOd the
tOp Of the Sample and leave tO SOak fOr a Step 6: Record readings of the dial gauge each day.
fUrther day giving the nOrmal SOaking periOd Step 7: After 4 days of soaking, take off the dial gauge and its support,
Of 4 dayS.
remove the mould assembly from the soaking tank and allow
The nOrmal SOaking periOd iS 4 dayS. the sample to drain for 15 min.
Step 8: Carefully remove the surcharge discs, perforated swell plate
In all handling Of the mOUlded material care
ShOUld be taken nOt tO jar the material. and extension collar.
Step 9: If the sample has swollen, trim it level with the end of the mould.

The sample is then ready for testing.

Test Procedure - Penetration

Step 1: Place the mould containing the sample, with the top face
(originally the bottom face) of the sample exposed, centrally
on the lower platen of the testing machine.
Step 2: Place annular surcharge discs weighing 5,5 kg carefully on top
of the sample.
Step 3: Fit into place the cylindrical plunger on the surface of the
sample. Step 4: Apply a seating force to the plunger, depending on
the expected
CBR value as follows:
For CBR value up to 5% apply 10 N
For CBR value from 5% to 30% apply 50 N
For CBR value above 30% apply 250 N
Step 5: Record the reading of the loading ring as the initial zero
reading (or reset the loading ring to read zero).
Step 6: Secure the penetration dial gauge in position. Record its
initial zero reading, or reset it to zero.
Step 7: Start the test so that the plunger penetrates the sample at a
uniform rate 1mm/min.
Step 8: Record readings of the force gauge at intervals of penetration of
0,25 mm, to a total penetration not exceeding 7,5 mm (see form
F).
Step 9: Perform the penetration test on all three samples.

Calculation and plotting

Force-penetration curve (see form 4.F and 4.G)
1) Calculate the force applied to the plunger from each reading of
the loading ring observed during the penetration test.
2) Plot each value of force as ordinate against the corresponding
penetration as abscissa and draw a smooth curve through the
points.
60 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.11
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio test - Three Point

Method

Notes
The normal curve is convex upwards as shown in figure 5, test 1, and
needs no correction.

If the initial part of the curve is concave as for test 2 in figure 5, a

correction is necessary. Draw a tangent at the point of the steepest slope,
and produce it to intersect the abscissa. This is the corrected zero point.

If the curve continues to curve upwards as for test 3 in figure 5, it is

considered that the penetration of the plunger is increasing the soil density
and subsequently its strength. No correction is necessary.

Density Calculations

1) Calculate the internal volume of the mould, Vm (in cmS).

2) Bulk density. The initial bulk density, ρ (in kg/mS), of the sample,
is calculated from the equation:
m -m
S 2
ρ = Vm x 1000
where

m3 is the mass of soil, mould and baseplate (in

g) m2 is the mass of the mould and baseplate (in
g)
Vm is the volume of the mould body (in cmS).

3) Dry density. The moulded dry density, (in kg/mS), of the samples
ρd
is calculated from the equation:
100
ρ =( )ρ
d 100 + w
where

w is the moisture content of the soil (in %).

Swell calculation
The Swell (in %) is calculated from the equation:
(k - L)
S = 127 x 100

where

S is the swell expressed as a percentage of the height of the

moulded material before soaking, i.e. 127 mm.
k is the dial gauge reading after 4 days’ soaking
L is the dial gauge reading before soaking.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 61
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.11
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio test - Three Point

Method

Notes
Calculation of California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
Penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm may be used for calculating the CBR
value. However, the CBR at 2.5 mm penetration is generally used for ass-
essing the quality of the material.

1. Record the plunger force value at 2.5 mm penetration from the

(corrected) force-penetration curve for each of the three
specimens.
2. Calculate the corresponding CBR values from the equation:
100
CBR value (in %) = P x
13.2
where

P is the plunger force (in kN) at 2.5 mm penetration.

3. Record the plunger force values at 5.0 mm penetration from
the (corrected) force-penetration curves.
4. Calculate the corresponding CBR values from the equation:
100
CBR value (in %) = P x
20.0
where

P is the plunger force (in kN) at 5.0 mm penetration.

The CBR at 2.5 mm penetration is generally used for assessing the quality
of the material.

CBR-Density Relationship
1) In order to obtain the relationship between CBR and Dry Density,
the CBR at 2,5 mm penetration is plotted on a logarithmic scale
against the Dry Density on a natural scale for the three
compactive efforts used.
2) The points are connected to each other to indicate the CBR-
Density relationship. The design CBR can thus be obtained at the
desired percentage of the maximum Dry Density- normally the
specified minimum percentage compaction.

Report
The test report shall include the following:
1. Type of material and sample identification
2. Reference to this procedure
3. Force-penetration curves, showing corrections if appropriate
4. The CBR values to the nearest whole number
5. The CBR-Density relationship as a curve with the CBR value
plotted on a logarithmic scale and the density on a natural
scale
62 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.11
Ministry of Works

CBR - California Bearing Ratio test - Three Point

Method

Notes
6. The moulded sample density and the moisture content and dry density
7. Period of soaking and amount of swell
8. The proportion by dry mass of any over-size material removed
from the original soil sample before testing.

Practical considerations
It is possible to measure swell using only one tripod (with one gauge) for
all moulds in a test series:

Step 1: Make 3 paint marks on all mould collars to guide the position
of the tripod.
Step 2: Take the measurement by placing the tripod in the position of
the paint marks and move the tripod around so the tip of the
gauge moves around on the little area on top of the stem,
until the highest reading is found.
Step 3: Record this reading as the “zero” reading, i.e. do not attempt to
make a zero, or any specific figure for the reading by
adjustments.
The tripOd ShOUld be kept by the SeniOr Step 4: Move the tripod over to the next mould and repeat Step 2 and 3.
labOratOry technician fOr Safe keeping
When nOt in USe. Step 5: All subsequent readings are carried out in the same manner (i.e.
by positioning the tripod and moving it around until the highest
reading is found) and calculate swell from the records.

For figure references see Figures 9-12 at pages 53-56.

Maintenance
Check and clean the perforated baseplates regularly to make sure that the
holes are open and not clogged.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 63
64 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 65
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes
Objective
The oedometer consolidation test is used for the determination of
consolidation characteristics of low-permeability soils when subjected to
vertical loads. The results may be used to calculate and estimate
settlements of structural foundations when placed on the ground. The two
parameters normally required are:
· The compressibility of the soil: Coefficient of
volume compressibility, mv
· The time related parameter: Coefficient of consolidation, Cv

When structures are built on saturated soils, the load is presumed to be

carried initially by incompressible water within the soil voids. Due to the
additional load on the soil, water will tend to be squeezed out from the
voids causing a reduction in void volume and consequently settlement of
the structure.

In soils of high permeability (coarse grained soils), this process takes a

relatively short time for completion, with the result that almost all of the
settlement will occur during the construction period. These rarely cause
major problems. In low permeability soils (clays), this process takes place
slowly and continuously over a long period of time - months, years and
even decades - after completion of construction.

Main Principles
The methOd deScribed cOverS the prOcedUre This method covers the determination of the magnitude and rate of the
and techniqUe fOr cOnSOlidatiOn teStS On consolidation of a saturated or near-saturated specimen of soil in the form
natUrally depOSited SOilS taken UndiStUrbed of a disc confined laterally, subjected to vertical axial pressure, and
frOm the grOUnd in the fOrm Of cOreS Or
allowed to drain freely from the top and bottom surfaces. The method is
blOckS.
concerned mainly with the primary consolidation phase, but it can also be
used to determine secondary compression characteristics.

The cOmmOnly USed U-100 tUbe Sampler In this test the soil specimen is loaded axially in increments of applied
dOeS, hOWever, nOt yield UndiStUrbed stress. Each stress increment is held constant until the primary
SampleS, and the teSt reSUltS frOm teStS On
SUch SampleS mUSt be USed With care. consolidation has ceased. During this process water drains out of the
specimen, resulting in a decrease in height which is measured at suitable
intervals. These measure- ments are used for the determination of the
relationship between compression (or strain) or voids ratio and effective
stress, and for the calculation of parameters which describes the amount of
compression and the rate at which it takes place.

References

BS 1377 : Part 5 : 1990.

Apparatus
The consolidation apparatus, known as the oedometer, shall be of the
fixed ring type.

66 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes
A consolidation ring which shall completely and rigidly support and
confine the soil specimen laterally. The ring shall be of corrosion-
resistant metal.

The ring shall be provided with a cutting edge to facilitate the preparation
of the specimen. The inner surface of the ring shall be smooth.

The diameter of the consolidation ring shall be determined primarily by

the nominal sizes of undisturbed tube samples received for test but also
with regard to the character of the soil and the maximum size of particles
DefOrmatiOn Of the apparatUS may be present in the sample. The inside diameter of the ring used for fine silts
Significant When teSting Stiff SOilS, bUt can and clay soils shall be at least 6 mm smaller than the undisturbed tube
Often be ignOred fOr SOft SOil.
sample to permit trimming off no less than 3 mm of soil all around which
may have been disturbed during the sampling operation.

Preparation of sample
The sample may be built in (extruded into the consolidation ring) from the
following type of samples:
· Cylinder samples, U100 or 54 mm samples
· Block samples cut from test pits
· In-situ specimen built in directly from the bottom of test pits.
The soil is carefully trimmed away outside the consolidation ring. Check
that there is no gap between the ring and the sample. If there is, a new
sample should be prepared.

Specimen measurements
Step 1: Measure the height of the specimen to 0,05 mm (H0) in its ring.
Step 2: Place the specimen in its ring on the watch glass or tray and
weigh immediately to 0.1 g, ml. Determine the initial mass
A SUitable fOrm fOr recOrding theSe data
iS ShOWn On fOrm ”Specimen DetailS”. of the specimen, m0 m0 = ml - mving - mtvay
Step 3: Take a sample of soil similar to that in the ring for the deter¨-
mination of initial moisture content, and if required, the particle
density. The trimmings from the sample preparation are
suitable.

Preparation and assembly of apparatus

Porous plates. Before using the porous plates in a test they shall be
TO prevent clOgging the pOreS, filter prepared as follows.
paperS ShOUld be USed at the tOp and
bOttOm Of the Specimen. Step 1: Clean the surface using natural bristle or nylon brush.
Step 2: Ensure that the pores are not clogged by fine soil
particles,
and that the plates are readily permeable to water.
Step 3: Saturate the pores by boiling in distilled water for at least 20
min, either over heat at atmospheric pressure, or in a vacuum
desiccator in which the pressure has been reduced to about 20
mm of mercury.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 67
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes
Step 4: For saturated soils, or for soils that do no exhibit a high
affinity for water, keep the plates saturated in de-aerated water
until required for use. Immediately before assembly in the
consolidation cell remove free surface water with a tissue,
ensuring that the pores remain saturated.
Step 5: For soils that readily absorb water, allow the plates to air dry.

Assembly of consolidation cell

Step 1: Place the bottom porous plate centrally in the consolidation cell.
Step 2: Place the specimen contained in its ring centrally on top of
the porous plate.
Step 3: Assemble the cell components so that the consolidation ring
is laterally confined and in correct alignment.
Step 4: Place the top porous plate and loading cap centrally on top of
the specimen.

Assembly in load frame

Step 1: Place the consolidation cell in position on the bed of the loading
apparatus.
Step 2: Adjust the counterbalanced loading beam so that when the load-
transmitting members just make contact with the loading cap
the beam is slightly above horizontal position.
Step 3: Add a small weight to the beam hangar, sufficient to
maintain contact between the load-transmitting members
while final adjustments are made. The resulting seating
pressure on the specimen shall not exceed 2 kN/m2 (kPa).
Step 4: Clamp the compression gauge securely into position so that it
can measure the relative movement between the loading cap and
the base of the cell. Arrange the gauge to allow for measurement
of a small amount of swelling of the specimen, while the greater
part of the range of travel allows for compression. Record the
initial reading of the gauge.

Test procedure
AdditiOnal lOading StepS ShOUld be cOn- Loading sequence. A range of pressures selected from the following
Sidered near the valUe fOr p0 and pc.
sequence has been found to be satisfactory.
6, 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200 kN/m2 (kPa).
The loadings of 1600 and 3200 kN/m2 should be considered only for stiff
and overconsolidated clays.
The Engineer Shall decide.
A typical test comprises four to six increments of loading, each held
constant for 1 h, and each applied stress being double that of the previous
stage.
The last increment of loading shall be held for 24 hours.
68 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes Table l. Euggested initial pressures for consolidation test

Soil Initial pressure

The Engineer Shall decide the initial Consistency
preSSUre tO be applied.
Stiff Equal to p’o or the next higher recommended pressure
if p’o is less than ps.
Firm Somewhat less than p’o preferably using the next
lower recommended pressure.
Appreciably less than p’o usually 25 kN/m2 (kPa) or less.
Soft
Very soft Very low, typically 6 kN/m2 (kPa) or 12 kN/m2 (kPa).
Initial consolidation under a small load will give added
strength to prevent squeezing out under next load
increment.

p’o represents the estimated present vertical effective stress in situ

at the horizon from which the specimen was taken.

ps represents the swelling pressure.

Application of pressure
Step 1: Record the compression gauge reading as the initial reading
for the load increment stage di.
Step 2: Apply the required pressure to the specimen at a convenient
moment (zero time) by adding the appropriate weights to the
beam hanger without jolting. Remove the weight used for the
seating load.
Step 3: Fill the consolidation cell with water after applying the
pressure. If the specimen begins to swell, or if the compression
virtually ceases within a short time, proceed to the next higher
pressure. Alternatively, if required, determine the swelling
pressure.
Step 4: Take readings of the compression gauge at suitable intervals of
The readingS are StOpped When the time. The following periods of elapsed time from zero are
primary cOnSOlidatiOn iS cOmpleted. USUally convenient. A suitable form for recording the readings is
t90 iS achieved in leSS than 1 hOUr. A shown as form “Settlement Readings”.
cOmplete cOnSOlidatiOn teSt cOUld then be
rUn in One day. 0, 8, 15, 30 seconds
1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 minutes and 1 hour
(2, 4 and 24 hours for the last load increment)
PlOt againSt lOgarithm Of time may alSO be Step 5: Plot the compression gauge readings against square root time,
USed, ref. BS1377. while the test is in progress, either manually or by an
automatic recorder.
FOr SOme typeS Of SOil, readingS have tO be Step 6: Maintain the pressure for 1 hour and plot the readings to
taken Over a lOnger periOd than 1 hOUr. con firm that t90 have been reached.
Step 7: Record the time and compression gauge reading at the
termination of the load increment stage di. This
reading becomes the initial reading for the next stage.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 69

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes
Step 8: Increase the pressure to the next value in the selected sequence.
Step 9: Repeat further stages of the sequence of loading, making at
least four stages in all. The maximum pressure applied to the
specimen shall be greater than the effective pressure which will
occur in situ due to the overburden and proposed construction.
The last stage of load increment shall stay on for 24 hours, and
readings be taken at suitable intervals including 2, 4 and 24
hours.

Unloading
Normally unloading is done in one step (to p’ 0 or to the initial applied
The Engineer Shall decide if the UnlOading
pressure). Record and plot the final reading, and proceed to “Dismantling”.
cUrve iS reqUired. If the unloading curve is required, the specimen shall be unloaded from
the maximum pressure in steps as follows:
The UnlOading pOrtiOn Of the lOg preSSUre/
vOidS ratiO cUrve iS reqUired in SOme Step 1: Reduce the pressure to a value not less than the last but one
met- hOdS Of analySiS fOr eStimating the value of the loading sequence at a convenient moment (zero
precOn- SOlidatiOn preSSUre fOr the SOil.
NOrmally the nUmber Of UnlOading StageS time).
ShOUld be at leaSt half the nUmber Of Step 2: Record reading of the compression gauge at convenient intervals.
lOading StageS, and ShOUld prOvide
reaSOnably eqUally Spaced pOintS On a Step 3: Plot the reading so that the completion of swelling can be
lOg preSSUre Scale.
identified. Step 4: Record the final reading of the compression gauge.
Step 5: Repeat point 1 to 4 at least twice more, finishing with an
applied pressure equal to the swelling pressure (if applicable) or
to the initial applied pressure.
Step 6: When the compression gauge indicates that equilibrium under
the final pressure has been reached, proceed to “Dismantling”.

Dismantling
Step 1: Drain off the water from the cell. Allow to stand for 15 min
to enable free water to drain from the porous plates.
Step 2: Mop up any excess water from within the cell.
Step 3: Remove the load from the specimen and remove the
consolidation cell from the apparatus.
Step 4: Dismantle the cell, and weigh the specimen in its ring on
the weighed watch glass or tray.
Step 5: Transfer the specimen and ring on the watch glass or tray to the
oven maintained at 105o C to 110o C, dry the specimen to cons
tant mass and determine the dry mass of the specimen to 0.1 g
(md).
70 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes
Calculations and plotting
General data. (See form “Specimen Details”).

1) Calculate the initial moisture content, w0 (in %), from the

specimen trimmings.

w = m0 - md x 100 %
0
md
2) Calculate the initial bulk density, ρ (in Mg/mS = ton/mS), from
the equation

p = mo1000
[1 Mg/mS = 1000 kg/mS = 1 ton/mS]
AH0
where

m0 is the initial mass of the specimen (in g):

A is the area of the specimen (in mm2):
H0 is the initial height of the specimen (in mm ).

3) Calculate the initial dry density, ρd (in Mg/mS), from the equation

ρd = 100 ρ
100 + w0

4) If it is required to plot void ratio against pressure calculate

the initial voids ratio e0 from the equation

e0 =
ρs - 1
ρd
where

ρs is the particle density (in Mg/mS).

5) The initial degree of saturation S0 may be calculated as a

percent age from the equation

S0 =
w0 - ρs [ in % ]
e0
This value can be used to indicate whether the test specimen is fully
saturated initially.

Compressibility characteristics
The compressibility characteristics may be illustrated by plotting the
compression of the specimen as ordinate on a linear scale against the
corresponding applied pressure p (in kPa), as abscissa on a logarithmic
scale (see form 5.C). Compression is usually indicated in terms of voids
ratio, but the actual thickness of the specimen or the strain expressed as a
percentage reduction in thickness referred to the initial thickness, may be
used as alternatives.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 71
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes
1) Calculate the equivalent height of solid particles, Hs (in mm),
from the equation:
H0
H s = 1 + e0

The cOrrectiOn fOr defOrmatiOn Of the

apparatUS Under lOading iS ignOred. 2) Calculate the height of the specimen, H (in mm), at the end of
each loading or unloading stage from the equation

H = H0 − 2H

where

2H is the cumulative compression of the specimen (reduction in

height) from the initial height as recorded by the
compression gauge:
3) Calculate the Voids ratio, e, at the end of each loading or
unloading stage, if required, from the equation

The COefficient Of vOlUme cOmpreSSibility

e= ( HH- H ) r

r
may alSO be calcUlated in termS Of the
VOidS ratiO frOm the eqUatiOn 4) Calculate the Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv (in
m2/MN), for each loading increment from the equation
1000 (H1 -
e1 - e2 . 1000
mv = 1+ ( p2 - p1 ) H2) (p2 - p1) [1 MN = 1000 kN]
e1 mv = H1
e1 iS the VOidS ratiO Of the Specimen at the
Start Of the lOad increment where

e2 iS the VOidS ratiO Of the Specimen at Hl is the height of the specimen at the start of a
the end Of that increment loading increment (in mm):
H2 is the height of the specimen at the end of that
ValUeS Of mv iS Often in the range 0.1 - increment (in mm):
1.5 m2/MN. pl is the pressure applied to the specimen for the previous
loading stage (in kN/m2 = kPa).
p2 is the pressure applied to the specimen for the loading
stage being considered (in kN/m2 = kPa).

5) If required plot values of voids ratio as ordinate against applied

pressure on a logarithmic scale as abscissa (see form 5.C). Draw
smooth curves through the points for both the loading and the
unloading portions. If the swelling pressure was measured, the
curves will start and terminate at the swelling pressure. Indicate
the value of the initial voids ratio, e0, on the vertical axis.

Coefficient of consolidation (see form “Calculations”).

General. Two curve fitting methods are recognized for evaluating the
FOr the lOgarithm-Of-time cUrve- Coefficient of consolidation, Cv, namely
fitting methOd, ref. BS1377:Part
5:1990.
· The logarithm-of-time curve-fitting method, and
· The square root time curve-fitting method.
72 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes
The two fitting methods generally show reasonable agreement. In this
procedure only the Square root time curve-fitting method is included.

Square root time curve-fitting method (See figure 14.)

1. Draw the straight line of best fit to the early portion of curve
(usually within the first 50% of compression) and extend it to
intersect the ordinate of zero time. This intersection represent the
corrected zero point, denoted by d0.
2. Draw the straight line through the d0 point which at all points
has abscissae 1.15 times as great as those on the best fit line.
The intersection of this line with the laboratory curve gives the
90% compression point d90.
3. Read off the value of t90 from the laboratory curve corresponding
Cv may alSO be calcUlated frOm rather to the d point and calculate the value of C (in m2/year), from the
t50
than t90 becaUSe the middle Of the 90 v
labOratOry equation
Settlement cUrve iS the pOrtiOn Which
agreeS mOSt clOSely With the theOretical
cUrve, i.e.: Cv = 0.112 H2 / t90 [in m2/year]

Cv = 0.026 /H2 t50 [m2/year] where

ValUeS Of Cv iS Often in the range 0,1 -
1000
m2/year H is the average specimen thickness for the relevant
load increment (in mm), i.e.
H1 + H2
H= 2
t90 is expressed in minutes.

Coefficient of secondary compression

SecOndary cOmpreSSiOn iS nOrmally The Coefficient of secondary compression, Csec, may be derived from the
diSregarded fOr inOrganic materialS, aS laboratory logarithmic of time curve. The duration of the load increments
the primary cOnSOlidatiOn iS the majOr may have to be extended to up to 1 week, however. The derivation is not
cOntribUtOr tO the Settlement. included in this procedure, ref. BS1377 for description.

Reporting results
a) Reference to this procedure
b) The initial dimensions of the specimen
c) The initial moisture content, bulk density and dry density
d) The particle density whether measured or assumed
e) The initial void ratio and degree of saturation (if required)
f) A plot of the voids ratio or the vertical compression against the
logarithm of applied pressure for the complete load-unload
cycle
g) Plots of compression against time (log time or square root time
or both as appropriate), for each load increment, if required
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 73
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.12
Ministry of Works

Consolidation - One Dimensional Properties

(Oedomenter)

Notes h) the calculated values of the Coefficient of volume compressibility,

mv (in m2/MN), and Coefficient of consolidation, Cv (in m2/year), to
two significant figures, for each load increment, in the form of a table

i) the location and depth of the test specimen within the original sample.

Practical considerations
The consolidation apparatus must be firmly fixed to the concrete table.

Maintenance
The consolidation ring must be regularly inspected for cuts.
The weight of the weights must be checked regularly.
The dial gauge must be checked regularly to control that the needle runs
freely.

74 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure l3 Eection of a typical consolidation cell

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 75

7igure l4 Laboratory consolidation curve: square root of time fitting method

76 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 77
78 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 79
80 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
 Log pressure/voids ratio curve

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 81

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory TEST NO. 1.13

Ministry of Works

Triaxial test - Undrained Shear Strength

(total stress)

Notes
Objective
The Triaxial test is primarily designed to determine the shear strength
parameters of a soil sample either in terms of total stresses, i.e. the angle
of shear resistance (φ), the cohesion (c) and the undrained shear strength
(cu). Or in terms of effective stresses, i.e. the angle of shear resistance (φ')
and the cohesion (c’).
These values may be used to calculate the bearing capacity of a soil and
the stability of slopes.
The test is intended mainly for fine grained
homogenoUS SOils.
The described test is an undrained test without measurement of pore
pressure. This method covers the determination of the Undrained Shear
Strength (cu), the Cohesion (c) and the Angle of internal friction (φ) of a
specimen of cohesive soil when it is subjected to a constant confining
pressure and to straincontrolled axial loading, when no change in total
moisture content is allowed. Tests are usually carried out on a set of 3
similar specimens, subjected to different confining pressures.

Main Principles
This test is carried out in the Triaxial apparatus on specimens in the form
of cylinders of height approximately equal to twice the diameter.
Specimens diameter range from 38 mm to about 110 mm.

In this test the specimen is confined in an impervious membrane between

impervious end caps in a triaxial cell which can be pressurized by water.
The axial load is increased by applying a constant rate of strain until the
specimen fails, normally within a period of 5 min. to 15 min.

References
BS 1377 : Part 7 : 1990. In addition to the derivation only of the Un-
drained shear strength, cu, the derivation of φ and c have also been
included.

For a set of tests on three similar Test Conditions

specimens of UndistUrbed normally
consolidated soil, cell pressUre of aboUt 0.5 The following test conditions shall be specified by the Engineer before
σV , σV and 2 σV might be appropriate, starting a series of tests:
where sV is the total vertical in-sitU Stress.
(a) Size of test specimen
The pressUre USed
shoUld cover the range of vertical stress (b) Number of specimens to be tested (minimum 2 - 3)
likely to be experienced by the soil in-sitU. (c) Cell confining pressures (se note)
For compacted soils the cell pressUres
shoUld be related in a similar manner to the (d) Whether undisturbed or remoulded specimens are to be tested
estimated total stresses likely to occUr in (e) For remoulded specimens the moisture content, and either the
the field conditions.
dry density to be achieved or the compactive effort to be applied.

Required equipment
· Triaxial cell, of dimensions appropriate to the size of the test
specimen, suitable for use with water at internal working
pressures required to perform the test. (A gas shall not be used for
pressurizing the cell.)

82 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.13
Ministry of Works

Triaxial test - Undrained Shear Strength

(total stress)

Notes The main features of the cell are shown in figure 1 and are as follows:

(a) Cell top plate of corrosion resistant material fitted with an air
bleed plug and close-fitting piston guide bushing.
The piStOn ShOUld be perfectly clean and (b) Loading piston for applying axial compressive force to the
lightly Oiled. specimen. Lateral bending of the piston during a test shall be
negligible. Friction between the piston or seal and its bushing shall
be small enough to allow the piston to slide freely under its own
weight when the cell is empty. The clearance between the piston
and its bushing or seal shall minimize leakage from the cell.
(c) Cylindrical cell body which shall be removable for inserting the
specimen, and shall be adequately sealed to the top plate and base
plate.
(d) Cell base of corrosion resistant rigid material incorporating a
con- nection port as shown.

· Apparatus for applying and maintaining the desired pressure on

water within the cell to an accuracy of ± 5 kPa with a gauge of
test grade for measuring the pressure. CML is using Controls
pressure system. Oil and water pressure range is 0 − 1.700 kPa.
· Machine capable of applying axial compression at a uniform rate to
the specimen at a convenient speed within the range 0.05 mm/min
to 4 mm/min. The machine shall be capable of applying an axial
deformation of about one-third the height of the specimen tested.
· Means of measuring the axial deformation of the specimen,
readable to 0.01 mm.
· Calibrated loading ring, supported by the crosshead of the com-
pression machine so as to prevent its own weight being
transferred to the test specimen.
· Rigid corrosion resistant or plastic end caps of the same diameter
as the test specimen. A self-aligning seating shall be provided
BefOre USe the membrane Shall be between the top end cap and the loading ram.
checked fOr imperfectiOnS by blOwing it · Tubular membrane of high density latex to enclose the
Up (aS a ballOOn). FaUlty membraneS
Shall be diScarded. specimen and provide protection against leakage from the cell
fluid.
· Membrane stretcher, to suit the size of the specimen.
· Two rubber O-rings, for sealing each end of the membrane on to
the top cap and base pedestal.
· Extruder for vertical extrusion of sample from U-100 tubes
· Sample tubes 38 mm internal diameter and about 230 mm long, with
sharp cutting edge and cap
· Trimming knife, wire saw, spatula
· Steel rule
· Vernier calipers
· Apparatus for Moisture Content determination.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 83
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.13
Ministry of Works

Triaxial test - Undrained Shear Strength

(total stress)

Notes
Sample preparation
SpecimenS may be Of UndiStUrbed SOil,
Or Of cOmpacted SOil prepared by
The specimen shall have a height equal to about twice the diameter, with
cOmpactiOn intO a mOUld. The degree Of plane ends normal to the axis. The size of the largest soil particle shall not
cOmpactiOn ShOUld relate tO field be greater than one-fifth of the specimen diameter.
cOnditiOnS.
Step 1: Remove the soil from its sampling tube or container and make a
COmmOn practice iS tO extrUde 38
mm SampleS frOm a U-100 tUbe Or a
careful inspection to ascertain the condition. Report any
piStOn Sample tUbe. indication of local softening, disturbance, presence of large
particles, or other non-uniformity. If these features cannot be
avoided use an alternative sample for preparing the test
specimens.
Step 2: Protect the soil from loss of moisture during preparation.
Step 3: When a set of specimens is required for testing at different con-
fining pressures, select the specimens so that they are similar.
Record the location and orientation of each specimen within
the block sample.
Step 4: Measure the length L0 (in mm), diameter D0 (in mm) and mass
m (in g) of each prepared specimen with sufficient accuracy to
enable the bulk density to be calculated to an accuracy of ± 1 -
2%.
Step 5: Place the specimen that is to be tested first between end caps in
the membrane as quickly as possible to prevent loss of
moisture. Seal the specimens that are not to be tested
immediately to prevent loss of moisture.
Step 6: After preparing the test specimens, break open the remainder
of the sample and record a detailed description of the soil
fabric.

Test Procedure
Step 1: Place the specimen on the base end cap and place the top cap on
the specimen. Filter stones may be used on top and bottom of
It iS adViSable tO USe a Small SUctiOn the specimen.
tO get rid Of any air. LeakageS will then
alSO be detected. Step 2: Fit the membrane evenly on the stretcher.
Step 3: Place the membrane around the specimen while
applying suction to the stretcher.
Step 4: Seal the membrane to the end caps by means of rubber O-
rings (or the stretcher), without entrapping air.
Step 5: Place the specimen centrally on the base pedestal of the
triaxial cell, ensuring that it is in correct vertical alignment.
Step 6: Assemble the cell body with the loading piston well clear of the
specimen top cap. Check alignment by allowing the piston to
slide down slowly until it makes contact with the bearing
surface on the top cap, then retract the piston. If necessary
remove the cell body and correct any eccentricity.
Step 7: Fill the triaxial cell with water, ensuring that all the air is
displaced through the air vent. Add some oil on top.
Step 8: Pressurize the triaxial cell and make final adjustments.
84 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.13
Ministry of Works

Triaxial test - Undrained Shear Strength

(total stress)

Notes Step 9: Raise the water pressure in the cell to the desired value with the
loading piston restrained by the load frame or force-measuring
device. The pressure should be kept on for about ½ hour before
proceeding with the test. The cell pressure shall be determined
by the Engineer.
Step 10: Adjust the loading machine to bring the loading piston to
within a few mm of its seating on the specimen top cap. Record
the reading of the force-measuring device during steady motion
as the initial reading.
Step 11: Adjust the machine further to bring the loading piston just in
A SUitable rate Of Strain iS 2 % per min, contact with the seating of the top cap. Record the reading of the
which eqUalS 1,5 mm per min. fOr a 76 axial deformation gauge.
mm lOng Specimen. Step 12: Select a rate of axial deformation such that failure is produced
SUitable reading intervalS fOr a SOil Of
within a period of 5 min to 15 min. Engage the appropriate gear
mediUm cOmpreSSibility are typically on the compression machine. The rate of axial deformation shall
0.25 be decided by the Engineer.
% Strain Up tO 1 % Strain, and 0.5 % Strain Step 13: Start the test by switching on the machine.
thereafter. FOr a very Stiff SOil which iS
likely tO fail SUddenly at a Small Strain, Step 14: Record readings of the force-measuring device and the
readingS ShOUld be taken at freqUent deformation gauge at regular intervals of the latter, so that at
intervalS Of fOrce rather than Of Strain tO least 15 sets of readings are recorded up to the point of failure.
Obtain the reqUired nUmber Of readingS.
Step 15: Verify that the cell pressure remains constant.
Step 16: Continue the test until the maximum value of the axial stress has
ApprOximately 15 mm which been passed and the peak is clearly defined, or until an axial
cOrreSpOndS tO 15 rOUndS On the strain of 20 % has been reached.
deflectiOn dial gaUge.
Step 17: Stop the test and remove the axial force.
Step 18: Drain the water from the cell, dismantle the cell and remove the
specimen.
Step 19: Remove the rubber membrane from the specimen and record the
mode of failure with the aid of a sketch.
TheSe actiOnS ShOUld be cOmpleted
withOUt delay tO avOid lOSS Of mOiStUre Step 20: Break open the specimen and record a description of the soil
frOm the Specimen. including its fabric.
Step 21: Determine the moisture content of the whole specimen, or of
representative portions. If there are surfaces of failure, moisture
content specimens should be taken from zones adjacent to them.

Plotting and Calculations

1) From each set of readings calculate the axial force, P (N), applied to
the specimen by multiplying the difference between that reading
and the initial reading of the gauge on the force-measuring device
by its calibration factor (in N per divisions).

2) Calculate the cross-sectional area, A (mm), of the specimen, on

the assumption that it deforms as a right cylinder, from the
equation:
A0
A=
where 1-s

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 85

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.13
Ministry of Works

Triaxial test - Undrained Shear Strength

(total stress)

Notes
A0 is the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen (in mm2) calculated
from the initial diameter D0
2L
s is the axial strain, equal to
L0
where

L0 is the initial length of the specimen (in mm)

2L is the change in length measured by the axial deformation gauge
(in mm).
3) Calculate the Principal Stress difference, i.e. the Deviator Stress (in
kPa = kN/m2): (σ1 - σS) = P x 1000 [ kPa = N/mm2 x 1000 =
kN/m2] A
4) Plot the stress-strain relationship for each specimen, i.e. the
deviator stress against axial strain. Curves for all three specimens
may be plotted on the same graph.
5) The values at failure should be tabulated as shown below:

6) Using these values of σS and σ1 , the Mohr circle at failure for each
specimen can be drawn on the same graphical plot. The scale on
the vertical axis (shear stress axis) and the horizontal axis
(principal
stress axis) must be the same. Draw the best line fit to touch the
circles. This tangential line is the Mohr-Coulomb envelope rep-
resenting failure. The angle of inclination (φ degrees) of the
envelope to the horizontal is measured, and the intercept (c) on the
shear stress axis is read off.
7) Calculate the value of the Undrained Shear Strength, cu (in
kPa), from the equation:

cu = ½ (σ1 - σS)

8) Calculate the Bulk Density of the specimen ρ (in Mg/mS), from

the equation:

ρ = 1000m0
[ Mg/mS = 1000 g/mmS = tonne/mS ]
A0L0
where

m0 is the mass of the specimen (in g).

86 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.13
Ministry of Works

Triaxial test - Undrained Shear Strength

(total stress)

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Initial specimen dimensions
d) Whether undisturbed or remoulded specimens, and method
of specimen preparation
e) Initial moisture content, bulk density and dry density of the specimen
f) Set of stress-strain curves for the three specimens
g) Tabulated values of σ1 , σ2 and (σ1 - σS)
h) Mohr circle diagrams
i) Angle of shear resistance, φ (to the nearest 0,5°)
j) Cohesion intercept, c (to the nearest 1 kPa = 1 kN/m2)
k) The Undrained Shear Strength value, cu = ½ (σ1 - σS)f (to the nearest
1 kPa = 1 kN/m2)
l) Strain at failure (in %) for each specimen
m) Depth and orientation of test specimen within the original sample
n) Rate of strain (in %/min) applied during the test
o) Mode of failure
A suitable form for reporting data is shown below:

Form for the test

The enclosed forms shall be used.

Practical considerations
Use dry filter stones. The use of filter stones is not mandatory, but it
makes the handling of the samples easier.

Maintenance
Clean the cell after running the test.
Wash and powder the rubber membrane.
Clean the filter stones.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 87

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory TEST NO.1.13

Ministry of Works

Triaxial test - Undrained Shear Strength

(total stress)

Notes
Appendix
An alternative method of calculating the Angle of shear resistance, φ
and the Cohesion intercept, c, is shown below.

The cell pressure, σS is plotted against σ1 = σS + (σ1 - σS) at failure for the
performed tests (i.e. minimum 2 tests).

The Angle of shear resistance is calculated from:

Nφ – l
tan φ = and φ = arctan φ
S Nφ
The Cohesion intercept is calculated from:
Cφ
c=
S Nφ

88 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure 15 Typical details of triaxial cell

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 89

90 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 91
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.14
Ministry of Works

Shearbox Test - Drained Shear Strength

Notes
Objective
The Shear Box allows a direct shear test to be made by relating the shear
stress at failure to the applied normal stress. The objective of the test is to
determine the effective shear strength parameters of the soil, the cohesion
(c’) and the angle of internal friction (φ’). These values may be used for
calculating the bearing capacity of a soil and the stability of slopes.

Main Principles
In the direct shear test a square prism of soil is laterally restrained and
sheared along a mechanically induced horizontal plane while subjected to
a pressure applied normal to that plane. The shearing resistance offered
by the soil as one portion is made to slide on the other is measured at
regular intervals of displacement. Failure occurs when the shearing
resistance reaches the maximum value which the soil can sustain.

By carrying out tests on a set of (usually three) similar specimens of the

same soil under different normal pressures, the relationship between
measured shear stress at failure and normal applied stress is obtained.

The shearbox apparatus can be used only for carrying out drained tests for
The rate of displacement may vary from 1 the determination of effective shear strength parameters. There is no
mm/min for a free-draining sand to less control of drainage, and the procedure cannot be used for undrained tests.
than 0,001 mm/min for a silty or clayey
material.
The test specimen is consolidated under a vertical nomal load until the
The “qUick” test is best sUited to primary consolidation is completed. It is then sheared at a rate of
determine the valUe of φ for free-draining displacement that is slow enough to prevent development of excess pore
sands pressures. Test data enable the effective shear strength parameters c' and
φ' to be derived.

Reference
BS 1377 : Part 7 : 1990

Test conditions
The following test conditions shall be specified before a series of tests is
started:

a) Size of test specimen

b) Whether undisturbed or remoulded specimens are to be tested:
The matters listed points b) - d) are - For undisturbed specimens, the orientation of the specimens relative
Under
to be decided by the Engineer. to the plane of shear
- For remoulded specimens the moisture content, and either the
dry density to be achieved or the compactive effort to be applied
c) Number of test specimens to be tested as a set
d) The normal pressures to be applied

92 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.14
Ministry of Works

Shearbox Test - Drained Shear Strength

Notes Required equipment

· Shearbox apparatus for carrying out tests on soil specimens of
60 mm square and 30 mm high divided horizontally into two
halves. Details of the shearbox is shown in figure 1, and a typical
arrange- ment of the shearbox apparatus assembly in figure 2.
· Two porous plates of corrosion-resistant material.
· Two perforated grid plates of about the same size in plan as
the porous plates, if necessary.
· A loading cap to cover the top grid plate or porous plate.
· A calibrated means of applying a vertical force to the loading
cap such as a loading yoke.
· A motorized loading device capable of applying horizontal shear
to the vertically loaded specimen at constant rates of displacement
from which a rate to suit the soil being tested can be selected.
· A shear load measuring device (loading ring)
· Dial gauge for measuring the relative horizontal displacement of
the two halves of the shearbox.
· Dial gauge for measuring the vertical deformation of the
specimen during the test.
· Specimen cutter.
· Tool for removing the specimen from the cutter.
· Levelling template for trimming the surface of the specimen in
the shearbox to a known level.
· Calibrated vernier external/internal caliper for measuring the
internal dimensions and height of the cutting ring or test specimen
to 0.1 mm.
· Stopclock, readable to 1 sec.
· Balance, readable to 0.1 g.
· Apparatus for determining moisture content.
· Silicone grease or petroleum jelly.

Preparation and assembly of shearbox

Step 1: Apply a thin coating of silicon grease or petroleum jelly to
the inside faces of the shearbox and to the surfaces of contact
between the two halves of the box.
Step 2: Assemble the shearbox with two halves securely clamped
together, fit the baseplate and place it securely in position in
the carriage.
Step 3: Place a grid plate on the base of the box if necessary,
followed by a porous plate.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 93

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.14
Ministry of Works

Shearbox Test - Drained Shear Strength

Notes
Preparation of specimen
Specimen of either cohesive or non-cohesive soil may be tested in the
shearbox. Preparation procedures depend on the type of soil, as indicated
below. The size of the largest particle shall not exceed one tenth of the
height of the specimen.

Normally three similar specimens are prepared from an undisturbed or

remoulded cohesive sample, for testing under three different normal
pressures. A non-cohesive sample shall be large enough to provide three
separate specimens to avoid having to re-use the same material.

Undisturbed specimens are built into the shearbox by the use of the
specimen cutter.

Remoulded specimens shall be compacted into an e.g. Proctor mould

given sufficient compactive effort to achieve the desired density. The
specimens are then built into the shearbox by the use of the specimen
cutter.

Test procedure
Initial adjustments
Step 1: Position the carriage (on its bearings) on the machine bed, and
adjust the drive unit to the correct starting point of the shear
test. Secure the horizontal displacement gauge in position.
Step 2: Assemble the loading system so that the loading yoke
Remember tO inclUde the weight Of the is supported by the ball seating on top of the load cap.
yOke and tOpcap when calcUlating the
Step 3: Secure the vertical deformation gauge in position so that it can
cOnSOlidatiOn preSSUre.
measure the vertical movement of the centre of the loading
cap, ensuring that it allows enough movement in either
direction.
Record the initial zero reading.
The applied fOrce mUSt be decided by the
Engineer. NOrmally ValUeS Of 50%, 100% Consolidation
and 150% Of the StreSS likely tO OccUr
in the grOUnd will be apprOpriate.
Step 1: Apply a normal force to the specimen, to give the desired
vertical stress, σn (in kPa), smoothly and as rapidly as possible
The Engineer mUSt decide whether tO without jolting. Start the clock at the same instant if
teSt in soaked Or dry cOnditiOn. consolidation readings are significant.
Step 2: Except when testing dry soils, as soon as possible after applying
the normal force fill the carriage with water to a level just
above the top of the specimen, and maintain it at that level
The time reqUired tO Shear the Sample throughout the test.
tO failUre may be Obtained frOm the
Step 3: Record readings of the vertical deformation gauge and elapsed
cOnSOlidatiOn graph:
tf = 12,7 x t100 (min)
time at suitable intervals to allow a graph to be drawn of
vertical deformation as ordinate, against square-root of elapsed
time as abscissa. A plot of vertical deformation against time to a
loga- rithmic scale may also be made. Continue until the plotted
readings indicate that primary consolidation is complete.
Form 7 (b) is suitable for recording and plotting these data.
94 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.14
Ministry of Works

Shearbox Test - Drained Shear Strength

Notes
Final adjustments
On completion of the consolidation stage and before shearing make the
following checks and adjustments:
Step 4: Ensure that all adjacent components from the constant rate of
displacement device through to the load measuring device
and its point of restraint are properly in contact, but under
zero horizontal load.
Step 5: Remove the clamping screws which lock the two halves of the
shearbox together.
Step 6: Raise the upper half of the box, keeping it level, by turning
the lifting screws (1/4 to 1/2 turn). The amount of clearance
between the two halves should be enough to prevent them
coming toget her during the test, but shall not permit
extrusion of the soil between them. Retract the lifting screws.
Step 7: Record the initial readings of the horizontal displacement
gauge, the vertical deformation gauge and the force measuring
device.

Remember to remove the clamping Shearing

screws before the shearing starts. If this
is forgotten the equipment will be Shear the specimen to failure:
destroyed. Step 8: Start the test and at the same instant start the timer. Record
readings of the force measuring device, the horizontal displace-
Recommended speed
For a free-draining sand a rate of 1 mm/min ment gauge, the vertical deformation gauge and elapsed time,
will be sUitable. The time to failUre shoUld, at regular intervals of horizontal displacement such that at least
however, be determined from the con- 20 readings are taken up to the maximum load (‘peak’ shear
solidation graph (7b). strength).
tf = 12,7 x t100 (min),
2
Step 9: Take additional readings as the maximum horizontal force is
approached, so that if the ‘peak’ occurs it can be clearly defined.
where; t100 = t100 Step 10: Continue shearing and taking readings beyond the maximum
force, or until the full travel of the apparatus has been reached if
there is no defined peak, then stop the test.
Step 11: Reverse the direction of travel of the carriage and return the two
halves of the shearbox to their original alignment.
Step 12: If the specimen was sheared under water, siphon off the water
from around the specimen and allow to stand for about 10
min to enable free water to drain from the porous plates.
Step 13: Remove the vertical force and loading yoke from the specimen.
Step 14: Transfer the specimen from the shearbox to a small tray, taking
care not to lose any soil. Remove any free water with a tissue.
Step 15: Weigh the specimen on the tray to 0.1 g.
Step 16: Dry the soil in an oven at 105oC to 110oC and determine its dry
mass (md) to 0.1 g, and its final moisture content.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 95
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.14
Ministry of Works

Shearbox Test - Drained Shear Strength

Notes
Calculations and plotting
General data

See form 7 a). 1) Calculate the initial Moisture Content, w0 (in %), from the equation:

w0 mm
0 - md
= d x 100
where

m0 is the initial mass of the specimen (in g):

md is the final dry mass of the specimen (in g).

1 Mg = 1000 kg (= 1 tonne) 2) Calculate the initial Dry Density, ρd (in Mg/mS) from the equation:

ρd = md x 1000
AHo
where
For an UndiStUrbed Specimen trimmed in
the Specimen cUtter, H0 iS eqUal to the A is the plan area of the specimen (in mm2):
height of the cUtter.
H0 is the initial height of the specimen (in mm).
For a diStUrbed Specimen formed in the
Shearbox, H0 iS calcUlated from h1, h2 and
the appropriate plate thickneSS tp. 3) Calculate the initial Bulk Density, ρ (in Mg/mS) from the equation:
ρ mo x 1000
=
AHo

4) Calculate the initial Void Ratio, e0 (if required) from the equation:

e0 =
ρr
ρd - 1
where

ρs is the particle density (in Mg/mS) (which may be measured, or assumed).

5) Calculate the initial degree of saturation, S0 (if required) as

percent age from the equation:
wo ρs
S0 = e0

6) Calculate the Voids Ratio, e, at the end of the consolidation

stage, and at the end of shearing (if required) from the equation:

e=
e0
[
- 2
H
(1 + e0)]
where H0
2H is the calculated change in height (vertical deformation) of the
specimen (in mm) from the initial zero reading.

96 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.14
Ministry of Works

Shearbox Test - Drained Shear Strength

Notes Stresses and displacements

From each set of data obtained during the shear test calculate the
See form (7c).
horizontal shear force, P (in N), applied to the specimen.

7) Calculate the Shear Stress on the surface of shear, τ (in kPa)

for each set of readings from the equation:
P
c= x 1000
A
where

A is the initial plan area of the specimen (in mm2).

8) The normal stress σn (in kPa), applied to the specimen is given by

the equation
1000x9.81m
kPa = kN/m2 [1 kgforce = 9.81 N]
σn = A
The continUal change in the area of contact
is not normally taken into accoUnt. where
m is the mass of the hanger and hanger weights (or equivalent mass if
a lever-arm loading system is used) applied to the loading cap (in kg).

9) Calculate the cumulative vertical deformation for each set of

readings relative to the datum corresponding to the initial
specimen height.

See form 7 (e). Graphical plots, single stage tests

For each specimen of a set of single-stage tests, plot the following graphs:

a) Shear stress (in kPa) as ordinates against horizontal displacement

(in mm) as abscissae
b) Change in height (vertical deformation) of the specimen (in mm) as
ordinates against horizontal displacement (in mm) as abscissae, if
required. If preferred the changes in height may be plotted in terms
of voids ratio by using the equation given in point 6 above.
c) From each stress-displacement graph read off the value of the
maximum shear stress (the ‘peak’ strength) and the corresponding
horizontal dis- placement and change in specimen height.
d) Plot each value of peak strength τf (in kPa), as ordinates against the
corresponding vertical normal stress σn (in kPa) applied for that test
as abscissae, both to the same linear scale.
e) If it can be assumed that the relationship is linear, the slope of the
line and its intercept with the shear strength axis can be derived from
the line of best fit through the plotted points. The slope gives the
angle of shearing resistance φ’ (in degrees), and the intercept gives
the apparent cohesion c’ (in kPa), both in terms of effective stress.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 97

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.14
Ministry of Works

Shearbox Test - Drained Shear Strength

Notes
Test report
The test report shall contain the following:

a) Reference of this procedure

b) Statement of the method used
c) Initial dimensions of the specimens
d) Initial moisture content, bulk density, and dry density
e) Particle density, indicating whether measured or assumed
f) Initial voids ratio and degree of saturation, if required
g) Tabulated values for each specimen of the applied normal stress,
maxi- mum shear stress and corresponding horizontal relative
displacement
h) Rate of horizontal displacement
i) Whether the specimen were tested dry or submerged
j) Graphical plots of settlement against square-root time for
each specimen, if relevant
k) Graphical plots of shear stress, and if required, the change in specimen
thickness, against cumulative horizontal displacement for each
specimen
l) Graphical plots of maximum shear stress against normal applied
stress, showing the derivation of c’, φ’.
The horizontal and vertical scale must be the same. Draw the line of
best fit through the 3 points. This line is the failure envelope or the
Coulomb envelope. If the soil is granular and non-cohesive, the line
should pass through the origin (c’ = 0).
m) (Only if the plotted relationship are linear) Angle of shearing resi-
stance φ’, to the nearest 1/2o, and cohesion intercept c’ (in kPa) to
two significant figures, for the maximum condition.
See form 7 a).
Checking and preparation of the apparatus
Measurements
· Ensure that the specimen cutter is clean and dry, and that the
cutting edge is in good condition.
· Determine and record the mass of the cutter to 0.1 g.
· Determine the mass of the tray or watch glass to 0.1 g.
· Verify and record the mean internal dimensions of the cutter to 0.1 mm.
· Ensure that the shearbox components are clean and dry. Clamp the
two halves of the box securely together with the clamping screws,
fit the baseplate and assemble the shearbox securely in the carriage.
· Determine the internal plan dimensions (L1 x L2) of the shearbox to
0.1 mm, and calculate the plan area A (in mm2) Determine the mean
depth from the top surface of the upper half to the top of the base
plate (h1 ) to 0.1 mm.
98 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.14
Ministry of Works

Shearbox Test - Drained Shear Strength

Notes · Measure and record the thickness of each porous plate and grid
plate to 0.1 mm. Determine the combined thickness of plates to
be used for the test ( tp).

Maintenance
· The equipment shall be kept clean, dry and calibrated.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 99

7igure 16 Details of shearbox

100 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure 17 Typical general arrangement of shearbox apparatus

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 101

102 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 103
104 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 105
106 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.15
Ministry of Works

Permeability Test - Constant Head

Notes
Objective
The fundamental soil property involved in water flow is permeability. The
The Constant Head permeameter is best permeability is especially relevant for engineering problems like
sUitable for relatively Coarse grained determination of rate of leakage through an earth dam.
soils sUCh as sands and gravels.
The Falling Head permeameter is more
appropriate for fine-grained soils sUCh as
It depends mainly on the particle size, void ratio, density and degree of
silty and Clay-like soils. saturation.

Main Principles
The permeability of a soil is a measure of its capacity to allow the flow of
water through the pore spaces between solid particles. The degree of
permeability is determined by applying a hydraulic pressure gradient in a
sample of saturated soil and measuring the consequent rate of flow. The
coefficient of permeability is expressed as a velocity.

The specimens are formed in a permeability cell and water is passed

through it from a constant level tank. Pressure take-off points located
along the sides of the permeability cell are connected to 3 manometer
tubes.
Water passing through the specimen is collected and measured.

References
BS 1377 : Part 5 : 1990.

Required equipment
· Permeameter cell
The permeability of the disCs shall be · Two discs of wire gauze (or porous disc) with a diameter equal
greater than that of the soil sample. to the internal diameter of the cell body
· A vertical adjustable reservoir tank
· A supply of clean water (preferably de-aerated)
· A discharge reservoir with overflow to maintain a constant level
· A set of transparent manometer tubes
· A pinch cock for each manometer tube
The grading of the filter material depends · Filter material of suitable grading for placing adjacent to
on the partiCle siZe distribUtion of the
test sample. The filter material grading
the perforated plates at each end of the permeameter
limits shoUld lie between 4 x the 15 % · Measuring cylinders of 100 ml, 500 ml and 1.000 ml
passing siZe and 4 x the 85 % passing · A scoop
siZe of the test sample. The material · A flatended tamping rod
shoUld be well graded between those · A thermometer
limits.
· A stopclock
· A balance readable to 1 g

Sample Preparation
This test is not sUitable for soils Containing Step 1: Remove oversize particles larger than 8 mm in diameter. The
more than 10 % of material passing the
63 µm sieve. volume of the sample shall be about twice that required to fill
the permeameter cell. The sample shall not be dried.
If a nUmber of tests are to be performed at
different densities to establish a Step 2: Take two ore more representative samples from the prepared
relationship between permeability and material for the determination of Moisture Content and
voids ratio, prepare several samples. Particle Density.

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CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.15
Ministry of Works

Permeability Test - Constant Head

Notes
Step 3: Weigh the remainder of the prepared sample to 1 g (ml).

Test Procedure

Step 1: Assemble the base plate, with perforated base, to the

permea- meter cell body.
Step 2: Place the graded filter material in the bottom of the cell to a
depth of about 50 mm. Level the surface and place a wire
gauze (or porous disc) on top.
PlaCe the soil to be tested into the perme-
ameter in sUCh a way as to give a
Step 3: Place the soil in the permeameter in at least 4 layers, each
homogenoUS deposit at the reqUired of which is of a thickness about equal to half the diameter.
density or voids ratio. The final
height:diameter ratio of the test sample
Step 4: Tamp each layer with a controlled number of standard
shall not be less than 2:1. blows with the tamping rod. Level the surface of each layer
before adding the next.
Step 5: Place the upper wire gauze (or porous disc) on top of the sample.
Step 6: Place the graded filter material on top of the disc to a depth
of minimum 50 mm.
Step 7: Release the piston in the top plate and withdraw it to its fullest
extent.
Step 8: Fit the top plate to the permeameter cell and tighten it down
in position.
Step 9: Lower the piston carefully and bed the perforated plate on to
the filter material. Hold the piston down firmly and tighten the
locking collar in this position.

Measurements
Step 10: Determine the mean length of the test sample, Ll (in cm), to
1 mm, by measuring at three locations around the
perimeter.
Step 11: Dry the soil left over and weigh it to 1 g (m2), so that the dry
mass of the test sample can be obtained by difference

Saturation
Step 12: Connect the control valve on the base of the permeameter to the
water supply. Open the top connection and the air bleed to
atmosphere, and close the connection to the manometer tubes.
Step 13: Allow water to enter the cell and slowly percolate upwards
through the sample until it emerges first from the air
The water level shall rise slowly enoUgh bleed, which is then closed, and then from the top
not to CaUSe distUrbanCe of the sample, connection.
or piping
Step 14: Measure the length of the sample again (L2) and record the
average measurement, L (in cm) = ½ (L1 + L2).
Step 15: Close the control valve. Connect the water supply to the permea-
meter top connection, and connect the control valve at the base
to the discharge reservoir, without entrapping air.
108 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.15
Ministry of Works

Permeability Test - Constant Head

Notes Step 16: Set the inlet reservoir at a level a little above the top of the
permeameter cell and open the supply valve. Open the mano-
meter pinch cocks one by one and ensure that no air is trapped
in the flexible tubing as water flows into the manometer tubes.
The water in all tubes shall reach the level of the reservoir
surface.
Step 17: The permeameter cell is now ready for test under the normal
condition of downward flow. Iƒ a test with upward ƒlow is
required,
e.g. ƒor investigating piping eƒƒects, ƒit the control valve,connected
to the discharge reservoir, to the top oƒ the cell and connect the
water supply to the base.
An initial hydraUliC gradient Of 0.2 iS Often
SUitable, althOUgh a Slightly higher
ValUe may be mOre apprOpriate fOr
Downward water flow
finergrained Or mOre denSe SampleS. Step 18: Adjust the height of the inlet reservoir to a suitable level with
regard to the hydraulic gradient to be imposed on the sample.
Step 19: Open the control valve at the base to produce flow through the
sample under a hydraulic gradient appreciably less than unity
(1.0). Allow the water levels in the manometer tubes to become
stable before starting test measurements.
Step 20: Place a measuring cylinder of suitable capacity under the outlet
from the discharge reservoir and simultaneously start the timer.
Step 21: Measure the quantity of water collected in the cylinder during
a given time interval. Alternatively record the time required to
fill the cylinder up to a given volume.
If the three leVelS indiCate SignifiCant nOn-
UnifOrmity Of the hydraUliC gradient, remO Step 22: Record the water levels in the manometer tubes.
Step 23: Record the temperature of the water in the discharge reservoir.
Step 24: Repeat steps 19 to 23 four more times, or until consistent
readings are obtained.

Calculations
1) Calculate the rate of flow, ql, q2 etc. (in ml/s) during the period
of each observation of flow from the equation:
Q1
ql = t etc. where

Ql, Q2 etc. (in ml) is the volume of water collected from the outlet reservoir
during each time period, t (in s).

Calculate the average rate of flow, q, for the set of readings at one
hydraulic gradient.

2) Calculate the hydraulic gradient, i, between the uppermost

and lower manometer gland points from the equation:
The intermediate manOmeter pOint iS
h
USed tO prOVide a CheCk On the
i= where
UnifOrmity Of the hydraUliC gradient y
between the OUter
pOintS, y = x1 + x2, See figUre 19. h is the difference between the two manometer levels (in cm);
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 109
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.15
Ministry of Works

Permeability Test - Constant Head

Notes
y is the difference between the corresponding glandpoints (in cm).

3) Calculate the coefficient of permeability, k (in cm/s), for one set

The permeability of Clean sands and of readings from the equation:
gravels will normally be in the range from q Rt
k= 0,0001 Cm/s to k=100 Cm/s. k=i A where

Table 1 is on the enClosed working sheet.

A is the area of cross section of the sample (in cm2);

Rt is the temperature de correction factor for the viscosity of water,

derived from Table 1, to standardize the permeability to 20 °C.

4) Calculate the Dry Mass, m3 (in g), of the initial sample from
the equation:

m3 = ml
100
where
100 + w
ml is the initial mass of the sample (in g)

w is the moisture content (in %)

5) Calculate the Dry Density, pd (in kg/mS), of the test sample

from the equation:
4 (m3 - m2)
ρ= x 1000 where
d П DDL
m2 is the mass of dry soil remaining after setting up the test sample (g)

D is the sample diameter (in cm)

L is the overall length of the sample (in cm).

6) Calculate the Void Ratio, e, of the test sample (if required) from
the equation:
ρs
e = ρd - 1 where

ρs is the Particle Density (in kg/mS)

Additional more extensive testing (if applicable)

If a series of tests at different hydraulic gradients is required, then Steps
19 to 24 above shall be repeated under progressively increasing
hydraulic gradients. This can be achieved by increasing the height of the
inlet reservoir, or by opening the control valve further as necessary.
Laminar flow is indiCated when the The hydraulic gradients shall cover the range of interest within the range
relation- ship between rate of flow and of laminar flow.
hydraUliC gradient is linear. Deviation from
the straight line at high gradients indiCate
tUrbUlent flow. If a relationship between Coefficient of Permeability and Voids Ratio
over a range of void ratios is required, the whole test shall be repeated
using
110 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.15
Ministry of Works

Permeability Test - Constant Head

Notes different portions of the same soil, but placed and compacted to different
densities.

Calculations
If tests have been carried out at different hydraulic gradients, plot the
calculated Rate of Flow, q, against the Hydraulic Gradient, i.

Draw the straight line of best fit through the plotted points and determine
its slope which is:
2q
2i
When a range of Hydraulic Gradients is used, the Coefficient of
Permeability of the sample may be calculated from the equation:
2q Rt
k 2i A
=
If the Coefficient of Permeability is determined at several densities, plot
the calculated values of k as ordinates, to logarithmic scale, against
Density or Voids Ratio, e, as abscissae, to linear scale.

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Whether or not de-aerated water was used
d) The Particle Size Distribution curve for the original sample
(if appropriate)
e) The proportion and size of oversize material removed before pre
- paring the test sample
f) Method of placing and compacting the test sample
g) The dimensions of permeameter cell
h) The Dry Density
i) The Voids ratio (if required)
j) Then Coefficient of Permeability, k (in cm/s), to two
significant figures, for the condition of laminar flow, corrected
to 20 °C.
k) A plot of Coefficient of Permeability, k (log scale) against Density
or Voids Ratio, e, if appropriate.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Maintenance
Ensure that the permeameter cell, gauze, perforated plates, glands and
joints are clean and free from blockage.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 111

112 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
7igure 18 Eection of a typical constant-head permeability cell

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 113

7igure 19 Arrangement of apparatus for constant-head permeability test

114 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.16
Ministry of Works

Organic Content - Loss on Ignition (LOI) method

Notes
Objective
The described test is a method for quantitative determination of the
The desCribed method of ignition loss is not Organic Content in a soil sample by ignition of a dry test sample. The
Considered an aCCUrate method for deter- method is suitable for fine-grained soils (sands and silts) with relatively
mining the OrganiC Content. However, the
method is Considered adeqUate for the
high organic content, but containing little chalky material.
majority of ordinary geoteChniCal invest-
igations. The method may also be applied for gravels for subbase and base materi-
als in road construction. For gravels only a small part of the sample will be
less than 425 µm. However, the finely distributed organic material in a
gravelly material is considered the most significant factor regarding the
material’s ability to bind and retain water.

Main Principles
The dried sample is combusted at 440 °C and Organic Content of the
sample is taken as the percentage loss in weight.

The organic content is determined of the material less than 425 µm of the
test sample.

References
BS 1377 : Part 3 : 1990 (NPRA 014 : 14.445 : 12.97)

Required equipment
· Balance, readable to 0.01 g
· Metal container
· Desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel
· Pestle and mortar
· Muffle furnace with capacity of 440 ± 25 °C
· 2 Quartzite dishes (crucibles), (e.g. 70 mm diameter)
· Test sieves of aperture 2 mm and 425 µm
· Drying oven with temperature of 50 C ± 2.5 °

Test Procedure
Step 1: Weigh the 2 quartzite dishes/crucibles after heating to
440 ± 25 °C for 1 hour and after allowing to cool in a
desiccator to the nearest 0.01 g (mc).
Step 2: A representative test sample of about 300 g shall be taken from
the main sample and placed in the container.
Step 3: Place the test sample in the oven to dry at 50 ± 2.5 °C for
minimum 12 hours. After drying, weigh the sample to
the nearest 0.1 g (ml).
Step 4: Sieve the material on a 2 mm test sieve, and crush retained
particles other than stones to pass the 2 mm sieve. Reject
the stones ensuring that no fine material adheres to them,
e.g. by brushing. Record the mass of the material passing 2
mm test sieve, m2, to 0.1 g.
Step 5: Divide the material passing the 2 mm sieve to produce a
sample weighing 10, - 15 g.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 115

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.16
Ministry of Works

Organic Content - Loss on Ignition (LOI) method

Notes
Step 6: Pulverize this sample so that it passes a 425 µm test sieve.
Step 7: Subdivide the sample to obtain 2 test specimens each
weighing about 5 g.
Step 8: Place each specimen in a prepared dish/crucible and dry in the
oven at a temperature of 50 C ± 2.5 ° for about 4 hours more,
and weigh each of the 2 crucibles with soil to 0.01 g (m3).
Step 9: Place the crucibles with the soil in the unheated muffle furnace,
heat to 440 ± 25 °C, and maintain this temperature for
minimum 12 hours.
Step 10: Remove the sample from the furnace and place in a desiccator to
cool. Record the weight of the crucibles with the samples to
0.01 g (m4).

Calculations
1) The Organic Content (or Loss of Ignition) of the material is taken
as the loss in mass, and is reported as the percentage loss in mass
from the equation:
m3 - m4
Organic Content (%) = ( ) x 100 where
m3 - m c
m3 is the mass of the crucible and oven-dry soil specimen (in
g) m4 is the mass of the crucible and specimen after ignition
(in g) mc is the mass of the crucible (in g)

2) The percentage of the original soil sample passing the 2 mm

test sieve is calculated from the equation:
m2
Fraction finer than 2 mm = m1 x 100 where

m1 is the original dry mass of the sample (in g)

m2 is the mass of sample passing the 2 mm sieve (in g)

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
The aCCUraCy Of the teSt dependS b) Reference to this procedure
amOngSt Other On the COntent Of Chalky
material in the Sample. MaSS lOSS Can alSO c) The Organic Content (or Loss on Ignition) as a percentage of
reSUlt frOm releaSe Of CryStalline water. the material less than 2 mm (425 µm) to 2 significant figures
d) The percentage by dry mass of the original sample passing the 2
mm test sieve (425 µm), to the nearest 1 %.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

116 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 117
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.17
Ministry of Works

Crumb Test

Notes
Objective
The Crumb test is a simple indicator test that is recommended for initial
field identification of dispersive soils.

Main Principles
FOr SOme SOilS, a dilUte SOlUtiOn Of Dispersive clay soils are identified by observing the behaviour of a few
SOdiUm hydrOxide iS reqUired inStead Of
water. (DiSSOlve 0.04 g Of anhydrOUS
crumbs of soil placed in distilled water. The dispersion is classified
SOdiUm hydrOxide in diStilled water tO depending on the degree of muddiness of the water.
make 1 litre Of SOlUtiOn).
References
BS 1377 : Part 5 : 1990.

Required equipment
· a 100 ml glass beaker
· distilled water

Test Procedure
Step 1: Prepare a few crumbs, each about 6 mm to 10 mm diameter,
from representative portions of the soil at the natural moisture
content.

Step 2: Drop the crumbs in the beaker about one-third full of

distilled water.

Step 3: Observe the reaction after allowing to stand for 5 to 10 min.

Observations
Observe the behaviour of the crumbs, and classify in accordance with the
following guidelines:

Grade 1: No reaction. Crumbs may slake or run out to form a shallow

heap on the bottom of the beaker, but there is no sign of
cloudiness caused by colloids in suspension.

Grade 2: Slight reaction. A very slight cloudiness can be seen in the water
at the surface of a crumb.

Grade 3: Moderate reaction. There is an easily recognizable cloud of

colloids in suspension, usually spreading out in thin streaks at
the bottom of the beaker.

Grade 4: Strong reaction. A colloidal cloud covers most of the bottom

of the beaker, usually as a thin skin. In extreme cases all the
water becomes cloudy.

Grades 1 and 2 represent a non-dispersive reaction, and grades 3 and 4 a

dispersive reaction.
118 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.17
Ministry of Works

Crumb Test

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Whether the soil is classified as non-dispersive or dispersive, and
the relevant Grade from the observation guideline above.
d) Details of reagent used, if any

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 119

120 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.18
Ministry of Works

Determination of the pH value - Electrometric

method

Notes
Objective
The method can be used for determining the pH value of a sample of
ground water.

Main Principles
This is the procedure for determining the pH value by the electrometric
method, which gives a direct reading of the pH value of a soil suspension
in water.

References

BS 1377 : Part 3 : 1990.

Required equipment
· A balance readable to 0.01 g.
· A pestle and mortar
· Non-corrodible tray
· A 2 mm test sieve with receiver
FOr the Initial COnSUmptiOn Of Lime (ICL) · A pH meter, fitted with a glass electrode and a calomel reference
teSt, different eleCtrOdeS are reqUired.
electrode covering the range pH 3.0 to pH 10.0 readable to 0.05
pH units.
· 3 nos. 100 ml glass or plastic beakers with cover glasses and
stirring rods
· 2 nos. 500 ml volumetric flasks
· A wash bottle containing distilled water

Reagents
Buffer solution pH 4.00. Dissolve 5.11 g of potassium hydrogen
phthalate in distilled water and dilute to 500 ml, using a volumetric flask.

Buffer solution pH 9.20. Dissolve 9.54 g of sodium tetraborate (borax) in

distilled water and dilute to 500 ml, using a volumetric flask.

Potassium chloride. Prepare a saturated solution and use to maintain the

calomel electrode of the pH meter in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Sample preparation
Step 1: Allow the initial soil sample to air-dry or sun-dry by
spreading out on a tray.
USe an apprOpriate gUard Sieve. Step 2: Sieve the sample on a 2 mm test sieve and crush
retained particles other than stones to pass the sieve.

Step 3: Reject the stones, ensuring that no finer material adheres to them,
e.g. by brushing. Throughout these and subsequent operations,
ensure that there is no loss of fines.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 121

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.18
Ministry of Works

Determination of the pH value - Electrometric

method

Notes
Step 4: Reduce the material passing the 2 mm test sieve by successive
riffling through a 15 mm divider to produce a representative
test sample of 30 g to 35 g.

Test Procedure – Electrometric method of pH

determination
Step 1: Weigh out 30 ± 0.1 g from the sample and place in a 100
ml beaker.
The pH valUe Of a SOil SUSpenSiOn
Step 2: Add 75 ml of distilled water to the beaker, stir the suspension
varieS with the ratiO Of SOil tO water. An
inCreaSe in water will bring the pH ClOSer for a few minutes, cover with a cover glass and allow to
tO 7 (neUtral). stand for at least 8 h.

Step 3: Stir the suspension again immediately before testing.

Step 4: Calibrate the pH meter by using standard buffer solutions,

following the procedure recommended by the
manufacturer.
The pH readingS Of the SUSpenSiOn ShOUld
reaCh a COnStant valUe in abOUt 1 min Step 5: Wash the electrode with distilled water and immerse in the soil
after immerSiOn. NO readingS ShOUld be suspension. Take two or more readings of the pH of the
taken Until the pH meter haS reaChed suspension with brief stirring between each reading. These
eqUilibriUm. readings shall agree to within 0.05 pH units before being
accepted.

Step 6: Remove the electrodes from the suspension and wash them with
distilled water. Re-check the calibration of the pH meter against
one of the standard buffer solutions.
When not in use, leave the electrode
standing in a beaker of distilled water . Step 7: If the instrument is out of adjustment by more than 0.05 pH
units, set it to the correct adjustment and repeat Steps 5 and
6 until consistent readings are obtained.

A minimUm Of twO SpeCimenS Of the Report

Same Sample ShOUld be teSted in Order The test report shall include the following:
tO Obtain a mean valUe and an indiCatiOn
Of the reliability Of the reSUltS. a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) The pH value of the soil suspension to the nearest 0.1 pH unit.
Both individual test results and mean values shall be reported.

Practical Considerations
pH meter electrodes are extremely fragile, and great care should therefore
be taken with their use.
122 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.19
Ministry of Works

Preparation of Stabilized Samples for UCS

Notes
Objective
This is a procedure for the making of specimens for the determination
of the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of stabilised soils,
gravels and sands.

References
TMH1 - 1986 : A14 and (BS 1924 : Part 2 : 1990).

Required equipment
· CBR compaction mould, split type, 152.4 mm in diameter and
152.4 mm high with a detachable collar and base plate and a 25.4
mm thick spacer plate fixed to the base plate.
· A metal rammer having a 50 mm diameter circular face and
weighing 4.5 kg. The rammer shall be equipped with an
arrange- ment for controlling the height of drop to 450 mm.
· A balance readable to 5 g.
· A palette knife or spatula
· A straightedge, e.g. a steel strip
· A 20 mm and a 37.5 mm test sieves and receiver
· A large metal tray
· Suitable tools for extracting specimen from mould
· Apparatus for moisture content determination
· Galvanized iron mixing baths 450 x 650 x 200 mm deep (at least 3).
· Suitable carrier plates to hold specimens.
· Airtight containers with lids, about 20 litres in capacity (at least 4).

Sample preparation
Prepare an adequate quantity (approximately 150 kg) of the air-dried
material passing the 20 mm test sieve. Break up lumps of fine material by
rolling on a flat surface to pass the 20 mm test sieve and add to the portion
passing the sieve. Mix the material thoroughly and quarter out a specimen
of about 35 kg. This is in turn divided into 5 equal parts of about 7 kg
each.

These 5 specimens shall be used in the determination oƒ the Optimum

Moisture Content (OMC) and Maximum Dry Density (MDD) oƒ stabilized
material, reƒ. CML Test 1.20.

Determination of moisture content

Step 1: Take two representative samples of between 500 g and 1000
g each of the remaining material.

Step 2: Place them in suitable containers to determine the

moisture content.

Step 3: Weigh the samples immediately to the nearest 0.1 g.

Step 4: Dry the samples in an oven at 105 oC to 110 oC to constant

mass. Transfer the remaining material to the airtight tins.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 123

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.19
Ministry of Works

Preparation of Stabilized Samples for UCS

Notes
Making specimens for the determination of compressive
strength
Step 1: Using the remaining air-dry material in the air-tight tins, divide
out three similar lots of material of approximately 21 kg (oven-
dry weight) each. Calculate the mass of air-dry material
required for each lot by taking into account the moisture
content of the air-dry material as determined on the samples
above.
2 % means 2 parts stabiliZer to 100 Step 2: Select three different stabilizer contents at which the specimens
parts oven-dry raw materia by weight.
for compressive strength determination are to be made. These
are usually in increments of 2 %, e.g. 2 %, 4 % and 6 % by
mass of oven-dry material.
In CalCUlating the reqUired amoUnt of water Step 3: Calculate and weigh out the three quantities of
to be admixed, it is adviCable to allow for
evaporation by adding 0.3 - 0.5 %
stabilizer required for the above three lots of raw
depending on weather. material.

Step 4: Calculate and measure out the required quantity of water to

bring each lot to OMC. The quantity of water required is the
difference between the quantity of water present in the air-dry
material and the quantity of water required to obtain OMC as
determined in CML Test 1.20 “Dry Density - Moisture
Content relation ƒor Stabilized Material”.

Step 5: Mix in the stabilizer and then the water and treat for 4
hours covering the samples with damp cloths (sample
bags), and mixing every half hour.

Step 6: Compact three specimens from each of the three lots, altogether
9 specimens with 3 different stabilizer contents. The
compaction procedure is outlined in CML Test 1.20, i.e. using a
4.5 kg rammer with a drop of 450 mm, applying 62 evenly
distributed blows to each of the 5 equally thick layers.

With Certain materials laCking Cohesion it Step 7: Weigh the moulds with compacted specimens.
may be neCessary to leave the samples in
their moUlds for 24 hoUrs to develop some
strength before the moUlds are removed. If
Step 8: Remove the specimens from the moulds by dismantling the
this is neCessary, the speCimens shoUld be split moulds.
Covered with damp Cloths for 24 hoUrs.
Step 9: The specimens are now placed on the carrier plates and are
ready for curing, reƒ. CML Test 1.21 “ Unconƒined
Compressive Strength oƒ Stabilized Materials”.

Calculations
1. Moisture Content, w, as a percentage oƒ the dry soil mass to
the nearest 0.1%:
m2 - m3
w =( )x 100 (%)
m3 - m1
where
124 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.19
Ministry of Works

Preparation of Stabilized Samples for UCS

Notes m1 is the mass of the container (in g)

m2 is the mass of the container and wet soil (in g)
m3 is the mass of the container and dry soil (in g)

2. Quantity oƒ Stabilizer to be added ƒor specimens

YW
C= 100
where

C = mass of stabilizer required (g)

Y = percentage of stabilizer
required W = mass of oven-dry
material (g)

3. Quantity oƒ water to be admixed with the material ƒor specimens

Q(P + C)
V= - (M - P)
100
where

V = volume of water (ml)

Q = optimum moisture content
P = mass of material (oven-dry) to be used (g)
C = mass of stabilizer to be added (g)
M = mass of material (air-dry) (g)

4. Percentage oƒ stabilizer by volume

100(Am)
v= B(100 + A)
where

v = % of stabilizer by volume of the total stabilized

material A = % of stabilizer by mass of the total raw
material (as
obtainedfrom graph of stabilizer content against
strength) m = maximum dry density (kg/mS)
B = density of stabilizer (kg/mS)

5. Dry density oƒ UCS specimens

W
D =( ) x 100 x 1000
d + 100 V
where

D = dry density (kg/m3)

W = mass of wet specimen immediately after compaction (g)
V = volume of mould (cmS)
d = moulding moisture content expressed as a percentage of
the dry stabilized material.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 125
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.19
Ministry of Works

Preparation of Stabilized Samples for UCS

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Quantities of stabilizer for UCS specimens
d) Moisture content of UCS specimens
e) Dry Density of UCS specimens

Form for the test

The results shall be compiled as applicable in the form for Test 1.20, “Dry
Density -Moisture Content Relation for Stabilized Material” and in form
for Test 1.21, “Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of Stabilized
Materials”.

126 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.20
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship for

Stabilized Material

Notes Objective
Compaction of stabilized material is the process by which the solid
particles are packed more closely together by mechanical means, thereby
increasing the dry density of the material.

This method covers the determination of dry density when a stabilized

material is compacted in a specified manner over a range of moisture
contents. The range includes the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) at
which the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) for this degree of compaction is
obtained.

Main Principles
A 4.5 kg rammer with a 450 mm drop compacting material in a CBR
mould in 5 equal layers (Modified Proctor) is used as the compactive
effort. The test is used for soil in which all particles pass a 20 mm test
sieve. It is also used for coarser soils containing up to 15 % material
coarser than 37.5 mm.

References
BS 1924 : Part 2 : 1990 and TMH1 : 1986 : A14

Required equipment
· CBR moulds with internal diameter of 152 mm and internal
height of 127 mm. The moulds shall be fitted with a detachable
baseplate and a removable extension (collar).
· A metal rammer weighing 4.5 kg. The rammer shall be equipped
with an arrangement for controlling the height of drop to 450
mm.
· A balance readable to 5 g.
· Palette knives or spatulas
· A straightedge, e.g. a steel strip
· A 20 mm and a 37.5 mm test sieves and receiver
· Water proof containers and scoop
· A large metal tray
· A garden trowel
· Measuring cylinder 200 ml or 500 ml
· Suitable tools for extracting specimen from mould
· Apparatus for moisture content determination

Sample preparation
Step 1: Prepare 5 representative samples each of about 7 - 8 kg of air-
dried material passing the 20 mm test sieve. Break up lumps of
fine material by rolling on a flat surface. (Taken from sample
prepared in CML Test 1.19 “Preparation of Stabilized
Samples”.

Step 2: Weigh out 4 % of stabilizer by mass of the air-dried material

for each of the 5 samples. (The amount oƒ stabilizer required
have not been determined at this stage. 4 % is an estimated
amount, and the test should be repeated with the required
amount oƒ stabilizer iƒ ƒound to be signiƒicantly diƒƒerent).
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 127
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.20
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship for

Stabilized Material

Notes
Step 3: Mix each sample thoroughly with the stabilizer and the
The ChOiCe Of the range Of mOiStUre different required amounts of water to give a suitable range of
COntentS tO USe iS One Of trial-and-errOr and moisture contents. The range of moisture contents shall be such
COUld lead tO a large nUmber Of teSt that the Optimum Moisture Content, at which the Maximum
pOrtiOnS being reqUired. One ShOUld
therefOre be prepared tO prOdUCe a larger
Dry Density occurs, is within the range. (For non-cohesive
nUmber than 5 teSt pOrtiOn. sandy and gravelly materials a minimum moisture content oƒ 4
- 6 % would be suitable, with additional increments oƒ 1 - 2 %
ƒor each successive test portion tested).

The stabilizer should be admixed with the raw material immediately

before the admixing of water. In order to simulate conditions on the road,
compaction of the stabilized material is delayed for about 4 hours after
the mixing-in of the stabilizer and water. The moist material is covered by
damp cloths, e.g. sample bags. Every half hour it is thoroughly mixed
with a trowel.

Compaction procedure
Step 1: The mould with the base plate attached shall be weighed to
the nearest 5 g (ml).

Step 2: Attach the extension collar and place the mould on a solid base,
e.g. a concrete floor.
If it iS diffiCUlt tO eValUate the reqUired
heightS, 3 eqUal pOrtiOnS COUld be weighed
Step 3: Place a quantity of the first test portion in the mould such that
by aSSUming a reaSOnable denSity. when compacted it occupies a little over 1/5 of the height of
Remember tO USe the COllar eVen fOr the the mould body.
firSt layer, tO aVOid damaging the edge
Of the mOUld. Step 4: Apply 62 blows from the rammer dropped from a height of 450
mm to the layer. Distribute the blows uniformly over the
surface.

Step 5: Remove rammer and fill next layer of soil in the mould, and
repeat the above process 4 more times by applying 62 blows to
all layers. The mould should be filled, but surface should not
be more than 6 mm proud of the upper edge of the mould body.

Step 6: When all five layers are compacted, remove the extension
collar, strike off excess soil and level the surface of the
compacted material to the top of the mould using the straight-
edge. Replace any coarse particles removed in the levelling
process by finer material from the sample well pressed in.

Step 7: Weigh the soil and the mould with baseplate attached to 5 g (m2).
Sample fOr mOiStUre COntent may nOt be
taken befOre COmpaCtiOn. Step 8: Remove the compacted sample from the mould. Take a
represen tative sample of min. 300 g of the material for
determination of its moisture content, ref. CML Test 1.1.

Step 9: Discard the remainder of the sample. (The sample must not
be re-used in a later test).
128 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.20
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship for

Stabilized Material

Notes Step 10: This whole process shall be carried out for all 5 portions of the
sample.
When the weight of sample in the moUld
deCreases, yoU may stop the test.
Calculations
1. Calculate the Bulk Density of each compacted specimen from
the equation:
m2 - m1
Bulk Density, ρ = x 1000 (in kg/m3)
V
where

m1 is the mass of mould and baseplate (in g)

m2 is the mass of mould, baseplate and compacted soil (in g)
V is the volume of the mould (in cm3)
V = 2305 cmS for a BS standard CBR mould.

2. Calculate the Dry Density, (in kg/mS), of each compacted

ρd
specimen from the equation:

Dry Density, ρd = 100 ρ

100 + w
where
w is the moisture content of the relevant test portion (in %)

The maximUm may lie between two 3. Plot the Dry Densities, obtained from a series of determinations, as
obserVed points, bUt when drawing the ordinates against the corresponding Moisture Contents as
CUrVe Care shoUld be taken not to abscissae. Draw a curve of best fit to the plotted points and identify
exaggerate its peak. the position of the maximum on this curve. Read off the values of
dry density and moisture content, to three significant figures,
corre- sponding to that point.

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) The experimental points and the smooth curve drawn through them
showing the relationship between Moisture Content and Dry
Density.
d) The Dry Density corresponding to the maximum Dry Density on
the curve, reported as the Maximum Dry Density to the nearest
whole number (in kg/m3).
e) The corresponding Moisture Content reported as the
Optimum Moisture Content to two significant figures (in %).
f) The amount of material (stone) retained on the 20 mm and 37.5
mm sieves reported to nearest 1 % by dry mass.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 129
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.20
Ministry of Works

Dry Density - Moisture Content Relationship for

Stabilized Material

Notes
Form for the test
The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
Preferably use a jack to remove the sample from the mould. Do not use a
metal hammer/mallet as this will destroy the mould.

It should be emphasized that material must not be re-used in the

compaction test by adding more water to the same sample and obtaining
the DD/MC curve in such a manner.

Maintenance
The moulds must be kept clean with smooth inside walls.

The rammer must always be free of material sticking to its face. Also the
inside of the guide must be checked regularly such that the rammer
always falls freely inside the guide.

Precision
For some highly permeable soils such as clean gravels, uniformly
graded and coarse clean sands, the results of the laboratory compaction
test may provide only a poor guide for specification of field
compaction.
130 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 131
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.21
Ministry of Works

Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of

Stabilized Materials

Notes
Objective
In this method the Unconfined compressive Strength of stabilized
material is determined by subjecting prepared specimens (mixed,
compacted and cured) to an increasing load until failure.

Main Principles
The Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of a stabilized material is
the load in kN/m2 (kPa) required to crush a cylindrical specimen 127 mm
high and 152.4 mm in diameter to total failure at a rate of application of
load of 140 kN/m2 per second (140 kPa/s).

References
TMH1 - 1986, Method A14

Required equipment
· Suitable plastic bags to hold specimens and carriers in an airtight
condition in a water bath as described below.
· A water bath preferably maintaining temperatures of about 25 oC.
· A compression testing machine capable of applying a rate of
loading of 140 kN/m2 per second (kPa/s) and capable of measuring
a load of 200 kN accurately to 1 kN.

Sample preparation
Specimens shall be prepared in split type CBR moulds in accordance with
the procedure described in CML test 1.20.
In order to establish the required stabilizer content to produce a mixture
conforming to a specified UCS, three specimens are necessary for each
stabilizer content.
In the case of samples for field control, one specimen per field sample is
sufficient.

Curing of specimens
Step 1: The specimens shall be cured for seven days in plastic bags
The aCtUal ambient temperatUre Will
determine the CUring Conditions. HoWever,
immersed in a water bath at a maintained temperature preferably
eXposUre of the speCimens or Water bath about 25 oC.
to direCt sUnlight mUSt be avoided.
Step 2: After seven days, remove the specimens from the plastic bags
and submerge them in water for 4 hours. The temperature of
the water should preferably be about 25 oC.

Compressive strength determination

Step 1: Remove the specimens from the water.
Step 2: Crush each specimen to total failure in the compression testing
machine. The load must be applied to the flat face of the
specimen and the rate of application of the load shall be 140
kPa/s. This is equivalent to a rate of 153 kH/min for 152 mm
diameter specimens.
Step 3: Record the load to the nearest 1 kN.
132 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.21
Ministry of Works

Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of

Stabilized Materials

Notes Calculations

1. Calculate the Unconfined Compressive Strength to the

nearest 10 kN/m2 (kPa) as follows:

UCS = (load)kN
(in kN/m2)
0.01824

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) The amount of stabilizer (in %)
d) The Moisture Content - OMC (in %)
e) The Dry Density - MDD (in kg/mS)
f) The amount of material retained on the 20 mm and 37.5 mm
sieves reported to nearest 1 % by dry mass.
g) The temerature of the curing conditions.
h) The Unconfined Compressive Strength to the nearest 10 kN/m2 (kPa)

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
To establish the required stabilizer content to produce a mixture con-
forming to a specified strength, the UCS results should be recorded and a
graph of stabilizer content against strength should be plotted. For the
graph the average UCS of three specimens of each stabilizer content
should be used. However, an obviously incorrect result, due to possible
damage to a specimen before testing, should be ignored.

Mixtures of cement, milled blastfurnace slag, lime or other additives

usually take longer to reach the same strength as that of ordinary Portland
cement. To achieve comparable strengths it is therefore necessary to
determine the hardening time that gives equivalent cement strength for
each mixture, and to adopt the procedure accordingly. Thus, for example,
it has been found that some lime/cement mixtures achieve equivalent
strength after eleven days. However, the actual hardening time has to be
determined in each case. If a hardening time other than seven days is used,
this must be stated on the report sheet.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 133

134 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 135
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.1.22
Ministry of Works

Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL)

Notes
Objective
The Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL) is the amount of lime consumed
The method does not dispense with the
need to establish neCessary lime Content
in the initial ion exchange reaction, and is the required minimum content
to aChieve design strength or reqUired to achieve a permanent gain in strength of the material.
redUCtion in plastiCity, bUt rather gives
the lowest threshold valUe to aChieve a Main Principles
permanent stabiliZing effeCt. Until fUrther,
the method is USed also when Cement is
A saturated solution of lime (calcium hydroxide) in distilled water
the intended stabiliZer for the material, completely free of carbon dioxide has a pH value of 12.40 at 25 °C. This
awaiting test methods to be developed for pH is required to maintain reaction between the lime and any reactive
the initial ConsUmption of Cement. components in the material to be stabilized. Samples of the material are
therefore mixed with water and different proportions of the lime being
used, and the minimum amount of lime needed to give a pH of 12.40 is
expressed as the ICL of the material.

References
BS 1924 : Part 2 : 1990.
It is essential to USe eleCtrodes that are
sUitable for highly alkaline solUtions. Required equipment
· A pH meter, fitted with a suitable glass electrode system for use
up to pH values of 13.0 readable to 0.05 pH unit.
· A balance, of 250 g minimum capacity readable to 0.01 g.
· A drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 ± 5 °C.
· 6 nos. of glass or plastic bottles of 250 ml capacity fitted
with watertight stoppers
· A 425 µm test sieve
· A thermometer with range 15 °C to 25 °C readable to 0.5 °C
· 2 nos. airtight containers for storing lime (e.g. 1 l preserving jars)
· A 100 ml measuring cylinder
· A wash bottle
· A beaker of 50 ml to 100 ml capacity
· Soft paper tissue
The bUffer solUtion shoUld not be kept for
more than 7 days. Reagents
Buffer solution pH 4.00. Dissolve 2.55 g of potassium hydrogen
phthalate in distilled water and dilute to 350 ml, using a volumetric flask.

Buffer solution pH 9.20. Dissolve 4.99 g of disodium tetraborate (borax)

in distilled water and dilute to 250 ml, using a volumetric flask.

Potassium chloride. Prepare a saturated solution and use to maintain the

calomel electrode of the pH meter in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Dilute hydrochloric acid. Dilute 100 ml of the concentrated acid to 500

ml with distilled water.

Distilled water, free of CO2. Gently boil the required quantity of

distilled water for one hour and allow to cool to room temperature
without access to air before use. Use this water within 24 hours.

136 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.22
Ministry of Works

Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL)

Notes Calcium hydroxide of laboratory grade. Store in airtight container.

Lime, for the stabilization work. Store in airtight container.

Determination of the suitability of the lime

Prepare a saturated solution of the lime to be used by placing 5 g of lime
in one of the bottles. Add 100 ml of CO2 -free distilled water. Shake the
bottle for 30 s every 10 min. for the first hour and then every hour for 4
hours.
Leave the suspension in the tightly stoppered bottle for 24 h before use.
Pour the suspension into a beaker and determine its pH to the nearest
0.05 pH unit, and record its temperature to the nearest 0.5 °C.

Calculate the pH value of the solution at 25 °C (pH25) from the

equation: pH25 = pHT + 0.03 (T − 25) where

pHT is the pH at the measured temperature T °C.

If the pH value at 25 °C is in the range 12.35 to 12.45 the lime is suitable

for use. If it is not, the quality of the lime for the purpose of lime-
stabilization is suspect, and the results of any ICL test carried out with it
are meaningless.

However, a soil’s potential for lime-stabilization may be determined by

carrying out the ICL test with Calcium Hydroxide of laboratory grade.

It iS aSSUmed in thiS teSt that the lime- Sample preparation

reaCtive fraCtion of the material iS Reduce the laboratory sample to produce a test portion which after being
ConCentrated in the fraCtion finer than 425
mm in partiCle SiZe. dried at 105 ± 5 °C and sieved on a 425 µm test sieve has a mass of about
200 g.

Test Procedure
Step 1: Take the dried and sieved portion and subdivide it into two
representative halves, each weighing about 100 g. Take one of
these to provide 5 test specimens each with a mass of about 20
g weighed to the nearest 0.1 g.
The proportionS ChoSen will enSUre that in
Step 2: Place each test specimen into each of the 5 bottles and weigh
moSt CaSeS the perCentage of lime reqUired
will be inClUded in the firSt trial. out to the nearest 0.01 g the lime to be used in the test in the
proportions 2.0 %, 3.0 %, 4.0 %, 5.0 % and 6.0 %. Add the lime
to the bottles to mix the lime with the dry material.

Step 3: Add 100 ± 2 ml of CO2 − free distilled water to each bottle.

Shake the bottle and contents until there is no evidence of dry
material on the bottom.

Step 4: Shake the bottles for 30 s every 10 min. for 1 hour. After 1 hour
± 5 min. determine the pH values of the suspensions. Wash the
electrodes in distilled water, and dry them, between each
insertion.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 137
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.22
Ministry of Works

Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL)

Notes
Step 5: If none of the suspensions reaches a pH value above 12.30
(corrected to 25 °C), but this value is obtained for the 2 %
lime content, carry out additional tests with lower values of
lime addition.
An aSSeSSment ShOUld be made whether If the pH values go up to 12.40, but this value is not reached
Or nOt it will be eCOnOmiC tO add lime
in prOpOrtiOnS higher than 6 %. until 5 or 6 % lime content, additional tests with higher values
of lime addition might be considered.

If a pH value of 12.4 is achieved with as little as 3 % lime

content, repeat the test using additional lime contents of 0.5 %,
1.0 %, 1.5 % and 2.5 %.

Calculations
1. Plot the percentage of lime added to the material against the pH
(corrected to 25 °C) and read off, by interpolation, the proportion
of lime required to give pH values of 12.30 to 12.40.

When USing the ICL valUeS in fUrther wOrk, 2. If the pH readings go to 12.40, record to the nearest 0.1 % the
remember that the valUeS refer Only tO the lowest percentage of lime that gives this value as the ICL of
fraCtiOn Of material finer than 425 mm in
the material.
partiCle SiZe, and make dUe allOwanCe fOr
thiS.
3. If the pH readings do not go beyond 12.30, but this value is
If qUiCklime iS tO be USed in the field, obtained from 2 % lime content (or less), record to the nearest 0.1
then the hydrated lime perCentage % the lowest percentage of lime that gives this value as the ICL of
Obtained ShOUld be mUltiplied by 0.75 the material.
tO give the qUiCklime eqUivalent.

Report
The test report shall include the following:

LabOratOry teStS fOr eStabliShing the

a) Type of material and sample identification
relatiOn between lime COntent and b) Reference to this procedure
Strength Or plaStiCity On fUll SampleS are c) Details of the lime used for the test
the natUral COntinUatiOn Of the ICL teSt. d) The graph showing the relationship between pH and lime content
e) The ICL value to the nearest 0.1 % in those cases where it can
be derived
f) The proportion of the material passing the 425 µm test sieve.

Test form
The enclosed form “Initial consumption of lime” shall be used.

Practical Considerations
pH meter electrodes are extremely fragile and great care should therefore
be taken with their use.
138 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 1 Soil Mechanics

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 1.22
Ministry of Works

Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL)

Notes
APPENDIX to test 1.22 Initial Consumption of Lime

Calibration and use of the pH meter

The pH-system should be checked beƒore ƒirst use and every time a new
electrode is used. But once it has been ƒound to be suitable, no ƒurther
test with calcium hydroxide need to be made.

If the inStrUment iS OUt Of adjUStment Step 1: Calibrate the pH meter with the standard buffer solutions
by mOre than 0.05 Unit, the reSUltS following the manufacturer’s recommended procedure.
Shall be diSCarded and the teSt
repeated
Check the calibration with the standard pH 9.2 buffer
solution a few minutes before and after each set of
determinations.

Step 2: When using pH meters not fitted with automatic temperature

compensation, adjust the instrument correctly according to the
temperatures of the solutions before taking a reading. Before
insertion into any solution, wash the electrodes with distilled
water and clean with soft paper tissue. Also wash electrodes
with distilled water immediately after removal from any
solution.
When not in use, keep the electrodes in distilled water.

Step 3: Prepare a saturated solution of the calcium hydroxide by

placing 5 g of calcium hydroxide in one of the bottles. Add 100
ml of CO2 -free distilled water. Shake the bottle for 30 s every
10 min. for the first hour and then every hour for 4 hours.
Leave the sus- pension in the tightly stoppered bottle for 24 h
before use. Pour the suspension into a beaker and determine its
pH to the nearest
0.05 pH unit, and record its temperature to the nearest 0.5 °C.

Step 4: Calculate the pH value of the solution at 25 °C (pH25) from

the equation:

pH25 = pHT + 0.03 (T − 25) where

pHT is the pH at the measured temperature T °C.

Step 5: If the pH value at 25 °C is in the range 12.35 to 12.45 the pH

meter and electrode system is suitable for the test. If not,
check that the lime is of good quality grade before
investigating any possible defects in the pH meter and/or
electrodes.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 139
140 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 141
142 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Test on Aggregates and
Concrete
Tests on Aggregates and Concrete
2.1 Moisture Content of Aggregates BS812:Part 109:1990
2.2 Relative Density and Water Absorption BS812:Part 2:1975
2.3 Sieve Tests on Aggregates BS812:Part 103.1:1985
2.4 Flakiness Index (FI) and Average Least Dimension (ALD) BS812:Section 105.1:1989
2.5 Elongation Index BS812:Section 105.2:1990
2.6 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) BS812:Part 110:1990
2.7 Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) BS812:Part 111:1990
2.8 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) BS812:Part 112:1990
2.9 Los Angeles Abrasion Test (LAA) ASTM C535-89
2.10 Sodium Soundness Test (SSS) ASTM C88-90
2.11 Slump Test BS1881:Part 102:1983
2.12 Making of Concrete Test Cubes BS1881:Part 108:1983
2.13 Concrete Cube Strength BS1881:Part 116:1983

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 143

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.1
Ministry of Works

Moisture Content of Aggregates

Notes
Objective
To determine the amount of total water present in a sample of aggregate
expressed as a percentage of the dry mass. This is termed the moisture
content of the aggregate.

Main Principles
The oven-drying method provides a measure of the total water present in a
sample of aggregate and is the definitive procedure, and is regarded as
standard laboratory practice.

References
BS 812 : Part 109 : 1990.

Required equipment
· a drying oven with temperature of 105 ± 5°C
· a balance readable to 0.5 g
· a metal container
· a scoop
· a riffle box
Some loss of water by evaporation is
inevitable dUring sampling and sample
redUction. PrecaUtions shoUld be taken to Sample Preparation
minimize evaporation losses by carrying Reduce the laboratory sample to produce a test portion complying with
oUt all operations as qUickly as possible
Table 1 below appropriate to the nominal size of the aggregate.
and by adeqUate storing of the samples.

Nominal size of aggregate Minimum mass of test portion

mm kg
63 15
50 10
40 to 20 5
20 to 10 2
10 to 5 1
less than 5 0.5

Table l.Minimum mass of test portion for moisture content determination

The actUal drying time necessary will

depend on the amoUnt of fines in the
Test Procedure
aggregate, bUt 12 hoUrs will normally be Step 1: Clean and dry the container, then weigh it to the nearest 0.1 g (m1)
adeqUate. Step 2: Place the sample in the container using the scoop and weigh the
For calcrete and coral rock materials the whole (m2).
drying temperatUre shall be limited to 60 ˚C. Step 3: Place container with the test portion in the oven to dry at 105
°C for minimum 12 hours.
Step 4: After drying, weigh the container and the contents (m3)

Calculations
Calculate the Moisture Content of the aggregate, w, as a percentage of the
dry soil mass to the nearest 0.1%, from the equation:

144 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.1
Ministry of Works

Moisture Content of Aggregates

Notes m2 - m3
w= x 100 (%)
m3 - ml
where

m1 is the mass of the container (in g)

m2 is the mass of the container and wet test portion (in g)
m3 is the mass of the container and dry test portion (in g)

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test results, individual values and average value
d) The final moisture content (w) is reported to the nearest 0.1 %.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
One may control that the material is completely dry by holding a
beaker with cold water directly above the sample. If the sample is not
dry, moi- sture will condense on the outside of the glass.

Maintenance
The balance and the drying oven shall be checked and calibrated regularly
(every month) with respect to weight and temperature.

It is important that the containers are kept clean and dry.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 145

146 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.2
Ministry of Works

Relative Density and Water Absorption of

Aggregates

Notes
Objective
This procedure specifies two methods for the determination of the relative
density and water absorption of aggregates. The methods are used for
aggregates intended for road construction or concrete mixes.

Relative density on a saturated surface-dry basis, ρs, are used for pave-
ment materials to be tested for mechanical properties and for
calculations in concrete mix design.

Water absorption, wabs, is used for calculations in concrete mix design.

Apparent relative density, ρa, may be used in production control to

check if the density of the aggregate varies.

Main Principles
For methods for aggregates of 10 mm The preferred method described is a glass vessel method for aggregates
nominal size and smaller and for fillers, between 5 mm and 40 mm size.
reference is made to BS 812 : Part 2 : A subsidiary wire basket method for aggregates larger than 10 mm is also
1975.
described.

References
BS 812 : Part 2 : 1975.

Method for aggregates between 5 mm and 40 mm

Preferred method

Required equipment
· A drying oven with temperature of 105 ± 5°C
· A balance readable to 0.5 g
· A wide mouthed glass vessel of 1.0 litres to 1.5 litres capacity,
with A flat ground lip and a plane ground glass disc to cover it
giving a watertight fit.
· Two dry soft absorbent cloths
· A shallow tray
· An airtight container large enough to take the sample
· A 5 mm test sieve
· Water free of impurities (e.g. dissolved air). Freshly boiled
tap water cooled to room temperature may be used.

Sample Preparation
Aggregates which have been artificially
A sample of about 1 kg of the aggregate shall be used. The sample shall be
heated shall not normally be USed. thoroughly washed on the 5 mm test sieve to remove finer particles, e.g.
clay, silt and dust and drained.

Two tests shall be made.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 147

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.2
Ministry of Works

Relative Density and Water Absorption of

Aggregates

Notes
Test Procedure
Step 1: Immerse the test sample in water in the glass vessel/jar for 24 ±
0,5 hours. The vessel shall be gently agitated to remove entrap-
ped air. This may be achieved by rapid clockwise and
anticlock- wise rotation of the vessel between the operator’s
hands.
Overfill the vessel by adding water and slide the plane ground
glass disc over the mouth so as to ensure that no air is trapped in
the vessel. Then dry the vessel and weigh it (mass B).
The difference in the temperatUre of the
water USed for the firSt and Second
weighing Shall not exceed 2˚C. Step 2: Empty the vessel and allow the aggregate to drain while the
vessel is refilled with water, sliding the glass disc into position
as in Step 1. Then dry the vessel and weigh it (mass C).

Step 3: Place the aggregate on a dry cloth and gently surface-dry it

with the cloth.

Step 4: Spread the aggregates out not more than one stone deep on
the second dry cloth and leave it exposed to air away from
direct sunlight until all visible films of water are removed, but
the aggregate still have a damp appearance. Then weigh the
aggregates (mass A).

Step 5: Place the aggregates in the shallow tray in the oven to dry
at 105°C for 24 ± 0,5 hours.

Step 6: Cool the sample in the airtight container and weigh it (mass D).

Calculations
1. Relative Density on an oven-dry basis (in ton/mS) :
D
ρd = A - (B - C)
2. Relative Density on a saturated and surface-dry basis (in ton/mS):
ρs =
A
A - (B - C)
3. Apparent Relative Density (in ton/mS):
D
ρa = D - (B - C)
4. Water absorption (in % of dry mass):
wabs 100 (A -D)
= D
where

A is the mass of the saturated surface-dry aggregate in air (in g)

B is the mass of vessel containing sample and filled with water (in g)
C is the mass of vessel filled with water only (in g)
D is the mass of the oven-dry aggregate in air (in g)

148 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.2
Ministry of Works

Relative Density and Water Absorption of

Aggregates

Notes Method for aggregates all larger than 10 mm

Subsidiary method

Required equipment
· A drying oven with temperature of 105 ± 5°C
· A balance readable to 0.5 g, and of a type to permit the basket
containing the sample to be suspended from the beam and
weighed in water.
· A wire mesh basket having apertures not larger than 6.5 mm,
with wire hangers suspending it from the balance.
· A watertight container in which the basket may be freely suspended
· Two dry soft absorbent cloths
· A shallow tray
· An airtight container large enough to take the sample
· A 10 mm test sieve
· Water free of impurities (e.g. dissolved air). Freshly boiled
tap water cooled to room temperature may be used.

Sample Preparation
A sample of about 2 - 2.5 kg of the aggregate shall be used. The sample
shall be thoroughly washed on the 10 mm test sieve to remove finer
particles, e.g. clay, silt and dust and drained.

Two tests shall be made.

Test Procedure
Step 1: Place the sample in the wire basket and immerse it in water for
24 ± 0,5 hours. The water level shall be minimum 5 cm above
the top of the basket. Remove the entrapped air from the
sample by lifting the basket slightly up and down under water
with gentle agitation to remove entrapped air.
Step 2: Weigh the basket with the sample in water. If it is necessary
to transfer them to a different tank for weighing, remove any
entrapped air as described in Step 1 before weighing (mass
B).
Step 3: Remove the basket and sample from the water and allow them
to drain for a couple of minutes.
Step 4: Empty the aggregate on a dry cloth, and return the empty basket
to the water. Jolt it to remove entrapped air and weigh it in
water (mass C).
Step 5: Gently surface-dry the aggregate placed on the dry cloth.
Step 6: Spread the aggregates out not more than one stone deep on
the second dry cloth and leave it exposed to air away from
direct sunlight until all visible films of water are removed, but
the aggregate still have a damp appearance. Then weigh the
aggregates (mass A).

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 149

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.2
Ministry of Works

Relative Density and Water Absorption of

Aggregates

Notes
Step 7: Place the aggregates in the shallow tray in the oven to dry
at 105 °C for 24 ± 0,5 hours.

Step 8: Cool the sample in the airtight container and weigh it (mass D).

Calculations
1. Relative Density on an oven-dry basis (in ton/mS) :
D
=
ρ d
A - (B - C)
2. Relative Density on a saturated and surface-dry basis (in ton/mS):

ρs = A
A - (B - C)
3. Apparent Relative Density (in ton/mS):

ρa = D
D - (B - C)
4. Water absorption (in % of dry mass):

wabs 100 (A - D)
= D
where

A is the mass of the saturated surface-dry aggregate in air (in g)

B is the apparent mass in water of the basket + the sample
of saturated aggregate (in g)
C is the apparent mass in water of the empty basket (in g)
D is the mass of the oven-dry aggregate in air (in g)

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure and the method used
c) The title of each form of Relative Density determined shall
be quoted
d) The mean values of Relative Density is reported to the nearest
0.01 ton/mS
e) The mean value of Water Absorption is reported to the nearest
0.1 %.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
As with any porous material, the value obtained for the relative density of
an aggregate depends on the details of the method of test. Furthermore,
different sizes of the same aggregate often have different values of
relative
150 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.2
Ministry of Works

Relative Density and Water Absorption of

Aggregates

Notes
density and water absorption. Therefore, when comparing different
aggregates it is essential that the test is made on samples sensibly of the
same grading.

Air bubbles in the sample or in the water may lead to significant errors
when the volume of the sample shall be determined.

For any material the following relationship is valid: ρa > ρs > ρd

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 151

152 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.3
Ministry of Works

Sieve Tests on Aggregates

Notes
Objective
The particle size distribution of samples of aggregates and fillers are
determined by sieving.

Main Principles
For coarse and fine aggregates free from particles which cause
agglomeration, Dry Sieving may be performed.

For aggregates which may contain clay or other materials likely to cause
agglomeration, preliminary separation by washing through a fine sieve
is required before dry sieving, ie. Washing and Sieving.

References
BS 812 : Part 103.1 : 1985.

Required equipment
All theSe SieveS ShoUld not be USed at · Test sieves with diameter 450 mm or 300 mm : 75 mm, 63 mm,
the Same time. Make an appropriate
Selection fitting to the material to be 50 mm, 37.5 mm, 28 mm, 20 mm, 14 mm, 10 mm, 6.3 mm, 5 mm,
teSted. Test sieves with diameter 300 mm or 200 mm: 3.35 mm, 2.36 mm,
1.70 mm, 1.18 mm, 825 µm, 600 µm, 425 µm, 300 µm, 212 µm,
150 µm, 75 µm.
· Lids and receivers.
· A balance readable and accurate to 0.5 g.
· Riffle boxes.
· A drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 °C ± 5 °C.
· Metal containers.
· Metal trays.
· Scoop.
· Sieve brushes.
· Mechanical sieve shaker (optional).

Sample preparation
Step 1: Reduce the sample to produce a test portion complying with
Table 1 below appropriate to the maximum size of the
material.

Step 2: Dry the test portion by heating at a temperature of 105 °C ± 5

°C for minimum 12 hours. Allow to cool, weigh and record as
M1.

DRY SIEVING METHOD - Test procedure

Step 1: Assemble appropriate sieves with a receiver at the bottom in
increasing aperture size from bottom to top. Place the oven
dried sample on top of the coarsest sieve and cover with a lid.
Step 2: Either by hand or using the mechanical sieve shaker, shake the
sieves for a sufficient time to separate the sample into the
different size fractions.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 153
 CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.3
Ministry of Works

Sieve Tests on Aggregates

Notes
Maximum particle Minimum mass of test portion
size mm kg
63 20
50 15
0 10
28 5
20 2
14 1
10 0.5
5 0.2
3 0.2
<3 0.1

Table 2. Minimum mass of test portion for sieve analysis

Step 3: When the mechanical shaker is used, check that separation

is complete by briefly hand sieving.
2 minUteS per Sieve iS conSidered When sieving is done by hand alone, start with the coarsest
appropriate.
Do not force material material throUgh the sieve and shake each sieve over a clean tray or receiver until no
meSh by hand preSSUre. more material passes.
Light brUShing may be USed on the 150
µm and 75 µm SieveS. If the sieves are blinded by overloading, an intermediate sieve
may be introduced.

Step 4: Weigh the material retained on each sieve, together with any
material cleaned/picked from the mesh, on completion of
sieving on that sieve.

WASHING and SIEVING METHOD - Test procedure

Step 1: Wet both sides of a 75 µm test sieve, reserved for use in this
type of test only, and fit a guard sieve 1.18 mm or 2.36 mm on
top.
Step 2: Place the weighed oven dried sample (M1) in a container and
add sufficient water to half fill the container. Agitate the
contents so that the fines are completely separated from coarser
particles.
Step 3: Pour the suspension of fine solids on to the guarded 75 µm test
sieve. Continue washing the coarse residue until the water
passing the test sieve is clear.
Step 4: Wash all residues from the container and sieves into the
tray. Remove excess free water by careful decantation
through the
75 µm sieve, and dry the total residue in the oven 105 °C ± 5 °C
for minimum 12 hours. Allow to cool, weigh and record as M2.
Step 5: Determine the mass of material passing the 75 µm sieve as:
M1 −M2.
Step 6: Continue with dry sieving as outlined in the chapter above,
steps 1 − 4.
154 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.3
Ministry of Works

Sieve Tests on Aggregates

Notes
Calculations

1. Calculate the mass retained on each sieve as a percentage of the

original dry mass (M1). For the mass of material passing the
finest sieve, add that passing during washing (M1 − M2) to that
found during the dry sieving.

For example:
Percentage retained on 10 mm sieve

= M(10 mm) 100

( M1 )
2. Calculate the mass of the sample passing each sieve as a
cumulative percentage, from the general relationship:

(% passing this sieve ) = (%passing previous sieve) − (%

retained on this sieve).

3. Plot the grading as a curve on a semi-logarithmic chart.

Report
The test report shall include the following information:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) The particle size distribution curve

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical considerations
Take care to ensure that sieving is complete, the minimum period of
mechanical shaking should be 10 min.

Never put a sieve in the drying oven for drying the material, as this will
destroy the sieve.

Maintenance
Test sieves should be inspected for defects before each use. A more
detailed examination should be made at reqular intervals to discover signs
of wear, warping, tears, splits holes, blockages and any other defects in the
mesh.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 155

156 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 157
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.4
Ministry of Works

Flakiness Index (FI) and Average Least

Dimension (ALD)

Notes
Objective
Flakiness Index is one of the tests used to classify aggregates and stones. In
Pavement Design there are specific requirements regarding the Flakiness
Index of materials.

For base course and wearing course aggregates the presence of flaky
particles are considered undesirable as they may cause inherent weakness
with possibilities of breaking down under heavy loads.

Aggregates are classified as flaky when they have a thickness of less than
60 % of their mean sieve size.

The objective of the test is to determine the Flakiness Index of coarse

aggregates.

Main Principles
The Flakiness Index of a an aggregate sample is found by separating the
flaky particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the mass of the
sample. The test is applicable to material passing a 63 mm sieve and
retained on a 6.3 mm sieve.

References
BS 812 : Section 105.1 : 1989

Required equipment
· A sample divider, e.g. a riffle box
· Drying oven - with temperature of 105 °C ± 5 °C.
· Balance - readable to 1.0 g.
· Test sieves − Ref. Table 1
· A sieve shaker (optional)
· Metal trays
· A Metal thickness Gauge, of a pattern shown in Figure 1.

Nominal aperture size (square hole perforated plate 450 mm or

300 mm diameter)
mm
63
50
37.5
28
20
14
10
6.3

Table 3. Particulars of sieves

158 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.4
Ministry of Works

Flakiness Index (FI) and Average Least

Dimension (ALD)

Notes
Sample preparation
Step 1: Reduce the sample to produce a test portion complying
with Table 2 below.
Step 2: The test sample shall be washed, if necessary, and oven-dried
at 105 °C to 110 °C to substantially constant weight.
Step 3: Allow the sample to cool and weigh the sample to the nearest 1g.

Nominal size of material Minimum mass of test portion

after rejection of oversize and
undersize particles
mm kg
50 35
40 15
28 5
20 2
14 1
10 0.5

Table 4. Minimum mass of test portion

Test Procedure
Step 1: Carry out a sieve analysis using the sieves given in Table 1.
Step 2: Discard all aggregates retained on the 63 mm sieve and
all aggregate passing the 6.3 mm sieve.
Step 3: Weigh each of the individual size-fractions retained on the
sieves, and store them in trays with their size marked on
the trays.
If reqUired, a FlakineSS IndeX may be Step 4: From the sums of masses of the fractions in the trays (M1),
determined Separately for individUal Size
fractionS by recording Separately the
calculate the individual percentage retained on each of the
maSSeS of the individUal Size-fractionS and various sieves. Discard any fraction whose mass is 5 % or less
the maSS of each Size-fraction paSSing of mass M1. Record the mass remaining (M2).
the appropriate gaUgeS. Step 5: Gauge each fraction using the thickness gauge. Select the gauge
appropriate to the size-fraction under test and gauge each
particle of that size-fraction separately by hand.
Step 6: Combine and weigh all the particles passing each of the
gauges. (M3).

Calculations
The value of the Flakiness Index is calculated from the expression:
M3
Flakiness Index, FI =
M 2 x 100

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 159

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.4
Ministry of Works

Flakiness Index (FI) and Average Least

Dimension (ALD)

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test result, i.e. the Flakiness Index of the test sample. The
Flakiness Index shall be expressed to the nearest whole number.
d) Whether the material was tested in the natural state or after sieving
e) Sieve analysis obtained from this test.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Average Least Dimension (ALD)

Objective
FUrther adjUStmentS of the bitUmen Spray The average least dimension (ALD) is a useful parameter to describe the
rate may be carried oUt aS oUtlined in the available voids in a layer of chipping for surface dressing. The required
Pavement and MaterialS DeSign ManUal.
ThiS will depend on Site conditionS SUch
basic spray rate of bitumen to hold the chipping in place is determined in
aS type of SUrface, type of chipping the surface design (Pavement and Materials Design Manual) as a function
inclUding their dUSt content and of the ALD and traffic loading.
abSorbency or optional USe of pre-coating,
varying proportionS of heavy vehicleS and Main principles
Special traffic conditionS like climbing
laneS. The average least dimension (ALD) of chipping can be determined by
directly measuring the smallest size of 200 particles in a representative
sample using callipers and calculating the average. However, a more
practical method is the one described below, whereby ALD is estimated
as a function of the average size of the chipping, as determined by normal
square mesh sieves, and the degree of flakiness. Such estimates using
established relationships expressed in the enclosed nomograph are con-
sidered sufficiently accurate for the purpose of surface design.

Test Procedure
A grading analysis is performed on a representative sample of the chipping
in accordance with CML test 2.3 (BS 812 : 1985).

Determination of the Median Size

The sieve size through which 50 % of the chipping pass is determined
(known as the “median size”).

Determination of the Average Least Dimension

The Flakiness Index is determined in accordance with the procedure
outlined above. The ALD is read off from the enclosed nomograph by
joining the scale for the Median Size to the scale for Flakiness Index.
The Average Least Dimension (ALD) is reported in mm with one decimal.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

160 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure l Thickness gauge

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 161

7igure 2 Determination of average least dimension

162 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 163
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.5
Ministry of Works

Elongation Index

Notes
Objective
Elongation is a means of classifying coarse aggregates.
Example: Aggregates passing 14 mm and Aggregate particles are classified as elongated when they have a length
retained on 10 mm are classified as
elongated when: (greatest dimension) of more than 1.8 of their mean sieve size.
L > ½ (14 + 10) x 1.8 = 21.6 mm
The objective of the test is to determine the Elongation Index of coarse
aggregates.

For base course and wearing course aggregates the presence of elongated
particles are considered undesirable as they may cause inherent
weakness with possibilities of breaking down under heavy loads.

Main Principles
The Elongation Index of an aggregate sample is found by separating the
elongated particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the mass
of the sample. The test is applicable to material passing a 50 mm sieve
and retained on a 6.3 mm sieve.

References
BS 812 : Section 105.2 : 1990

Required equipment
· A sample divider, e.g. a riffle box
· Drying oven - with temperature of 105 ± 5 °C.
· Balance - readable to 1.0 g.
· Test sieves − Ref. Table 1
· A sieve shaker (optional)
· Metal trays
· A Metal Length Gauge, of a pattern shown in Figure 3.

Nominal aperture size

(square hole perforated plate 450 mm or 300 mm)
mm

50
37.5
28
20
14
10
6.3

Table 5. Particulars of sieves

164 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.5
Ministry of Works

Elongation Index

Notes
Sample preparation
Step 1: Reduce the sample to produce a test portion complying
with Table 2 below.
Step 2: The test sample shall be washed, if necessary, and oven-dried
at 105 ± 5 °C to substantially constant weight.
Step 3: Allow the sample to cool and weigh the sample to the nearest 1g.

Nominal size of material Minimum mass of test portion

after rejection of oversize and
undersize particles
mm kg
40 15
28 5
20 2
14 1
10 0.5

Table 6. Minimum mass of test portion

Test Procedure
Step 1: Carry out a sieve analysis using the sieves given in Table 1.
Step 2: Discard all aggregates retained on the 50 mm sieve and
all aggregate passing the 6.3 mm sieve.
Step 3: Weigh each of the individual size-fractions retained on the
sieves, and store them in trays with their size marked on the
trays.
Step 4: From the sums of masses of the fractions in the trays (M1),
calculate the individual percentage retained on each of the
various sieves. Discard any fraction whose mass is 5 % or less
If reqUired, an Elongation Index may be of mass M1. Record the mass remaining (M2).
determined Separately for individUal Step 5: Gauge each fraction using the length gauge. Select the gauge
Size fractionS by recording Separately
the maSSeS of each of the individUal
appropriate to the size-fraction under test (see Table 3) and
Size- fractionS and the maSSeS of gauge each particle of that size-fraction separately by hand.
elongated particleS in each Size- Elongated particles are those whose greatest dimension prevents
fraction. them from passing through the gauge, and these are placed to
one side.
Step 6: Combine and weigh all the elongated particles. (M3).

Aggregate size fraction Gap between pins Minimum

Test sieve of length gauge mass for
100 % passing 100% retained subdivision
mm mm mm kg
50 37.5 78.7 35
37.5 28 59.0 15
28 20 43.2 5
20 14 30.6 2
14 10 21.6 1
10 6.3 14.7 0.5
Table 7. Data for determination of Xlongation Index
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 165
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.5
Ministry of Works

Elongation Index

Notes
Calculations
The value of the Elongation Index is calculated from the expression:

Elongation Index, EI M3
x 100
M2
= where
M2 is the sum of the masses of fractions that have a mass
greater than 5 % of the total mass.
M3 is the mass of all the elongated particles

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test result, i.e. the Elongation Index of the test sample.
The Elongation Index shall be expressed to the nearest whole
number.
d) Whether the material was tested in the natural state or after sieving
e) Sieve analysis obtained from this test.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

166 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure 3 Lenght gauge

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 167

168 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.6
Ministry of Works

Aggregate Crushing Value - ACV

Notes
Objective
Aggregates used in road construction should be strong enough to resist
crushing under traffic wheel loads. If the aggregates are weak, the
integrity of the pavement structure is likely to be adversely affected. The
strength of coarse aggregates may be measured by the Aggregate
Crushing test.

The Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) gives a relative measure of

the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied
load. Main Principles
The Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) is determined by measuring the
material passing a specified sieve after crushing under a load of 400
kN.
If the standard size fraction 14 - 10 mm
is not available, tests may be performed on The test is applicable to a standard fraction aggregates passing a 14
other size fractions between 2.36 mm and
28 mm, ref. BS 812, and table below: mm sieve and retained on a 10 mm sieve.

The method is not suitable for testing soft aggregates with an ACV higher
than 30. In such cases the method for Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) is
applicable, ref. CML Test no. 2.7.

References
BS 812 : Part 110 : 1990

Required equipment
· A Steel Cylinder, open ended of nominal 150 mm internal
For the sizes smaller than 10mm a smaller diameter with Plunger and Baseplate, ref. figure 1.
apparatUS may be USed, i.e. cylinder
· Test sieves − square-hole perforated-plate type of sizes 14 mm
diameter 75 mm, moUld size 57 mm X 90
mm, tamping rod diameter 8 mm, and and 10 mm, and a woven wire 2.36 mm sieve.
applied force 100 kN. · Tamping rod, steel bar 16 mm diameter and 600 mm long with
both ends hemispherical
· Compression Testing Machine, 500 kN capacity
· Cylindrical Metal Measure, with internal diameter of 115 mm
and internal depth of 180 mm
· A sample divider, e.g. a riffle box
· Drying oven - with temperature of 105 °C ± 5 °C.
· Balance − min. 3 kg capacity readable to 1 g.
· Rubber mallet
· Metal tray of known mass
· Brush with stiff bristles.

If the material is dUSty, it shoUld be Sample preparation

washed before testing. It is not to be
washed after testing.
Step 1: Reduce the sample to produce a test portion of sufficient mass
to produce three test specimens of 14 mm to 10 mm size
fraction, ref. Table 1 below.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 169

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.6
Ministry of Works

Aggregate Crushing Value - ACV

Notes
Grade of the aggregate Minimum mass of the test portion *
mm kg
All-in aggregate 40 max. size 60
All-in aggregate 20 max. size 45
Graded aggregate 40 to 5 40
Graded aggregate 20 to 5 25
Graded aggregate 14 to 5 15
* For normal density aggregate
Table 8. Guide to minimum mass of test portions required to obtain a suitable
mass of material to determine the ACV.

Step 2: Sieve the entire surface dry test portion on the 14 mm and 10
mm sieves to remove the oversize and undersize fractions.
The appropriate qUantity of aggregate may Step 3: Divide the resulting 14 mm − 10 mm fraction to produce three
be foUnd conveniently by filling the test specimens each of sufficient mass such that the depth of the
cylindrical meaSUre in three layerS of
approximately eqUal depth. Tamp each
material in the Cylinder is approximately 100 mm after
layer 25 timeS, from a height of aboUt 50 tamping.
mm above the SUrface of the aggregate. Step 4: The test specimens shall be oven-dried at 105 ± 5°C for not
Level off USing the tamping rod.
more than 4 hours. Allow to cool before testing. Record the
mass of material comprising the test specimens.

Test Procedure
Step 1: Place the cylinder of the test apparatus in position on the base-
plate. Place the test specimen in it in thirds, each third being
compacted by 25 strokes of the tamping rod evenly distributed
over the surface of the layer. The tamping rod shall be dropped
from a height of about 50 mm above the surface of the
Take care to enSUre that the plUnger doeS aggregate.
not jam in the cylinder.
Step 2: Carefully level the surface of the aggregate and insert the
DUring the early StageS of the teSt, there plunger so that it rests horizontally on this surface.
iS a Significant deformation, and it may
not be poSSible to maintain the reqUired Step 3: Place the apparatus with the specimen and plunger in position,
loading rate and variationS will occUr. between the platens of the compression testing machine.
TheSe variationS ShoUld be kept to a Apply force at a uniform rate so that the required force of 400
minimUm with the principal object to
complete the teSt in 10 min. kN is reached in 10 min ± 30 s:
Step 4: Release the force and remove the crushed material aggregate
If thiS failS to remove the compacted
aggregate, other methodS ShoUld be USed
by holding the cylinder over a clean tray of known mass and
taking care not to crUSh the particleS. hammering on the outside with the rubber mallet until the
particles are sufficiently loose to enable the specimen to fall
freely on to the tray. Use a brush to remove the fine particles
adhering to the inside of the cylinder, the baseplate and the
underside of the plunger.
Step 5: Weigh the tray and the aggregate and record the mass
of aggregate used (M1) to the nearest 1 g.
Step 6: Sieve the whole specimen in the tray on the 2.36 mm sieve
until no further significant amount passes. Weigh and record
the
170 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.6
Ministry of Works

Aggregate Crushing Value - ACV

Notes
masses of the fraction passing and retained on the sieve to the
nearest 1 g (M2 + M3 respectively). If the total mass (M2 + M3)
differs from the initial mass (M1) by more than 10 g, discard the
result and test a further specimen.
Step 7: Repeat the complete test procedure using a second specimen
of the same mass as the first specimen.

Calculations
1) Calculate the Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) expressed as a
percentage to the first decimal place for each test specimen from
the following equation:
M2
ACV = x 100
M1
where

M1 is the mass of the test specimen (in g)

M2 is the mass of the material passing the 2.36 mm sieve (in g).

2) Calculate the mean of the two results to the nearest whole number.

3) Report the mean as the Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV).

The median of 4 reSUltS iS calcUlated by

diSregarding the higheSt and loweSt If the individual results differ by more than 7 % of the mean value, the test
reSUlt and averaging the two middle shall be repeated for two further specimens. The median value shall be
reSUltS. reported as the ACV.

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) The Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
Knock on the cylinder with a rubber mallet to remove the material. Do not
knock on the material itself.

Maintenance
Calibration of the compression testing machine should be performed once
a year.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 171

 7igure 4 Outline form of cylinder and plunger apparatus for the aggregate crushing value

Table 7 Principal dimensions of cylinder and plunger apparatus

172 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 173
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.7
Ministry of Works

Ten Percent Fines Value - TFV (10% FACT)

Notes
Objective
Aggregates used in road construction should be strong enough to resist
crushing under traffic wheel loads. If the aggregates are weak, the integrity
of the pavement structure may be adversely affected.

The strength of the aggregates may be measured in a crushing test. The

The apparatUS, methOd and materialS USed Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) gives a relative measure of the resistance
are Similar tO the determinatiOn Of the
Aggregate CrUShing ValUe (ACV).
of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied load. In Pavement
design there are specific requirements for the TFV of materials, tested both
dry and soaked.

Main Principles
The 10 % Fines Value (TFV) is determined by measuring the load required
to crush a prepared aggregate sample to give 10 % material passing a
If the Standard Size fractiOn 14 - 10 mm iS specified sieve after crushing. The test is also known as the 10% Fines
nOt available, teStS may be perfOrmed On Aggregate Crushing Test - 10 % FACT.
Other Size fractiOnS between 2.36 mm and
28 mm, ref. BS 812, and table belOw:
The test can be performed in both a dry condition and in a soaked condit-
ion.

The test is applicable to both weak and strong aggregates. The standard
size fraction is passing a 14 mm sieve and retained on a 10 mm sieve.

(The TFV test resembles the determination of the Aggregate Crushing

Value (ACV), which requires a force equal to 400 kN to be applied on the
test sample).

FOr the SizeS Smaller than 10mm a Smaller References

apparatUS may be USed, i.e. cylinder BS 812 : Part 111 : 1990
diameter 75 mm, mOUld Size 57 mm x 90
mm, tamping rOd diameter 8 mm, and
applied fOrce Up tO 100 kN. Required equipment
· A Steel Cylinder, open ended of nominal 150 mm internal
diameter with Plunger and Baseplate, ref. figure 1.
· Test sieves − square-hole perforated-plate type of sizes 14 mm
and 10 mm, and a woven wire 2.36 mm sieve.
· Tamping rod, steel bar 16 mm diameter and 600 mm long with
both ends hemispherical
· Compression Testing Machine, 500 kN capacity
· Cylindrical Metal Measure, with internal diameter of 115 mm
and internal depth of 180 mm
· A sample divider, e.g. a riffle box
· Drying oven - with temperature of 105 °C ± 5 °C.
· Balance − min. 3 kg capacity readable to 1 g.
· Rubber mallet
· Metal tray of known mass
· Brush with stiff bristles.

174 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.7
Ministry of Works

Ten Percent Fines Value - TFV (10% FACT)

Notes
Additional for testing in a soaked condition
· Drying cloths (two hand towels)
· 3 no. Wire mesh baskets
· Watertight container
· Supply of clean water

If the material iS dUSty, it ShOUld be

Sample preparation
waShed befOre teSting. Step 1: Reduce the sample to produce a test portion of sufficient mass to
produce three test specimens of 14 mm to 10 mm size fraction, ref.
Table 1 below.

Table 9. Guide to minimum mass of test portions required to obtain a suitable

mass of material to determine the T7V.

Grade of the aggregate Minimum mass of the test

portion *
mm kg
All-in aggregate 0-40 mm max. size 60
All-in aggregate 0-20 mm max. size 45
Graded aggregate 40 to 5 mm 40
Graded aggregate 20 to 5 mm 25
Graded aggregate 14 to 5 mm 15

The apprOpriate qUantity Of aggregate may * For normal density aggregate

be fOUnd cOnveniently by filling the
cylindrical meaSUre in three layerS Of
apprOximately eqUal depth. Tamp each Step 2: Sieve the entire surface dry test portion on the 14 mm and
layer 25 timeS, frOm a height Of abOUt 50 10 mm sieves to remove the oversize and undersize
mm abOve the SUrface Of the aggregate. fractions.
Level Off USing the tamping rOd.
Step 3: Divide the resulting 14 mm − 10 mm fraction to produce three
test specimens each of sufficient mass such that the depth of the
material in the Cylinder is approximately 100 mm after
tamping.

Step 4: The test specimens shall be oven-dried at 105 ± 5°C for not
more than 4 hours. Allow to cool before testing. Record the
mass of material comprising the test specimens.

5or soaked condition

Step 5: Each of the three test specimens shall be placed in the wire
basket and immersed in water. The water level in the
container shall be at least 50 mm above the top of the baskets.
Immediately after immersion remove entrapped air by lifting the
baskets 25 mm above the base of the container and allowing it
to drop 25 times. Keep the baskets immersed for 24 ± 2 hours.

Step 6: After soaking, remove the specimen of aggregate from the

basket and dry the free water from the surface. Carry out the
test proce- dure immediately after this operation.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 175
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.7
Ministry of Works

Ten Percent Fines Value - TFV (10% FACT)

Notes
Test Procedure
Dry condition

Step 1: Place the cylinder of the test apparatus in position on the base-
plate. Place the test specimen in it in thirds, each third being
compacted by 25 strokes of the tamping rod evenly distributed
over the surface of the layer. The tamping rod shall be dropped
from a height of about 50 mm above the surface of the
aggregate.
Take Care tO enSUre that the plUnger
dOeS nOt jam in the Cylinder.
Step 2: Carefully level the surface of the aggregate and insert the
plunger so that it rests horizontally on this surface.
DUring the early StageS Of the teSt, there
iS a SignifiCant defOrmatiOn, and it may Step 3: Place the apparatus with the specimen and plunger in position,
nOt be pOSSible tO maintain the reqUired between the platens of the compression testing machine.
lOading rate and variatiOnS will Apply force at a uniform rate so as to cause a total penetration
OCCUr.TheSe variatiOnS ShOUld be kept tO a
minimUm with the prinCipal ObjeCt tO of the plunger in 10 min ± 30 s of approximately:
COmplete the teSt in 10 min. a) 15 mm for rounded or partially rounded aggregates,
e.g. uncrushed grave
b) 20 mm for normal crushed aggregates
c) 24 mm for honeycombed aggregates, e.g. some slags

Step 4: Record the maximum force (f) applied to produce the required
penetration. Release the force and remove the crushed material
aggregate by holding the cylinder over a clean tray of known
mass and hammering on the outside with the rubber mallet until
If thiS failS tO remOve the COmpaCted
aggregate, Other methOdS ShOUld be USed
the particles are sufficiently loose to enable the specimen to fall
taking Care nOt tO CrUSh the partiCleS. freely on to the tray. Use a brush to remove the fine particles
adhering to the inside of the cylinder, the baseplate and the
underside of the plunger.

Step 5: Weigh the tray and the aggregate and record the mass of
aggre- gate used (Ml) to the nearest 1 g.

Step 6: Sieve the whole specimen in the tray on the 2.36 mm sieve
until no further significant amount passes. Weigh and record
the masses of the fraction passing and retained on the sieve to
the nearest 1 g (M2 + M3 respectively). If the total mass (M2 +
M3)
differs from the initial mass (Ml) by more than 10 g, discard the
result and test a further specimen.

If the percentage of the material (m) passing the sieve calculated

from
A SUitable fOrCe will typiCally vary frOm
M2
m = x 100
50 kN fOr weak gravelS tO mOre than M1
200 kN fOr gOOd qUality aggregateS.
does not fall within the range 7.5 % - 12.5 %, test a further
specimen using an adjusted maximum test loading to bring the
percentage of fines within the range and record the value of (m)
obtained.
176 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.7
Ministry of Works

Ten Percent Fines Value - TFV (10% FACT)

Notes
Step 7: Repeat the complete test procedure using a second specimen of
the same mass as the first specimen at the same force that gave
a percentage fines value within the range 7.5 % - 12.5 %.

Soaked Condition
Follow the test procedure described above, step 1 − 4, except that after
the specimen has been removed from the cylinder, it shall be oven-dried
at a temperature of 105 ± 5oC for at least 12 hours. Allow the material to
cool and weigh to the nearest 1 g and record the mass of the test
specimen (Ml). Complete the procedure as described in steps 6 and 7
above.

Calculations
1) Calculate the force F (in kN), to the nearest whole number,
required to produce 10 % fines for each test specimen, with the
percentage of material passing in the range 7.5 % - 12.5 %, from
the following equation:
14 f
F=
m+4
where

f is the maximum force (in kN)

m is the percentage of material passing the 2.36 mm sieve at
the maximum force

2) Calculate the mean of the two results to the nearest 10 kN for

forces of 100 kN or more, or to the nearest 5 kN for forces less than
100 kN.

Report the mean as the Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV).

The median Of 4 reSUltS iS CalCUlated

by diSregarding the higheSt and lOweSt If the individual results differ by more than 10 kN and by more than 10
reSUlt and averaging the twO middle % of the mean value, the test shall be repeated for two more specimens.
reSUltS. The median value shall be reported as the TFV.

The Preferred test method

The preferred optional testing method is to combine the TFV test with
the ACV test.

4 test specimens are prepared as described above. The 4 specimens are

subjected to 50 kN − 100 kN − 150 kN and 400 kN respectively.

The 4 results are plotted on a chart with the applied load as the abscissae
and the percentage fines (passing 2.36 mm) as the ordinate. A curve is
drawn through the plotted points. The force F (in kN) corresponding to 10
% fines is reported as the Ten Percent Fines Value (TVF).
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 177
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.7
Ministry of Works

Ten Percent Fines Value - TFV (10% FACT)

Notes
It is recommended to prepare a control specimen to which the reported
force (in kN) is applied and the fines (passing 2.36 mm) after crushing are
measured as described above. This percentage of fines should be near 10
%.

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) The test condition of the aggregates, i.e. dry or soaked condition
d) The Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) of the dry aggregate; and/or
e) The Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) of the soaked aggregate

Form for the test

The enclosed test form shall be used.

Practial Considerations
Knock on the cylinder with a rubber mallet to remove the material. Do
not knock on the material itself.

Maintenance
Calibration of the compression machine should be performed once a year.
178 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
179 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.8
Ministry of Works

Aggregate Impact Value - AIV

Notes
Objective
Aggregates used in road construction should be strong enough to resist
crushing under traffic wheel loads.

The strength of the aggregates may be measured in crushing or impact

tests. The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) gives a relative measure of the
resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact.

Main Principles
The Engineer Shall decide whether tO teSt The test can be performed in either a dry condition or in a soaked condition.
in dry Or SOaked cOnditiOn.

If the Standard Size fractiOn 14 - 10 mm iS The test is applicable to a standard fraction aggregates passing a 14 mm
nOt available, teStS may be perfOrmed On sieve and retained on a 10 mm sieve.
Smaller Size fractiOnS dOwn tO 2.36 mm, ref.
BS 812, and table belOw References
BS 812 : Part 112 : 1990

Required equipment
· Aggregate Impact Testing Machine, ref. figure 1.
· Test sieves − square-hole perforated-plate type of sizes 14 mm
and 10 mm, and a wovenwire 2.36 mm sieve.
· Cylindrical metal measure with an internal diameter of 75 mm
and an internal depth of 50 mm.
· Tamping rod, steel bar 16 mm diameter and 600 mm long with
both ends hemispherical
· A sample divider, eg. a riffle box
· Drying oven - with temperature of 105 °C ± 5 °C.
· Balance - readable to 0.1 g.
· Rubber mallet
· Metal tray of known mass
· Brush with stiff bristles.

Additional for testing in a soaked condition

· Drying cloths (towels)
· 3 no. Wire mesh basket
· Watertight container
· Supply of clean water

Sample preparation
If the material iS dUSty, it ShOUld be waShed Step 1: Reduce the sample to produce a test portion of sufficient mass
befOre teSting.
to produce three test specimens of 14 mm to 10 mm size
fraction, ref. Table 1 below.

180 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.8
Ministry of Works

Aggregate Impact Value - AIV

Notes Table l0. Guide to minimum mass of test portions required to obtain a suitable
mass of material to determine the AIV

Grade of the aggregate Minimum mass of the

test portion *
mm kg
All-in aggregate 0-40 mm max. size 20
All-in aggregate 0-20 mm max. size 15
Graded aggregate 40 to 5 mm 12
Graded aggregate 20 to 5 mm 8
Graded aggregate 14 to 5 mm 5
* For normal density aggregate

Step 2: Sieve the entire dried test portion on the 14 mm and 10

mm sieves to remove the oversize and undersize fractions.

Step 3: Divide the resulting 14 mm − 10 mm fraction to produce

three test specimens each of sufficient mass to fill the entire
Cylindrical Metal Measure.

Step 4: The test specimens shall be oven-dried at 105 ± 5°C for not
more than 4 hours. Allow to cool before testing.

Step 5: Fill the measure to overflowing with the aggregate. Tamp the
aggregate with 25 evenly distributed blows of the rounded end
of the tamping rod, each blow letting the tamping rod fall freely
from about 50 mm above the surface of the aggregate.

Step 6: Remove surplus aggregate by rolling the tamping rod across the
container. Remove by hand any aggregate which impedes its
progress, and fill any obvious depressions with added
aggregate. Record the net mass of aggregate in the measure and
use the same mass for the second test specimen.

5or soaked condition

Step 7: Each of the three test specimens shall be placed in the wire
basket and immersed in water. The water level in the container
shall be at least 50 mm above the top of the baskets.
Immediately after immersion remove entrapped air by lifting
the baskets 25 mm above the base of the container and
allowing it to drop 25 times. Keep the baskets immersed for 24
± 2 hours.

Step 8: After soaking, remove the specimen of aggregate from the

basket and dry the free water from the surface.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 181

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.8
Ministry of Works

Aggregate Impact Value - AIV

Notes
Test Procedure
Dry condition
Step 1: Place the impact machine upon the level plate, block or floor, so
that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are vertical. Fix
the cup in position and place the test specimen in it and compact
by 25 strokes of the tamping rod. Adjust the height of the ham-
mer so that it is 380 ± 5 mm above the upper surface of the
aggregate in the cup.
NO fUrther adjUStment fOr hammer height iS
Step 2: Let the hammer fall freely on to the aggregate to achieve a
reqUired dUring the teSt.
total of 15 blows at intervals of not less than 1 s.

If thiS failS tO remOve the cOmpacted Step 3: Remove the crushed aggregate by holding the cup over a clean
aggregate, Other methOdS ShOUld be USed tray and hammering on the outside with the rubber mallet until
taking care nOt tO crUSh the particleS.
the particles are sufficiently loose to enable the specimen to fall
freely on to the tray. Use a brush to remove the fine particles
adhering to the inside of the cup and the underside of the
hammer.

Step 4: Weigh the tray and the aggregate and record the mass
of aggregate used (Ml) to the nearest 0.1 g.

Step 5: Sieve the whole specimen in the tray on the 2.36 mm sieve
until no further significant amount passes. Weigh and record
the masses of the fraction passing and retained on the sieve to
the nearest 0.1 g (M2 + M3 respectively). If the total mass (M2 +
M3)
differs from the initial mass Ml by more than 1 g, discard the
result and test a further specimen.

Step 6: Repeat the procedure using a second specimen of the same

mass as the first specimen.

The nUmber Of blOwS will USUally be leSS Soaked Condition

than 15, bUt the actUal nUmber haS tO be
determined by trial and errOr. TherefOre Step 7: Follow the test procedure described above in Steps 1 and 2,
mOre than twO teSt SpecimenS will USUally except that the number of blows of the hammer is the number
be reqUired. Once the nUmber Of blOwS
haS been determined, the prOcedUre iS of blows that yield between 5 % and 20 % fines. However, 15
repeated On a SecOnd teSt Specimen blows may also be used for the soaked condition
USing the Same nUmber Of blOwS.
Step 8: Remove the crushed specimen from the cup and dry it in the
oven at a temperature of 105 ± 5oC for at least 12 hours. Allow
the material to cool and weigh to the nearest 0.1 g and record
the mass of the test specimen (Ml). Complete the procedure as
described in Steps 5 and 6 above.
182 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.8
Ministry of Works

Aggregate Impact Value - AIV

Notes
Calculations
Dry Condition
Calculate the Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) expressed as a percentage to
the first decimal place for each test specimen from the following equation:
M2
AIV = x 100
M1
where

Ml is the mass of the test specimen (in g)

M2 is the mass of the material passing the 2.36 mm sieve (in g).

Soaked Condition
Calculate the mass of the fines m expressed as a percentage of the total
mass for each test specimen from the following equation:
M2
m= 1 x 100
M
where

Ml is the mass of the oven-dried test specimen (in g)

M2 is the mass of the oven-dried material passing the 2.36
mm sieve (in g).
Calculate the Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) expressed as a percentage
to the first decimal place for each test specimen from the equation:
If 15 blOwS were 15 m
USed:
AIV = n
M2
AIV = m = x 100
M1 where
The ratiO between dry and SOaked AIV
may then be regarded aS an indicatiOn Of n is the number of hammer blows to which the specimen
dUrability fOr SOft aggregateS.
is subjected.
For both the Dry condition and the Soaked condition the mean of the two
values shall be determined to the nearest whole number. The mean is
The median Of 4 reSUltS iS calcUlated by reported as the Aggregate Impact Value, unless the individual results differ
diSregarding the higheSt and lOweSt by more than 15 % of the mean value. In this case the test shall be repeated
reSUlt and averaging the twO middle for two more specimens. The median value shall be reported as the AIV.
reSUltS.
Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) The test condition of the aggregates, i.e. dry or soaked condition
If the AIV iS greater than 30 % the teSt d) The AIV of the dry aggregate
reSUlt ShOUld be treated with caUtiOn. e) The AIV of the soaked aggregate, stating the number of blows of
the hammer that was used in the test
f) Ratio between dry and soaked AIV (if required)

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 183

7igure 5 Aggregate Impact Value Apparatus

184 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

185 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.9
Ministry of Works

Los Angeles Abrasion test - LAA

Notes
Objective
The objective of the test is to assess the hardness of coarse aggregates
A prOCedUre fOr teSting COarSe aggregateS used in pavement construction. Due to the movement of traffic, the road
larger than 19 mm iS COvered in TeSt stones used in the surface course are subjected to wearing action at the
MethOd ASTM C 535 – 89 USing the Same
eqUipment. top. Resistance to wear or hardness is hence an essential property for
road aggregates, especially when used in wearing course.

This test method covers a procedure for testing sizes of coarse aggregates,
e.g. for surface dressing, smaller than 37.5 mm for resistance to
degradation using the Los Angeles testing machine.

Main Principles
The Los Angeles test is a measure of degradation of mineral aggregates of
standard gradings resulting from a combination of actions including
abrasion, impact and grinding in a rotating steel drum containing a
specified number of steel spheres. As the drum rotates, a shelf plate picks
up the sample and the steel spheres, carrying them around until they are
dropped to the opposite side of the drum, creating an impact/crushing
effect. The contents then roll within the drum with an abrading and
grinding action until the shelf plate impacts and the cycle is repeated.

After the prescribed number of resolutions, the contents are removed

from the drum and the aggregate portion is sieved to measure the
degradation as a percent loss.

References
ASTM C 131 - 89

Required equipment
· Los Angeles Testing Machine − The machine consists of a hollow
rotating steel cylinder, closed at both ends, with an inside diameter
of 711 mm and an inside length of 508 mm. An opening with a
dust tight cover are provided for the introduction of the test sample.
A steel shelf is extending the full length of the cylinder and
projecting inward 89mm.
BaCklaSh Or Slip in the driving meChaniSm iS · The machine shall be so driven and counterbalanced as to maintain
very likely tO fUrniSh teSt reSUltS whiCh a substantially uniform peripheral speed.
are nOt dUpliCated by Other LA maChineS · Test sieves - sizes 1.70 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm, 6.3 mm, 9.5 mm,
prOdUCing COnStant peripheral Speed.
12.5 mm, 19.0 mm, 25.0 mm and 37.5 mm.
· Drying oven - with temperature of 105 °C to 110 °C
· Balance - readable to 1.0 g.
· Charge - The charge shall consist of steel spheres averaging
approximately 46.8 mm (46.0 − 47.6 mm) in diameter and
with mass between 390 g and 445 g.
· The charge, depending on the grading of the sample as described in
Table 12 shall be as follows:

186 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.9
Ministry of Works

Los Angeles Abrasion test - LAA

Notes
Grading Number of Spheres Mass of Charge, g
A 12 5000 ± 25
B 11 4584 ± 25
C 8 3330 ± 20
D 6 2500 ± 15

Table ll

Sample preparation
Step 1: The test sample shall be washed and oven-dried at 105 °C to 110
°C to substantially constant mass.
Step 2: The sample shall be separated into individual size fractions and
recombined to the grading of Table 12 most nearly
corresponding to the range of sizes in the aggregate as
furnished for the work.
Step 3: The mass of the sample shall prior to test shall be recorded to the
nearest 1 g (ml).

The material mUSt be allOwed tO COOl Test Procedure

dOwn befOre it iS tranSferred tO the LOS Step 1: Place the test sample and the charge in the Los Angeles testing
AngeleS drUm. machine and rotate the machine at a speed of 30 to 33 rpm for
If the aggregate iS eSSentially free Of
500 revolutions.
adherent COatingS and dUSt, the Step 2: After the 500 revolutions, discharge the material from the
reqUirementS fOr waShing befOre and after machine and make a preliminary separation of the sample in a
the teSt may be waived. sieve coarser than the 1.70 mm sieve. Sieve the finer portion on
a
1.70 mm sieve.
Step 3: Wash the material coarser than 1.70 mm sieve.
Step 4: Oven-dry at 105 °C to 110 °C to substantially constant mass,
and weigh to the nearest 1 g (m2).

Calculations
1) Express the loss (difference between the original mass (ml) and the
final mass (m2) of the test sample as a percentage of the original
mass of the test sample, from the equation:
m1 - m2
LAA value = ( ) x 100 (%)
m1
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test result, i.e. the LAA value of the test sample. Report the value
as the percentage loss.
d) Whether the material was tested in the natural state or after sieving.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 187
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.9
Ministry of Works

Los Angeles Abrasion test - LAA

Notes
Precision
The Los Angeles test has been widely used as an indicator of the relative
quality of various sources of aggregate having similar mineral
compositions. The results do not automatically permit valid comparisons
to be made between sources distinctly different in origin, composition or
structure. Specifications limits based on this test should be assigned with
extreme care in consideration of available aggregate types and their
performance history in specific end uses.

Practical Considerations
As the test is extremely noisy, hearing protection is strongly
recommended for the operators.

Rusty spares should not be used.

Maintenance
The steel spheres are subject to heavy wear, and their mass must be
checked regularly.

Table l2 Grading of theTest Eamples

188 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

7igure 6 Los Angeles Testing Machine

189 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

190 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.10
Ministry of Works

Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium

Sulphate

Notes Objective
The objective of the test is to provide a procedure for making a
preliminary estimate of the soundness of aggregates subject to weathering
action for use in concrete and road pavements.

Main Principles
The Soundness test by use of Sodium Sulphate covers the testing of
aggregates to estimate their soundness when subjected to weathering. This
is accomplished by repeated immersion in saturated solutions of sodium
sulphate followed by oven drying to partially or completely dehydrate the
salt precipitated in permeable pore spaces. The internal expansive force,
derived from the rehydration of the salt upon re-immersion, simulates the
expansion of water on freezing. The test method furnishes information
helpful in judging the soundness of aggregates when adequate information
is not available from service records of the material exposed to actual
weathering conditions.

References
ASTM C 88 - 90

Required equipment
ASTM SieVeS mUSt be USed fOr thiS teSt. · Test sieves - sizes 150 µm, 300 µm, 600 µm, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm,
4.00 mm, 4,75 mm, 8,0 mm, 9,5 mm, 12.5 mm, 16,0 mm, 19.0 mm,
25.0 mm, 31,5 mm, 37.5 mm, 50 mm, and 63 mm.
· Drying oven - with temperature of 110 ± 5 °C.
· Balance - for fine aggregate, readable to 0.1 g and for
coarse aggregate readable to 1.0 g.
· Containers - for immersing the samples of aggregate in solution.
The containers shall be perforated to permit free access of the
solution to the sample and drainage from the sample without loss of
aggregate, e.g. baskets made of wire mesh or sieves with suitable
apertures.
· Specific Gravity Measurement - Hydrometers or a suitable com-
bination of graduates glassware and balance, capable of
measuring the solution specific gravity within ± 0.001.

Special Solution Required

A solution of Sodium Sulphate for the immersion of test samples is
required.

The USe nOt leSS than 350 g Of the Step 1: Prepare a saturation solution of sodium sulphate by dissolving
anhydrOUS Salt Or 750 g Of the USP or equal grade of salt in water at a temperature of 25 to
decahydrate Salt per litre Of water iS 30 °C. Add sufficient salt of either the anhydrous salt (Na
recOmmended. SO ) 2 4
or the crystalline decahydrate salt (Na2SO4 · 10H2O) to ensure
not only saturation but also the presence of excess crystals when
the solution is ready for use in the tests.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 191

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.10
Ministry of Works

Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium

Sulphate

Notes
Step 2: Thoroughly stir the mixture during the addition of the salt
and stir the solution at frequent intervals until used. To reduce
evaporation and prevent contamination, keep the solution
covered at all times when not in use.
StOre in the cOld rOOm with air
cOnditiOn- ing.
Step 3: Allow the solution to cool to 21 ± 1 °C. Again stir, and allow
the solution to remain at the designated temperature for at least
48 hours before use. Prior to each use, break up the salt cake, if
any, in the container. Stir the solution thoroughly and determine
the specific gravity of the solution. When used, the solution
shall have a specific gravity between 1.151 and 1.174. Discard a
discoloured solution, or filter it and check for specific gravity.

Samples
Fine Aggregate - Fine aggregate for the test shall be passed through a
9.5 mm sieve. The sample shall be of such size that it will yield not
less than 100 g of each of the following fractions, which shall be
available in amount of 5 % or more each.

Passing sieve Retained on sieve

600 µm 300 µm
1.18 mm 600 µm
2.36 mm 1.18 mm
4.75 mm 2.36 mm
9.5 mm 4.75 mm
Table l3

Coarse Aggregate - Coarse aggregate for the test shall consist of material
from which material finer than 4.75 m have been removed. The sample
shall be of such a size that it will yield the following amounts of the
indicated fractions that are available in 5 % or more:

Passing sieve Retained on sieve Mass (in g)

9.5 mm 4.75 mm 300 ± 5
19.0 mm 9.5 mm 1000 ± 10
Consisting of:
12.5 mm 9.5 mm 330 ± 5
19.0 mm 12.5 mm 670 ± 10
37.5 mm 19.0 mm 1500 ± 50
Consisting of:
25.0 mm 19.0 mm 500 ± 30
37.5 mm 25.0 mm 1000 ± 50
63 mm 37.5 mm 5000 ± 300
Consisting of:
50 mm 37.5 mm 2000 ± 200
63 mm 50 mm 3000 ± 300
Table l4

192 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.10
Ministry of Works

Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium

Sulphate

Notes When an aggregate to be tested contains appreciable amounts of both fine

and coarse aggregate, i.e. more than 10 % mass coarser than 9.5 mm and
10 % mass finer than 4.75 mm, Test separate samples of the minus 4.75
mm fraction and the plus 4.75 mm fraction. Report the test results
separately for the fine-aggregate fraction and the coarseaggregate fraction,
giving the percentages of the coarse- and fine-size fractions in the initial
grading.

Preparation of Test Sample

5ine Aggregate

Step 1: Thoroughly wash the sample on a 300 µm

sieve. Step 2: Dry to constant weight at 110 ± 5 °C.

Step 3: Separate into the different fractions as follows:

DO nOt USe fine aggregateS StiCking in the Make a rough separation of the graded sample by means of a
meSheS Of the SieveS in preparing the nest of the standard sieves specified in Table 1. From the
SampleS. fractions obtained in this manner, select samples of sufficient
size to yield 100 g after sieving to refusal.

Step 4: Weigh samples consisting of 100 ± 0.1 g out of each

separate fractions, and place in separate containers for the
test.

Coarse Aggregate
Step 1: Thoroughly wash and dry the sample of coarse aggregate
to constant mass at 110 ± 5 °C.

Step 2: Separate into the different fractions shown in Table 2.

Step 3: Weigh out quantities of the different fractions within the tole-
rances of Table 2. Where the test portion consists of two
fractions, combine them to the designated total mass. Record
the mass of the test samples and their fractional components.

Step 4: In the case of sizes larger than 19.0 mm, record the number
of particles in the test samples.
COver the COntainer tO redUCe
evapOratiOn. Test Procedure
Step 1: Immerse the samples in the prepared solution of Sodium
Sulphate for 16 − 18 hours, in such a manner that the solution
covers them to a depth of at least 15 mm. The temperature of
the solution should be kept at 21 ± 1 °C.

Step 2: After the immersion period, remove the aggregate sample

from the solution, permit to drain for 15 ± 5 min., and place in
the drying oven.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 193
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.10
Ministry of Works

Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium

Sulphate

Notes
Step 3: Dry the samples at the temperature of 110 ± 5 °C until constant
Check the lOSSeS in maSS Of the teSt mass has been achieved.
SampleS by remOving and weighing them
withOUt cOOling at intervalS Of 2 tO 4 hOUrS.
Step 4: After constant mass has been achieved, allow the samples to
cool to room temperature, when they shall again be immersed
in the prepared solution.
The nUmber Of cycleS Shall be decided by
the Engineer. Step 5: Repeat the process of alternative immersion and drying until
the required number of cycles is obtained.

Quantitative Examination
Step 1: After completion of the final cycle and after the sample has
cooled, wash the sample free from the Sodium Sulphate as
determined by the reaction of the wash water with Barium
DUring waShing the SampleS Shall nOt
be SUbjected tO impact Or abraSiOn that Chloride (BaCl2). Wash by circulating water at 43 ± 6 °C
may tend tO break Up particleS. through the samples in their containers. This may be done
by placing them in a tank where the hot water can be
introduced near the bottom and allowed to overflow.

Step 2: After the Sodium Sulphate has been removed, dry each
fraction of the sample to constant mass at 110 ± 5 °C.

Step 3: Sieve the fine aggregate over the same sieve on which it
was retained before the test. The method and duration of
sieving shall be the same as were used when preparing the
samples.
NO extra manipUlatiOn Shall be emplOyed
tO break Up particleS. Step 4: Sieve the coarse aggregate over the sieve shown below for the
appropriate size of particle. Sieving shall be by hand, with
agitation sufficient only to assure that all the undersize
material passes the designated sieve.

Aggregate Passing Aggregate Retained Sieve to be used to

Determine Loss
63 mm 37.5 mm 31.5 mm
37.5 mm 19.0 mm 16.0 mm
19.0 mm 9.5 mm 8.0 mm
9.5 mm 4.75 mm 4.0 mm
Table l5
Step 5: Weigh the material retained on each sieve and record each
amount. The difference between each of these amounts and the
initial mass of the fraction of the sample tested is the loss in the
test, and is to be expressed as a percentage of the initial mass
for use in Table 3.

Qualitative Examination
Step 1: For the test samples coarser than 19.0 mm, separate the
particles of each test sample into groups according to the
action produced by the test, refer to Table 4.

194 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.10
Ministry of Works

Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium

Sulphate

Notes Step 2: Record the number of particles showing each type of distress.

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Mass of each fraction of each sample before the test.
d) Material from each fraction of the sample finer than the sieve
designated for sieving after the test, expressed as a percentage of
the original mass of the fraction.
e) Weighted average calculated from the percentage loss of each
fraction, based on the grading of the sample as received for
examination, except that:
f) for Fine Aggregates assume sizes finer than the 300 µm sieve to
have 0 % loss and sizes coarser than the 9.5 mm sieve to have the
same loss as the next smaller size for which test data is available.
g) for Coarse Aggregates assume sizes finer than the 4.75 mm sieve
to have the same loss as the next larger size for which test data are
available.
h) For an aggregate containing appreciable amounts of both fine and
coarse material tested as two separate samples, compute the
weighted average losses separately for the minus 4.75 mm and
plus
4.75 mm fractions based on recomputed gradings considering the
fine fraction as 100 % and the coarse fraction as 100 %. Report the
results separately giving the percentage of the minus 4.75 mm and
plus 4.75 mm material in the initial grading.
i) For the purpose of calculating the weighted average, consider any
sizes that contain less than 5 % of the sample to have the same loss
as the average of the next smaller and the next larger size. If one of
these sizes is absent, the size shall have the same loss as the next
larger or smaller size, whichever is present.
j) Report the weighted percentage loss to the nearest whole number.
k) In the case of particles coarser than 19.0 mm before the test: The
number of particles in each fraction before the test and the number
of particles affected, classified as to number disintegrating,
splitting, crumbling, cracking, flaking, etc., as shown in Table 4.
l) Whether the solution was freshly prepared or previously used.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical considerations
Proper and adequate safety precautions must be applied when working
with chemicals.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 195

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.10
Ministry of Works

Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium

Sulphate

Notes
Table l6 7orm for Recording Test Data (with illustrative Test Values)

Table l7 7orm for Qualitative Xxamination (with illustrative Test Values)

196 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

197 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.11
Ministry of Works

Slump Test

Notes
Objective
The Slump Test is one of several method for determining the
workability of fresh concrete.

Main Principles
The slump test is carried out by filling a specified mould with freshly
mixed concrete and measuring the slump after removal of the mould.

The method applies to cohesive concrete of medium to high

workability, and with maximum aggregate size of 40 mm.

References
BS 1881 : Part 102 : 1983.

Required equipment
· A slump mould of galvanized iron or steel. The mould shall be in
the form of a cut-off cone with the following internal dimensions:
- diameter of base: 200 ± 2 mm
- diameter of top: 100 ± 2 mm
- height: 300 ± 2 mm
· Scoop
· Sampling tray
· Shovel
· Tamping rod, made out of straight steel bar, 16 mm diameter
and 600 mm long.
· Rule, graduated from 0 mm to 300 mm at 5 mm intervals, the
zero point being at one end of the rule.

Sampling
The sample can be taken from a laboratory mix maximum 2 minutes after
mixing, and determination of slump should commence instantly.

If the concrete is delivered in a mixing truck, the slump may be measured

using a sample from the initial discharge.

Test Procedure
The teSt ShOUld be Carried OUt at a
lOCatiOn free frOm vibratiOn and ShOCkS. Step 1: Ensure that the inner surface of the mould is clean and damp or
dry. Place the bottom of the mould on a clean, smooth,
horizontal, firm an non-absorbent surface (e.g. a steel plate.

Step 2: While firmly holding the mould, fill it with fresh concrete within
2 minutes after mixing. The mould shall be filled in three layers,
each approximately one-third of the height of the mould when
tamped.
Be CarefUl nOt tO tamp the baSe Under
the mOUld fOrCibly. Step 3: Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the tamping rod, the
strokes being distributed uniformly over the cross-section of
the layer. Tamp each layer to its full depth.
198 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.11
Ministry of Works

Slump Test

Notes Step 4: Heap the concrete above the mould before the top layer is tamped.
After the top layer have been tamped, strike off the concrete
level with the top of the mould with a sawing motion of the
tamping rod.

Step 5: With the mould still held down, clean away excess
concrete found the outside of the mould.

Step 6: Remove the mould from the concrete by raising it vertically,

slowly and carefully, in 5 to 10 seconds. The entire operation
from the start of filling to the removal of the mould shall be
carried out without interruption and shall be completed within 2
The wOrkability Of a cOncrete mix ½ minutes.
changeS with time dUe tO the hydratiOn
Of the cement and lOSS Of mOiStUre.
TeStS On different SampleS ShOUld, Step 7: Immediately after the mould is removed, measure the slump to
therefOre, be carried OUt at a cOnStant the nearest 5 mm by using the rule to determine the difference
time interval after mixing if Strictly between the height of the mould and of the highest point of
cOmparable reSUltS are tO be Obtained. the specimen being tested.

Expression of results
The test is only valid if it yields a true slump. This being a slump in
which the concrete remains substantially intact and symmetrical as
shown in Figure 1(a).

If the specimen shears, as shown in Figure 1(b), or collapses, as shown in

NOrmal cOncrete may be expected tO Figure 1(c), take another sample and repeat the procedure.
have a SlUmp Of 80 - 150 mm.
Record the slump to the nearest 5 mm.

Report
The test report shall include the following information:
TMH1 perfOrmS the teSt in triplicate a) Reference to this procedure
and repOrtS the SlUmp aS the mean
reSUlt Of three teStS.
b) Date, time and place of sampling and sample identification
c) Time and place of test
d) Time lapse from sampling to commencement of test
e) Form of slump, whether true, shear or collapse
f) Measured true Slump

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

7igure l 7orms of slump

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 199

200 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.12
Ministry of Works

Making Test Cubes from Fresh Concrete

Notes
Objective
This method describes the making of concrete test cubes for testing for
compressive strength.

Main Principles
The test cubes shall have nominal sizes of 100 mm or 150 mm. The
maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm for 100 mm cubes and 40 mm for
150 mm cubes.

References
BS 1881 : Part 108 : 1983.

Required equipment
· Mould of cast iron or steel, with removable base plate.
FOr fUrther detailS Of tOleranCeS, ref. BS The depth of the mould and the distance between the two pairs of
1881:Part 108. opposite internal side faces, shall be the nominal size of 100 ±
0.15 mm or 150 ± 0.15 mm .
· Scoop
· Vibrating table or steel compacting bar weighing 1.8 kg, 380
mm long and having a ramming face 25 mm square.
· Plasterer’s steel float
· Sampling tray
· Shovel

Mixing
The aCtUal ambient temperatUre will Step 1: Air-dry the aggregate to be used and bring it to temperature
determine the mixing and CUring preferably about 25 °C. Mix the cement thoroughly and bring it
COnditiOnS. HOweVer, expOSUre tO direCt
SUnlight mUSt be aVOided.
to a temperature preferably about 25 °C. Portion the material by
mass to the nearest 0.5 %.

If hand mixing: mix the dry Cement and Step 2: Mix the concrete in a mixing machine. Load the mixing drum
fine aggregate befOre adding the with coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement and add water
COarSe aggregate and finally the water slowly. Continue mixing until the concrete is uniform in
in inCrementS.
appearance, but not for less than 2 minutes after all material is
in the drum.

Sampling
Obtain a sample of fresh concrete either from the laboratory made batch
or from a mix at a building site. The sample shall be thoroughly mixed
just before it is moulded.

From each sample of fresh concrete there shall be made 2 test cubes
specimens.

Moulding
Step 1: Place the moulds on a rigid horizontal surface or on the
vibrating table. Fill with concrete in layers of approximately 50
mm deep and compact each layer by the compacting bar or the
vibrating table.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 201

CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.12
Ministry of Works

Making Test Cubes from Fresh Concrete

Notes
When compacting with a compacting bar, distribute the strokes
evenly over the cross-section of the mould without penetrating
any previous layer significantly. Use 35 strokes per layer for 150
When the SlUmp iS leSS than abOUt 100
mm, the cOmpacting bar iS nOt SUitable.
mm cubes or 25 strokes per layer for 100 mm cubes.
The USe Of the vibrating table iS then
recOmmended. When using a vibrating table, compact until the surface of the
concrete becomes relatively smooth and has aglazed appearance.
Over-cOmpactiOn may caUSe Unwanted
Curing
exceSSive SegregatiOn. Step 1: Cover the test cubes (in the moulds) with an impervious sheet
and store them in a place free from vibrations. The room shall
have a relative humidity preferably of min. 90 % and a
If the cUbeS are made On Site, the Speci- tempe- rature preferably about 25 °C.
menS ShOUld be StOred at Site at aS
OptimUm cOnditiOnS aS pOSSible fOr 24
hOUrS. Then mark them and take them tO
Step 2: After an initial curing period of 24 hours, mark each cube so
the labOratOry. RemOve the SpecimenS that it can clearly be identified, and remove it carefully from the
frOm their mOUldS and immerSe them in mould.
water.
Step 3: Submerge the cubes immediately in water at a temperature
The nOrmal cUring periOd iS 28 dayS.
preferably of about 25 °C

Report
The test report shall include the following information:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) Date, time and place of sampling and sample identification
c) Time and place of making cubes
d) Temerature of mixing and curing conditions
e) Number and nominal size of cubes
f) Method of compaction

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

202 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

203 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.13
Ministry of Works

Concrete Cube Strength

Notes
Objective
All concrete design is based on a specific strength of concrete. This may
vary from project to project, but is usually in the range from 15 MPa −
50 MPa.

This procedure describes the method for determining the compressive

strength of concrete cubes. The Concrete Strength is normally tested at
an age of 28 days.

Main Principles
Test specimens shall be concrete cubes made, cured and stored in
accordance with BS 1881. Do not test cubes which have been made in
badly assembled moulds or which are clearly misshapen. State the reasons
in the test report. Remove any projecting fins.

References
BS 1881 : Part 116 : 1983.

Required equipment
· Compression Testing Machine.
· Auxiliary platens. When auxiliary platens are used, the top
auxiliary platen shall rest on and be aligned with the cube.
· A balance with min. 10 kg capacity, readable and accurate to 1 g.

Test Procedure
One teSt Sample Shall cOnSiSt Of twO Step 1: Weigh each specimen, as-received or saturated.
SpecimenS Of the Same fOrm and
dimenSiOnS, made Of One Sample Of freSh
cOncrete. Step 2: Check the nominal dimensions and take measured dimensions
of each specimen.

Step 3: Determine the density of each specimen.

Step 4: Immerse in water, for a minimum of 5 minutes, those cubes

which have not been cured in water or where the surfaces have
been allowed to dry. Remove the cubes from the curing or
density water tank and test while they are still wet.

Step 5: Carefully centre the cube on the lower platen and ensure that
the load will be applied to two opposite cast faces of the cube.

Step 6: Without shock, apply and increase the load continuously at a

nominal rate within the range 12 MPa/min. to 24 MPa/min.
until no greater load can be sustained. Record the maximum
load applied to the cube.

UnSatiSfactOry failUreS are USUally Type of Failure

caUSed by inSUfficient attentiOn tO the Record any unusual features in the type of failure. Refer to figure 1 for
detail Of the VariOUS prOcedUreS that
haVe tO be fOllOwed tO make and teSt examples of satisfactory failure and to figure 2 for examples of some
SpecimenS unsatisfactory failures.
Calculations
204 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 2 Aggregates and Concrete

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 2.13
Ministry of Works

Concrete Cube Strength

Notes 1. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the cube face from the checked
nominal dimensions or from measured dimensions. Calculate the com-
pressive strength of each cube by dividing the maximum load by the
cross-sectional area. Express the result to the nearest 0.5 MPa
(N/mm2).
2. Calculate the average of the test results for the two specimens of
the same size and dimension, made from the same sample of fresh
concrete. This is reported as the Compressive Strength of the test
sample.

Report
The test report shall include the following information:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) Date, time and place of sampling and sample identification
c) Time and place of making cubes
d) Number and nominal size of cubes
e) Age of specimen at the time of testing
f) Conditions of curing and at testing (saturated or not)
g) Density of specimen
h) Compressive strength of each specimen and the Compressive
strength of the test sample (i.e. the mean value of two specimens
from the same sample)
i) Type of failure

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

7igure l Eatisfactory failures

7igure 2 Eome unsatisfactory failures

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 205
206 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
207 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
208 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
Asphalt Testing
Tests on Asphalt and Bituminous Materials
3.1 Pre-conditioning of Bitumen Samples Prior to Mixing or Testing NPRA 014 test 14.511
3.2 Density of Bituminous Binders ASTM D70-97
3.3 Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup ASTM D92-90
3.4 Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT) ASTM D1754-87
3.5 Penetration of Bituminous Materials ASTM D5-86
3.6 Softening Point Test ASTM D36-70
3.7 Ductility ASTM D113-86
3.8 Viscosity Determination using the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus ASTM D4402-91
3.9 Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve ASTM C127-88
3.10 Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve ASTM C128-88
3.11 Calibration of Glass Pycnometers (0.5-1 litre) NPRA 014 test 14.5922
3.12 Mixing of Test Specimens; Hot Bituminous Mixes NPRA 014 test 14.5532
Determination of Maximum Theoretical Density of Asphalt Mixes
3.13 ASTM D2041-95 and D4469-85
and Absorption of Binder into Aggregates
3.14 Bulk Density of Saturated Surface Dry Asphalt Mix Samples ASTM D2726-96
3.15 Bulk Density of Paraffin-Coated Asphalt Mix Samples ASTM D1188-89
3.16 Bulk Density of Asphalt Mix Samples, Calliper Measurements NPRA 014 test 14.5622
3.17 Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous Mixes ASTM D3203 and AASHTO pp19-93
3.18 Marshall Test ASTM D1559-89
3.19 Marshall Mix Design ASTM D1559-89
3.20 Refusal Density Mix Design TRL Overseas Road Note 31, app. D:1990
3.21 Indirect Tensile Strength Test ASTM D3967 and NPRA 014 test 14.554
3.22 Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate Grading by Extraction ASTM D2172-88, method B
3.23 Effect of Water on Bituminous Coated Aggregates, Boiling Test ASTM D3625-96

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 209

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.1
Ministry of Works

Preconditioning of Bitumen Samples prior to

Mixing or Testing

Notes
Objective
This method describes how bituminous binders are sampled and
preconditioned (prepared for testing). This includes heating, homogenizing
and removal of any impurities from the bitumen.

This method does not apply to bitumen emulsion.

Main principles
BitUmen mUSt alWayS be heated aS Heating of bituminous materials will always change the material
gently aS poSSible. ExceSSive heating
and heating time Will change the material
properties to some extent. Impurities or oxidized material must be
propertieS. removed from the surface of the sample before heating to prepare test
samples. The heating should always be minimized to prepare a
representative sample.

Definitions
Laboratory sample: sample to be tested according to one or more test
procedures.

Test sample: an individual test sample is obtained after preparing and

splitting a laboratory sample.

References
Norwegian Public Roads Administration’s guidelines for laboratory
investigations, Handbook 014. Test no. 14.511.

European standard prEN12594, “Bitumen and bituminous binders −

Preparation of test samples”.

Required equipment
· Heating oven with temperature control ± 5°C or better.
· Spoon, spatula or knife
· Stirring device.
· Aluminum foil, metal lids or similar to cover sample containers
and test specimens.
· Sample containers: buckets or cans with a metal lid (containers
of glass can also be used)

Test procedure
General considerations
· Test samples for several tests must be prepared at the same time.
· The homogenized material must be prepared as described in each
specific test procedure. All heating of bituminous materials will
change the properties of the material. Test samples should for
SampleS of bitUmen mUSt be covered to this reason never be heated more than once.
avoid pollUtion of the Sample SUrface. · Homogenized material prepared for later testing should be stored
in full containers covered by a lid or aluminum foil. The
containers should be clearly marked for later identification.
Test samples of fresh bitumen normally do not have to be
homogenized. In this case, samples can be taken out directly using
a hot knife, spatula or similar. The spatula or knife should
210 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.1
Ministry of Works

Preconditioning of Bitumen Samples prior to

Mixing or Testing

Notes
not be overheated so that smoke is emitted from the material
during sampling. Utilize only the quantity needed for the specific
test to be performed.
Remove oxidized or pollUted material. · If the surface of the material is oxidized or polluted (dust) this must
be removed. Use a hot knife or spatula that is not overheated.

Homogenizing and splitting of laboratory samples

Step 1: Oxidized or polluted surface is removed.

Step 2: The tin/box containing the bituminous material is placed with

Heating temperatUre and time mUSt be the lid loosely fitted in an oven at a temperature of 80-90°C
adjUSted for the type of material and over the estimated softening point. Table 3.1-1 contains
Sample Size. recommended heating temperatures for different types of
bituminous materials. Maximum heating time for samples up to
1 liter is 60 minutes (120 minutes for polymer modified
bitumen). Larger samples need longer heating times (e.g. a
sample of 3 liters is heated for a maximum of 3.5 hours).
Take care never to incorporate Water into
bitUmen SampleS. Small amoUntS of Water Step 3: Remove the tin/box from the oven and stir carefully to avoid
may caUSe Uncontrollable volUme-
expanSion dUring heating
incorporating air bubbles into the bitumen. Modified bitumen
must be stirred extra thoroughly, preferably with a
mechanical stirring device.

Step 4: After homogenizing, the bitumen is transferred directly to the

test sample containers or molds. The test sample must never be
reheated more than once.

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) Type and identification of the test sample
c) Date of conditioning
d) Heating temperature and time
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Practical considerations
Binder properties are to some extent affected by heating. The heating
time and temperature should always be kept to a minimum to avoid
excessive aging of the material. If not, the results from following tests
will not be representative.

Table 1 Recommended heating temperatures for different types of bituminous

materials.

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CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.2
Ministry of Works

Density of Bituminous Binders

Notes
Objective
The objective of this method is to determine the relative density and
density of semi-solid bituminous materials such as bitumen.

Main principles
A sample of bituminous material is filled into a calibrated pycnometer
(with known mass and volume) and weighed. The pycnometer is filled
with distilled water, tempered to 25 °C and weighed. This data is used to
calculate the relative density and density of the material.

Definitions
Relative density: the ratio of the mass of a given volume of material to
that of an equal volume of water at the same temperature.

Density: The mass per unit volume expressed as typically g/cmS.

References
ASTM D70-97

Required equipment
· Balance accurate to 0.01 grams (A balance accurate to 0.001 grams
is required in ASTM D70. A somewhat less accurate balance will
not affect the results significantly).
· Standardized pycnometers for bituminous binders, see the
reference document.
· Water bath, accurate to ± 0.1 °C.
· Thermometer, accurate to ± 0.1 °C.
· Glass beaker, 600 ml low form.
· Distilled water.

Test procedure
Calibration of pycnometers
AlWayS USe diStilled Water.
Step 1: Fill the beaker partially with distilled water, so the
pycnometer can be immersed to a depth (from water surface
to top pycnometer) of minimum 40 mm.

Step 2: Place the beaker (with water) into the water bath. The distance
from the bottom of the beaker to the surface of the water in the
bath shall be minimum 100 mm. The top of the beaker must be
above the water level in the bath. Clamp the beaker if necessary.
The water bath shall hold a temperature of 25 ± 0.1 °C.

Step 3: Clean and dry the pycnometer. Weigh to the nearest 0.01 gram
(including the pycnometer top). Designate this mass as “Mass
A”.

Step 4: Fill the pycnometer with distilled water. Place the top loosely
on the pycnometer and place in the beaker (standing in the
water bath) at 25 ± 0.1 °C for at least 30 minutes. The water
level inside the beaker must be above the top of the
pycnometer.
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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.2
Ministry of Works

Density of Bituminous Binders

Notes Step 5 Pick up the pycnometer from the beaker, dry and weigh to the
nearest 0.01 gram. Designate the mass of pycnometer and
Note: Do not remove the Water droplet water as “Mass B”. (Note: The pycnometer top must be dried
Which may form dUe to expanSion. with one stroke only using a dry towel. Do not remove the
water droplet which may form due to expansion).

Determination of relative density and density

Step 6: Melt the bituminous sample until sufficiently fluid to pour. Stir
gently, without incorporating air bubbles, to prevent local over
heating. The heating temperature should not exceed 110 °C
above the expected softening point. The heating time should
not exceed 30 minutes.

Fill pycnometer ¾ fUll. Step 7: A clean, dry and preheated pycnometer is filled with the
material to approximately ¾ of its capacity. Cool the
pycnometer in room temperature for 40 minutes. Weigh the
pycnometer, top and sample to the nearest 0.01 gram. Designate
this mass as “Mass C”.

Step 8: Fill the pycnometer with distilled water and place in the beaker
standing in the water bath. Temperate at 25 ± 0.1 °C for a
minimum of 30 minutes. Dry the pycnometer (as described
earlier) and weigh to the nearest 0.01 gram. Designate this mass
as “Mass D”.

Results
Calculate the relative density to the nearest 0.001 using the following
equation:

Relative density =
C-A
(B - A) - (D - C)
where:
A: mass of pycnometer and top
B: mass of pycnometer filled with distilled water
C: mass of pycnometer partially filled with
sample D: mass of pycnometer plus sample plus
water

Calculate the density to the nearest 0.001 using the following equation:

Density = relative density x pwater

where:

Relative density: as determined previously

ρwatev: density of water at the test temperature in desired units
(0.997 g/cmS at 25°C).

Measurements of relative density and density should be performed on two

parallel samples.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 213
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.2
Ministry of Works

Density of Bituminous Binders

Notes
Test precision
Duplicate determinations of relative density and density shall not be con-
sidered suspect unless they differ by more than the limits given in table 3.2-1.

Table 2 Test precision (based on determination of mass accurate to 0.001 g)

One operator Two laboratories

Relative density 0.002 0.005

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure.
b) Type and identification of the test sample.
c) Calculated relative density and/or density to three decimal points
and test temperature.
d) Test date.

e) Description of any deviations from

this procedure

Maintenance
AlWayS clean the pycnometerS Clean the pycnometers after use. Heat the pycnometer and pour out the
immediately after USe. sample. While still hot, clean out as much material as possible using paper
tissue. Cool to room temperature and clean the remaining using solvent.

214 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 215
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.3
Ministry of Works

Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup

Notes
Objective
This method is used to determine the flash and fire points of all petroleum
ThiS method iS USed to determine flaSh products, except fuel oils and those having an open cup flash below 79
and fire pointS for petroleUm prodUctS °C. The flash and fire points indicate the materials combustibility. The
With flaSh point 79˚C and above. fumes from the material at the flash point temperature are explosive.

Main principles
The test cup is filled to a specific level. The sample is heated at a specified
rate. At specified intervals, a small flame is passed over the sample. The
lowest temperature that causes the vapours to ignite is taken as the flash
point. When determining the fire point, the test is continued until the test
flame causes the sample to ignite and burn for at least 5 seconds.

Definitions
The flash point is defined as the lowest temperature at which the vapour
from the liquid is ignited by an open flame.

The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature at which the liquid will
continue to burn without further heat supply. The fire point temperature will
always be significantly above the flash point temperature.

References
ASTM D92-90

Required equipment
· Cleveland Open Cup apparatus.
· Square shield, 460 mm wide by 610 mm tall, with open
front (recommended only).
· Thermometer ASTM 11C or similar (- 6 to 400 °C).
· Gas supply for test flame.
· Barometer

Test procedure
Preparation of apparatus
The apparatUS and Sample mUSt be
Shielded from draft aS thiS Will affect the
Step 1: Place the apparatus level in a draft-free room. Shield from strong
teSt reSUltS. light to determine the flash point with accuracy.

Step 2: Clean the test cup, see maintenance. If the test cup was heated
to dry after cleaning, cool to minimum 56 °C below the
expected flash point

Step 3: Place the thermometer in a vertical position with the bulb 6.4
mm above the bottom of the cup and located at a point half
between the center and the side of the cup on a diameter
perpendicular to the arc of the sweep of the test flame. The
thermometer should be placed on the opposite side of the test
flame burner arm.
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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.3
Ministry of Works

Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup

Notes
Sample preparation
Step 4: Fill the sample cup to the filling line. The temperature of the
material should be as low as possible, and maximum 56 °C
below the expected flash point temperature. Air bubbles on
the sample surface must be destroyed.

Procedure
Step 5: Light the test flame and adjust it to a diameter of 3.2 to 4.8 mm.
The center of the flame should be maximum 2 mm above the
edge of the test cup.

Control the temperatUre riSe cloSely. Step 6: Apply heat and adjust the temperature rise of the sample to 14-
17 °C/min. When the temperature of the sample is
approximately 56 °C below the expected flash point, decrease
the heat to a temperature rise of 5-6 °C/min. This constant
temperature rise should be attained during the last 28 °C before
the flash point.

Step 7: Starting at minimum 28 °C below the flash point, apply one

sweep of the test flame for every 2 °C rise on the thermometer
(in opposite directions each time). The time for the test flame
to cross the test cup should be approximately 1 second.

Step 8: The flash point is recorded as the reading on the thermometer

when the first flash appears on the sample surface. Do not
confuse the true flash with the bluish halo that sometimes
surrounds the test flame.

Step 9: To determine the fire point, continue heating at the specified

rate of 5-6 °C and apply the test flame for each 2 °C rise in
temperature. The fire point is recorded as the thermometer
reading when the samples ignites and continues to burn for at
least 5 seconds.

Results
Correct meaSUred flaSh and fire point Calculations
valUeS for barometric preSSUre. Observe and record the barometric pressure at the time of the test. When
the pressure differs from 760 mm Hg, correct the flash point and fire
point temperatures using the following equation:

Corrected value = C + 0.03 x (760 - P)

where:

C= observed flash point / fire point temperature to the nearest 2 °C

P= barometric pressure in mm Hg

Report the recorded and corrected flash point and / or fire point
temperature to the nearest 2 °C as the COC Flash Point or Fire Point.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 217

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.3
Ministry of Works

Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup

Notes
Test precision
Duplicate flash and fire point determinations shall not be considered
suspect unless they differ by more than the limits given in table 3.3-1.
Table 3 Test precision

One operator 2 laboratories

Flash point < 8 °C < 17 °C
Fire point < 8 °C < 14 °C

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Reference to this procedure

b) Type and identification of the test sample
c) Test results
d) Date
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Maintenance
DepoSitS of carbon mUSt regUlarly be Wash the test cup with solvent to remove all traces of material from
removed from the teSt cUp.
previous tests. If any deposits of carbon are present, steel wool should be
used. Rinse with clean water.

218 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 219
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.4
Ministry of Works

Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT)

Notes
Objective
This method determines the effect of heat and air on a film of bituminous
material under specified conditions. It indicates changes in properties
The TFOT-procedUre caUSeS changeS in during conventional hot mixing and thus yields a residue that
material propertieS Similar to that of a hot- approximates the binder condition in a newly constructed pavement.
mixing proceSS.

Main principles
Determination of change in maSS iS A thin film of bituminous material is heated in an oven at 163 °C for 5
optional. hours. The effects of heat and air on material properties can be determined
by selected tests before and after the oven treatment. A procedure for
determining the change in mass is also provided.

The effect of this treatment is determined from measurements of selected

material properties before and after the test.

References
ASTM D 1754-87 “Standard Test Method for Effect of Heat and Air
on Asphaltic Materials (Thin-Film Oven Test)

Required equipment
· Standardized oven, see reference document.
· Balance accurate to 0.1g
· Optional: Balance accurate to 0.01g if determination of change
in mass is required (ASTM D1754 requires a balance accurate to
0.001g for this purpose. However, use of a slightly less accurate
balance will not affect the results significantly).
· Sample containers (TFOT-pans), diameter 140 mm, height 9.5
mm (see reference document).
· ASTM 13C thermometer, 155-170°C, or similar.
· Container of glass or metal, approx. 0.25 liters.

Test procedure
Preparation of test specimens
Step 1: Place a sufficient amount of bitumen in a suitable container
and heat to a fluid condition. Extreme care should be taken not
to overheat the bitumen. The temperature should be at least
10°C lower than the testing temperature. Stir the bitumen with
a general-purpose thermometer occasionally during the heating
PoUr SampleS to meaSUre original period, but avoid incorporating air bubbles in the sample.
material propertieS.
Step 2: If determination of change in mass is required, weigh the
empty TFOT-pans to the nearest 0.01g.

Step 3: Weigh 50 ± 0.5g of liquid bitumen into each of two or

more TFOT-pans.

Step 4: At the same time, pour a portion of the sample into the
required containers for measurement of original material
properties.
Complete the appropriate tests.

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.4
Ministry of Works

Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT)

Notes Step 5: If determination of change in mass is required, cool the test

containers to room temperature and weigh them to the
nearest 0.01g. If determination of change in mass is not
required, allow the samples to cool to approximately room
temperature before placing in the oven.

Procedure
Step 6: Check that the rotating shelf is in the correct position. The
maximum tilt of the rotating plate shall not be more than 3
degrees from the horizontal. Check that the speed of the rotating
shelf is 5.5 ± 1 rpm.

Step 7: Determine the temperature in the oven by means of the

specified thermometer. It should be placed at a distance equal
from the center and the edge of the rotating shelf and with the
bottom of the thermometer bulb about 6 mm above the top of
the shelf.

Step 8: When the oven has reached a temperature of 163 ± 1°C quickly
place the test containers onto the rotating shelf. Immediately
close the door, and start rotating the shelf.
Only one material may be teSted at once.
Step 9: Leave the test containers in the oven for 5 hours at constant test
temperature. The 5-hour period starts when the temperature
reaches 162°C. The total time in the oven shall in no case
exceed 5 hours and 15 minutes. Under no circumstances shall
bitumen of different grades be tested in the oven at the same
time.

Step 10: At the end of the heating period, if determination of change in

mass is required, the test containers are removed from the oven
and cooled to room temperature. If not, proceed directly to the
following step. Weigh the cooled test containers to the nearest
0.01g. Place the test containers on the rotating shelf in the oven
for another 15 minutes at the same temperature as during the
Scrape oUt the material from the TFOT- test before proceeding.
panS USing a SpatUla.
Step 11: Remove the TFOT-pans from the oven and pour the bitumen
into one single glass or metal container. Use a spatula or knife
to scrape all the material from the test containers.

Step 12: Stir the bitumen in the glass or metal container well. Heat
gently if necessary to keep the bitumen liquid.

Step 13: Proceed with the appropriate tests within 72 hours after
AlWayS cover the container if Stored for completing the TFOT-procedure.
later teSting.
Step 14: If further testing is not to be performed immediately, the
bitumen must be stored in the container and covered to prevent
accumulation of dust.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 221
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.3.4
Ministry of Works

Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT)

Notes
Results
Calculations
When change in mass is required, calculate the average change in mass
for the specimens as mass percent of the original material to the nearest
0.01%.
USe the correct Sign for loSS of maSS
(-) and gain of maSS (+). Loss of mass is denoted as negative values, while gain of mass is denoted
as positive values.

Test precision
Determination of material properties before and after the TFOT procedure
shall not be considered suspect unless they differ by more than the limits
given in table 3.4-1. For more detailed information, see the reference
document.

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) Type and identification of the test sample
c) Testing temperature and results of all tests performed
d) Date
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Maintenance
Clean TFOT-pans after use. If any spill of material occurs inside the
TFOT-oven, this should be cleaned. Regularly check the speed of
the rotating shelf and the oven temperature.

Table 4 Test precision

222 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

 x

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 223

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory TEST NO. 3.5

Ministry of Works

Penetration of Bituminous Materials

Notes
Objective
The penetration test is used to measure consistency of bituminous materi-
als expressed as the distance in tenths of a millimeter that a standard
needle vertically penetrates a sample of the material under known
conditions of loading, loading time and temperature.

Main principles
A needle of specified dimensions is allowed to penetrate vertically into a
bituminous material under specified load, temperature and time
conditions. The distance the needle penetrates in units of 1/10 mm is
termed the penetration value. This method is valid for penetration values
in the range 2-500.

References
ASTM D 5-86: “Penetration of Bituminous Materials”.

Required equipment
· Standardized penetrometer
· Standardized penetration needles (2.5 g)
· Needle holder (47.50 g) and weight (50.00 g)
· Stop watch with accuracy 0.1 sec. or better (only in case of manual
penetrometers)
· Penetration tins, minimum 55 mm diameter and 35 mm deep
for materials with penetration 200 or less.
· Penetration tins, 60-70 mm diameter and 45-60 mm deep for
mate- rials with penetration between 200-500.
· Water bath with preferably deionized or distilled water, minimum
10 liters, with temperature control of ± 0.1 °C.
· Perforated plate supported minimum 50 mm above the bottom of
the bath and minimum 100 mm below the water surface.
· Transfer container of minimum 350 ml with sufficient depth to
cover the penetration tins.
· Certified or calibrated thermometers to calibrate the water bath.
· Source of light (table lamp, flash light or similar)

Test procedure
Preparation of test specimen
Prepare 2 parallel SampleS.
Step 1: Heated bitumen is poured into 2 penetration tins. The tins must
be filled at least 10 mm above the expected penetration depth.
One penetration tin is stored for later analysis if required.

Cover the penetration tinS to protect from Step 2: Immediately after pouring the samples, the tins must be
dUSt
covered to protect from dust. Glass lids, aluminum foil or
similar can be used. The samples are then allowed to cool off at
room tempe- rature, 1-1.5 hours for small tins and 1.5-2 hours
for the bigger tins.

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.5
Ministry of Works

Penetration of Bituminous Materials

Notes Step 3: After cooling, transfer one tin to the water bath. The required
temperature equilibration time is 1-1.5 hours for small tins and
1.5-2 hours for the larger tins. The transfer container is placed
in the water bath along with the penetration tin.

Test conditions
Typical test conditions: 25˚C, 100g and 5 s Typical test conditions for temperature, load and time are 25 °C, 100 g
loading time.
and 5 s. Other test conditions may also be used for special testing. See the
reference document.

Procedure
Step 4: Control that the penetrometer is level and correctly set up.
Control that the needle holder can move unobstructed
when released.

Step 5: Clean the penetration needle with a suitable solvent (toluene,

trichloroethane or trichloroethylene) and dry with a clean
cloth, paper or cotton.

Step 6: The sample is transferred to the transfer container under water,

transfer container and sample is then placed on the
penetrometer base plate. The sample must be covered by
water.
USing a SoUrce of light, loWer the
needle Until the needle tip toUcheS the Step 7: Bring the penetrometer dial to zero. Lower the needle until it
reflected image on the Sample SUrface. barely touches the surface of the sample. Lowering the needle
down to the surface of the sample may often be tricky because
of reflections of light from the water. To solve this, a source of
light (flashlight or similar) must be used. Place the light so that
a reflection of the needle is seen on the sample surface. Lower
the needle until the needle tip barely comes into contact with
the reflected image.

Step 8: Double-check and adjust the dial reading if necessary.

Release the needle for the specified period of time. If the
sample tin moves during loading, the measurement must be
rejected.
Perform 3 parallel meaSUrementS per
Sample.
Step 9: Read the penetration depth off the penetrometer dial.

Perform a minimum of 3 valid measurements. The locations on the

sample surface must be minimum 10 mm apart and away from the
container side. If the penetration depth is larger than 100, the needles
must be left stand- ing in the sample to avoid deformation of the sample
surface. The 3 measurements can be performed continuously within 2
minutes. If more time is needed (to clean the needle between
measurements if only one is used), the transfer container and sample must
be placed back into the water bath for a conditioning time of minimum 10
minutes between each measurement.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 225
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.5
Ministry of Works

Penetration of Bituminous Materials

Notes
Clean the needles with paper, cotton etc. and solvent. Store the needles in
a safe place protected from corrosion and other damage.

The conditions and procedures described provide for determinations of

penetrations up to 350. However, the method may also be used for direct
determinations up to 500. This will require the larger penetration tin and
specialized needles. See the reference document.

An approximation of penetration values above 350 can be obtained by

using a standard penetration needle, a large penetration tin and 50 g
loading (remove the 50 g weight on the needle holder). The penetration is
then calculated by multiplying the measured value by Ö2 (»1.414).

Results
Assessment of results
If the deviation between highest and lowest value of the 3 parallel
measurements exceeds the values in table 3.5-1, the measurement must be
rejected. Repeat the test using the second sample.

If the second sample does not meet the criteria in table 3.5-1, ignore all
results and repeat the test completely.

Calculations
When the requirements in table 3.5-1 are met, calculate the average value
to the nearest whole unit (1/10-mm).

Test precision
Although a test is properly conducted and meets the requirements in table
3.5-1, the test result may for various reasons be questioned. In table 3.5-
2, the maximum limits for difference between 2 properly conducted tests
are given.

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test results, individual values and average value
d) Test date
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Practical considerations
It iS VERY important to folloW the
· It is very important that the time schedule from preparation of
oUtlined time SchedUle cloSely.
samples to measurements is followed closely. When bitumen is
left standing in room temperature, its stiffness will gradually
increase due to formation of molecular structures within the
material. This is called “structural hardening”. If a sample is
prepared one day and penetration measured the next day, the
measured penetration value may be significantly lower than if the
measurement was performed according to the specified procedure.

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.5
Ministry of Works

Penetration of Bituminous Materials

Notes · The “structural hardening” will be removed if the sample is

Stored SampleS mUSt be reheated before reheated. The material will then go back to its original condition.
meaSUring penetration. If penetration is to be measured on samples that have been stored,
they must first be reheated and stirred gently to avoid
incorporating air. The standard procedure is then followed.
Reheating a sample may also change the material properties
slightly. A sample must never be reheated more than once to
measure penetration.
A poor accompliShed teSt may greatly
affect the reSUltS and indirectly affect the
performance on the road. · It is essential that the test method be followed precisely, as even a
slight variation can cause large differences in results. The most
common errors are; poor sampling and sample preparation, badly
maintained apparatus and needles, incorrect timing and
temperature. A wrong result may lead to incorrect classification or
approval of materials. This may indirectly lead to rutting or
cracking problems on the road.

Never USe corroded or damaged needleS Maintenance

The mass of the penetration needle (2.50 g), needle holder (47.50 g) and
weight (50.00 g) must be regularly checked. Needles must regularly be
checked with respects to shape and corrosion (check needle tip closely).

The condition of the needles is very important. Rusty or damaged needles

must never be used. To avoid corrosion of needles, they must be stored in
small airtight containers. Needles, which will not be used for a long time,
can be covered by Vaseline, grease or similar. Before using, they must
then be carefully cleaned with solvent.

Table 5 Acceptable differences between 3 parallel measurements

Table 5 Test precision

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 227

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CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.6
Ministry of Works

Softening Point Test

Notes
Objective
The softening point test is used to measure and specify the temperature at
The Softening point repreSentS a State of a which bituminous binders begin to show fluidity. The softening point is
certain conSiStency. also useful in evaluating the uniformity of shipments or sources of supply.
The softening point is also an indicative of the tendency of the material to
flow at elevated temperatures encountered in service.

Main principles
The temperature of a sample is raised at a constant rate and read when
the binder has undergone a specified deformation.

A steel ball of 3.5 g is placed on a sample of binder contained in a brass

ring which is suspended in a water or glycerin bath. Water is used for
softening points of 80 °C and below, and glycerin is used for softening
points greater than 80 °C. The bath temperature is raised at 5 °C per
minute, the binder gradually softens and eventually deforms slowly as the
ball falls through the ring. At the moment the bitumen and steel ball
touches a base plate 25 mm below the ring, the temperature of the water/
glycerin is recorded.

This test is used to determine the softening point of bituminous binders in

the temperature range 30°C - 200°C.

References
ASTM D 36-70

Required equipment
· Boiled distilled or de-ionized water (the water must not
contain bubbles of air).
· Glycerol (99% pure).
· Talcum powder.
· Metal plate with a smooth surface.
· Glass container, 600ml low type, suitable for the ring holder to
be used.
· Rings and steel balls (3.5 g) as specified in the reference document.
· Ring holder for 2 rings and a thermometer.
· Heating unit (e.g. gas flame or thermostatically controlled
heating unit) to produce the specified heating rate.
· ASTM 15C (or similar) Low Softening Point Thermometer,
having a range from −2 to +80 °C.
· ASTM 16C or 16F (or similar) High Softening Point
Thermometer, having a range from 30°C to 300 °C.
· Forceps.

Test procedure
Preparation of test specimens
Step 1: Heat the sample to a temperature that does not exceed the
expected softening point by more than 110°C. The heating
time must not exceed 2 hours.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 229

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.3.6
Ministry of Works

Softening Point Test

Notes
Step 2: Heat the rings to approximately the same temperature as the
binder sample. Place the rings on a metal plate (not preheated)
with a thin coating of a mixture of glycerol and talcum powder
(1:1).

Step 3: Fill 2 rings.

Step 4: Cool for at least 30 minutes at room temperature. For very soft
samples (soft at room temperature), see the reference document.
Complete the teSt Within 4 hoUrS from
preparing the SampleS.
Step 5: After cooling, cut of the surplus bitumen with a heated spatula.

Step 6: The total time involved to complete the test (from pouring the
test specimens) must not exceed 4 hours.
USe diStilled Water only.
Procedure A (for materials with Softening Points 80°C or below)
Step 7: Fill freshly distilled/de-ionized water holding 5±1 °C in the glass
container containing the ring holder, rings and thermometer. Fill
to a depth between 101.6 to 108 mm.

Step 8: Put the steel balls at the bottom of the container or in

another small container with water (at 5 ± 1°C). Maintain
the whole assembly at 5°C for 15 min.

Step 9: Place the balls onto the samples in the centering guide
using forceps.

Step 10: Immediately place the container with the assembly onto
the heating unit.
Apply heat at a conStant rate of 5˚C per
minUte.
Step 11: Apply heat to obtain a constant temperature raise of 5 ± 0.5°C
per minute. The rate of temperature raise shall not be averaged
over the period of the test. The temperature shall be recorded
every minute. After the first three minutes, the rate of rise must
be within ± 0.5 °C for every minute period. Reject all tests that
do not fall within these limits and repeat the test.

Step 12: Record the temperature reading for each ring and ball when the
sample touches the bottom plate. If the softening point
temperature for the 2 parallel samples differs by more than 1 °C,
repeat the test.

USe glycerin inStead of Water for Softening Procedure B (for materials with Softening Points 80°C and above)
pointS exceeding 80˚C Use procedure A with the following exceptions:
· Use glycerin instead of water.
· Use an ASTM 16C or 16F thermometer or similar.
· The starting temperature of the glycerin bath shall be 32 °C.
230 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.6
Ministry of Works

Softening Point Test

Notes
Results
Measurements
Report the average temperature of two recorded softening points to the
nearest 0.5 °C.

Softening point determinations in glycerin will approximately be 4 °C

above a similar determination in water. For materials with softening
points around 80 °C, the type of heating fluid must therefore be reported.

Test precision
Duplicate softening point determinations shall not be considered suspect
unless they differ by more than the limits given in table 3.6-1.

Table 7 Test precision

One operator Two laboratories

1.1°C 2.0°C

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) Test date
c) Type and identification of the test sample
d) Type of bath fluid used
e) All measured values and average value
f) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Maintenance
Never USe corroded ringS or ballS. The mass and condition of the balls must be checked regularly. Balls
with corrosion must not be used. To avoid corrosion the balls should be
stored in small airtight containers, or covered by Vaseline, grease or
similar.

Balls and rings must always be cleaned thoroughly after use.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 231

232 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.7
Ministry of Works

Ductility

Notes
Objective
The ductility test is used to describe the ductile and tensile behavior of
bituminous binders. The test, which is normally performed at ambient
temperatures, is believed to reflect the homogeneity of the binder and its
ability to flow. The test may be used to measure ductility for specification
requirements.

Main principles
Typical teSt conditionS: 25˚C and 50 mm/ A dumbbell-shaped specimen is placed in a water bath and allowed to
min elongation rate.
equilibrate. The sample is stretched at 50 mm/min until it breaks. The
distance at rupture in centimeters is reported as the ductility. Normal
conditions are 25 °C and 50 mm/min. If other conditions are used, this
must be reported along with the test result.

References
ASTM D 113-86 “Standard Test Method for Ductility of Bituminous
Materials”

Required equipment
· 3 standardized brass molds, see the reference document.
· Water Bath, minimum 10 liters, with a thermostat to maintain the
temperature within ± 0.1°C of the testing temperature. Other
requirements, see the reference document. Floating plastic balls
may be placed in the water bath for extra insulation and to
improve temperature control if needed.
· Testing Machine for pulling the test specimens apart. The
machine must be able to pull the test specimens at least 100 cm
apart at the specified speed without undue vibration.
· Thermometer, -8 to +32°C, accuracy 0.1°C. Type ASTM 63C
or similar.
· Straight edged knife or spatula.
· Mixture of glycerol and talcum powder (1:1).

Test procedure
Preparation of test specimens
Be carefUl not to USe too mUch glycerol Step 1: Assemble the molds and place them on the brass plate. The
and talcUm When coating the mold. Apply brass plate is previously coated with a thin uniform layer of a
in a thin Uniform layer. glycerol and talcum powder mixture (1:1) to prevent the
material from sticking to the plate. Also coat the interior side
surfaces of the mold itself.

Step 2: Carefully heat the sample (avoid overheating) until it has

become sufficiently fluid to pour. If the bitumen is not
homogeneous, strain it through a heated 300 mm sieve.

Step 3: Stir carefully to avoid incorporating air bubbles.

Step 4: Pour melted bitumen into the mold in a thin stream back
and forth from end to end until it is just more than level
full.

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CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.7
Ministry of Works

Ductility

Notes
Step 5: Cool at room temperature for about 30-40 minutes. Cover
the samples to protect against dust.

Step 6: Place the plate with the molds in the water bath at the specified
testing temperature. Leave them on the perforated plate in the
water bath for 30 minutes.
Be caUtioUS When cUtting off exceSS
material. The finiShed cUt Sample mUSt
Step 7: Remove the samples from the bath and cut of the excess
not have viSible markS that can lead to bitumen with a hot straight edged knife or spatula to make the
prematUre crack initiation. mold just level full.

Step 8: Place the plate with the molds back into the water bath for 90 ±
5 minutes.

Test conditions
Normal testing conditions are 25 °C and elongation rate of 50 mm/min. A
variation of ± 5% in the elongation rate is permissible. If other testing
temperatures or speeds are used, it must be explicitly stated in the test
report.

Procedure
Step 9: After storage in the water bath, remove the brass plate and
sidepieces. Immediately place the samples in the testing
machine.
Do not Stop the teSt Until it iS finiShed.
Step 10: Stop the stirrer in the ductility bath. Pull the test specimens
apart at the specified speed. The specimens must be covered
both below and above by at least 2.5 cm of water. The
temperature should be kept within ± 0.5°C of the testing
temperature at all times.

Step 11: Record the distance in cm when each of the 3 specimens breaks.
If the material SinkS or floatS aS it iS
pUlled into a thin thread, the bath flUid’S
denSity may have to be adjUSted. Step 12: As the material is being stretched into a thin thread, one may
observe that the material floats to the surface or sinks to the
bottom of the bath. If this is the case, the test shall not be con
sidered normal. The density of the bath fluid must in these cases
be adjusted by addition of either methyl alcohol or sodium
chloride so that the specimens neither touch the surface or the
bottom of the bath during the test. Repeat the test.

Results
Measurements
The following shall be recorded during the test:
· The distance between the end clips in cm when the test specimens
break.
· If a normal test is not obtainable for three tests, report the
ductility as being unobtainable under the conditions of the test.
234 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.7
Ministry of Works

Ductility

Notes
Tes4 precision
Duplicate ductility determinations shall not be considered suspect
unless they differ by more than the limits given in table 3.7-1.

Table 8 Test precision

Ductility at
7-25°C One operator Two laboratories
< 7 cm 1 cm 2 cm
> 7 cm 15% of the average 30% of the average

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Reference to this procedure

b) Type and identification of the test sample
c) Testing temperature and pulling speed
d) Measured ductility, individual values and average of three samples
e) Test date
f) Description of any deviations from this procedure
USe diStilled Water if bUildUp of algae iS
a problem.
Maintenance
The molds must be cleaned thoroughly after use. The water bath must be
emptied and cleaned regularly to avoid buildup of algae.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 235

236 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.8
Ministry of Works

Viscosity determination using the Brookfield

Thermosel Apparatus

Notes Objective
This method outlines a procedure for measuring the apparent
viscosity (dynamic viscosity) of bitumen from 38 to 260 °C using the
Brookfield Thermosel apparatus.

Main principles
The torque of a spindle rotating in a sample container with bitumen is
measured. Given the dimensions of the spindle and sample container, the
shear rate and shear stress applied to the material is calculated. The
MeaSUrementS performed at temperatUreS viscosity of the material is calculated as the ratio of the shear stress to the
or Shear rateS Where the material exhibitS
non-NeWtonian behavior may not alWayS shear strain. This method is especially useful to measure viscosity at
predict performance in the field. application temperatures. Note that the viscosity measured on materials
exhibiting non-Newtonian behavior is not a true material property. Such
viscosity values reflect the behavior of the fluid only under the specific
measuring conditions, and may therefor not reflect the performance of the
material under the conditions in field.

Definitions
Apparent viscosity, also called dynamic viscosity, is defined as the ratio
of shear stress to shear rate for a Newtonian or non-Newtonian liquid.
The SI-unit for viscosity is Pascal seconds (Pa×s). Frequently, viscosity is
also denoted as Poise (0.1 Pa×s) or centiPoise (mPa×s).
Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquids: A Newtonian liquid is a liquid
for which the rate of shear is proportional to the shearing stress. If the
ratio between shearing stress and shear rate (=viscosity) is not constant,
the material is non-Newtonian. Many materials, such as bitumen, may
exhibit both Newtonian and non-Newtonian behavior depending on the
shear rate and temperature.

References
ASTM D 4402-91, “Standard Test Method for Viscosity
Determinations of Unfilled Asphalts Using the Brookfield Thermosel
Apparatus”

Required equipment
· Brookfield Thermosel high temperature viscosity unit.
· Spindles for Brookfield Thermosel viscometer.
· Thermosel system including thermo container, temperature con
troller, sample chamber and extraction tool.
· Heating oven.
· Balance with accuracy 0.01 g.

Test procedure
Step 1: Turn on the Thermosel power. Set the temperature controller
to the desired temperature.

Step 2: Select the appropriate spindle and speed from table 3.8-2
and 3.8-3 to match the expected viscosity of the material.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 237

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory TEST NO. 3.8

Ministry of Works

Viscosity determination using the Brookfield

Thermosel Apparatus

Notes Step 3: Place the sample container into the temperature chamber.
Attach the selected spindle to the viscometer and lower the
Select the appropriate Spindle and Speed
to match the expected viScoSity spindle into the sample container. Wait for 1.5 h or until
temperature equilibrium is obtained.

At temperatUreS above 60-70 ˚C, the Step 4: Set the sample container holder on a balance. Rise the
meaSUred viScoSity for Unmodified viscometer and take out the sample container using the
bitUmenS Will not Significantly be affected
by the Speed. Select any Speed Which
extraction tool. Place the sample container into the sample
matcheS the reqUired viScoSity range. holder on the balance. Tare the balance.

The amoUnt of reqUired material varieS Step 5: Weigh in (pour) the right amount of preheated material. The
With the teSting temperatUre. For thiS right amount is specified in terms of volume and varies with the
reaSon, prepare a neW Sample
spindle to be used. Use density data for the bitumen to calculate
the mass required. Add the right amount of bitumen into the
sample container. Approximately 8-10 ml is required. The
required
mass for some selected temperatures is given in table 3.8-4.

Step 6: Using the extraction tool, place the loaded sample container
back into the thermo-container.

Step 7: Lower the viscometer placing the spindle into the sample.
Align the thermo-container.

Step 8: Allow the bitumen to reach equilibrium temperature.

This normally will take approximately 15 minutes.
EnSUre that the Spindle doeS not “Stick”
to the Sample container SideWall dUring Step 9: When using large spindles, one may observe during measure-
meaSUrementS. ments that the spindle “sticks” to the sample container
sidewall. This will incorrectly increase the measured viscosity.
To avoid this problem, gently move the spindle by hand and
ensure that there is no direct contact between spindle and
sample container before starting the measurement.

Step 10: Start the measurement at the selected speed. If no error message
is displayed, record three readings 60 s apart. Stop the test.

Step 11: The viscometer will display an error message if the measured
viscosity is outside the viscosity range for the selected spindle-
speed combination. If an error message is displayed, select a
lower (or higher) speed. Record three readings 60 s apart. Stop
the test.

Step 12: If a correct measurement cannot be obtained using the selected

spindle, select a new spindle and repeat the whole procedure.

Step 13: Do not change the speed during a measurement as this will
change the shear rate and may affect the test results.

238 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.8
Ministry of Works

Viscosity determination using the Brookfield

Thermosel Apparatus

Notes Results
Measurements
The following shall be recorded during the test:
· Measured viscosity in centiPoise (mPa×s) after 1, 2 and 3 minutes.
· Spindle number and speed (rpm) used for the measurement.

Calculations
If desired, the measured dynamic viscosity in centiPoise (mPa ×s) can be
converted to kinematic viscosity in centiStokes (mm2/s) by dividing by
the density of the binder in g/cmS.
η
v=p
where: v = kinematic viscosity (mm2/s)
η = dynamic viscosity (mPa×s)
ρ = density of binder at testing temperature (g/cmS)

Test precision
Duplicate viscosity determinations shall not be considered suspect unless
they differ by more than the limits given in table 3.8-1.

Table 9 Test precision

One operator Two laboratories

3.5% 14.5 %

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Reference to this procedure

b) Type and identification of the test sample
c) Testing temperature, spindle number and speed
d) Measured viscosity
e) Test date
f) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Practical considerations
AlWayS try to USe aS large a Spindle aS The equipment computes a shear rate, which depends on the spindle and
poSSible. ThiS Will improve the accUracy speed used for the measurement. This shear rate is then used to calculate
of the meaSUrement.
the viscosity displayed by the equipment. The accuracy of the calculated
shear rate, and thus the measured viscosity, improves with increasing spindle
size. For this reason, always try to select as large a spindle as possible.

Verify the eqUipment USing certified

Maintenance
viScoSity StandardS. Clean all equipment used. To calibrate/verify the equipment, measure-
ments should regularly (minimum once a year) be performed on certified
viscosity standards (silicon oils) available from Brookfield or Cannon.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 239

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.8
Ministry of Works

Viscosity determination using the Brookfield

Thermosel Apparatus

Notes
Table 10 Typical viscosity values for bitumen at 60, 90 and 135°C in centiPoise
(mPa×s)

Table 11 Viscosity range in centiPoise (mPa×s) for different spindle / speed

combinations

Table 12 Required mass (grams) for different spindle/temperature combinations

(based on typical density data)

240 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 241
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.9
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes
Objective
This method is used to determine the dry density (ñd) of aggregates
retrieved on a 4.75 mm sieve. The density of aggregates is used for
various calculations of mix characteristics and in mix design. This
method
may also be used to determine the water absorption of the aggregates.

Main principles
The dry bulk density and apparent density of aggregates retained on a 4.75
mm sieve are calculated from the loss in mass of saturated surface dry
aggregates when submerged in water.

The water absorption is determined by calculating the mass of water

absorbed after a 24 hour immersion in percentage of the oven dried mate-
rial.

Definitions
Density (ñd) is defined as the mass per unit volume of a material at a given
temperature.

Bulk density (ñbd) is defined as the mass per unit volume (including
permeable and inpermeable voids) of a material at a given temperature.

Apparent density (ñad) is defined as the mass per unit volume (excluding
permeable voids but including impermeable voids) of a material at a
given temperature.

References
ASTM C127-88¨

Required equipment
· Thermometer with accuracy 0.1°C
· Balance with accuracy 0.01g
· Sample container (wire cloth basket)
· Water bath and device to suspend the sample container into the bath
· Heating oven which can maintain a temperature of 110 ± 5 °C.
· Distilled water.

Test procedure
AlwayS meaSUre On a minimUm Of Number of samples
twO parallel SampleS. The test procedure involves weighing the material several times. To
attain the desired accuracy in determination of the density, this procedure
should be carried out on at least two parallel samples for each material.

Preparation of test sample

Step 1: Sieve the material on a 4.75-mm sieve to obtain samples. The
mass of the sample should be adjusted according to the
nominal maximum aggregate size, see table 3.9-1.

242 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.9
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes Table 13 Eample size

Nominal maximum Minimum mass

aggregate size, of test sample,
mm kg
AdjUSt the maSS Of the Sample 12.5 2
accOrding tO maximUm aggregate Size
19.0 3
25.0 4
37.5 5

Step 2: Wash the sample thoroughly to remove dust from the surfaces.

Step 3: Cover the sample with water in a suitable container and soak for
24 ± 4 hours.

Determination of saturated surface dry condition

Step 4: After soaking the sample, drain off free water and transfer the
sample to a large absorbent cloth. To obtain the saturated
surface dry condition, roll the sample in the cloth until all
visible water has been absorbed. The surfaces of the aggregates
should still appear damp.

Step 5: As soon as the saturated surface dry condition has

beenreached, determine the weight of the sample and transfer
it to a wire cloth basket that previously has been tared in
Shake the baSket Under Water tO water.
remOVe entrapped air befOre Weighing
Step 6: Weigh the basket with sample in water, normally at 25°C.
Take care that no air is entrapped.

Determination of dry weight

Step 7: Pour off the water without loosing any material. Dry the
sample to constant mass in an oven at 105-110°C. Record the
mass of the oven-dried sample.

Results
Calculations
Calculate the bulk density and apparent density to the nearest 0.001 g/cmS
and the water absorption to the nearest 0.01% by using the following
equations:

Bulk density, ρ
A
= (g/cm3)
bd (B - C)
0.997
Apparent density, ρ = A
(g/cm3)
bd (A - C)
0.997
Water absorption = B - A .
A 100 %
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 243
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.9
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes
where:
A = mass of oven dry sample in air, grams
B = mass of saturated surface dry sample in air, grams
C = mass of saturated sample in water at 25°C, grams

The average density for samples containing material passing and

retained on the 4.75 mm sieve is calculated using the following equation:

100
Averange density =
P P
ρl + 2
l 2
where:
P1 = percentage of material passing the 4.75 mm sieve
P2 = percentage of material retained on the 4.75 mm sieve
p1 = density of the material passing the 4.75 mm sieve
p2 = density of the material retained on the 4.75 mm sieve

See the following example.

Test precision
Among the largest sources of error when determining the density are air
bubbles in the water and sample when weighing and the determination
of the saturated surface dry condition.

Duplicate measurements shall not be considered suspect unless they differ

by more than the limits give in table 3.9-2.

Table 14 Test precision

One operator Two laboratories

S
Bulk density 0.025 g/cm 0.038 g/cmS
Apparent density 0.020 g/cmS 0.032 g/cmS
Water absorption 0.25 % 0.41 %

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and identification of the test sample.
b) Test date.
c) Reference to this procedure.
d) Results of weighing.
e) Calculated bulk and apparent density to the nearest 0.001 g/cmS.
f) Water absorption to the nearest 0.01 %.
g) Description of any deviations from this procedure.

Note: Density (ñ d) may also be expressed as: t/m3, kg/m3, kg/dm3 or kg/l

244 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.9
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes Practical considerations

lt iS neceSSary tO recOgnize the The density of aggregates is a very important parameter in asphalt mix
impOrtance Of accUrate ValUeS fOr the
design and analyses. Binder content, which normally is expressed as
denSity in mix deSign.
weight-%, must always be considered in proportion to the density of
the aggregates. The density is also used to calculate void contents in
asphalt mixes, a very important parameter in mix design and mix
evaluation.
lnaccUrate ValUeS fOr the denSity
may SeriOUSly affect the perfOrmance
Of an aSphalt mix in the field.
In all, it is very important that the density is determined with high
accuracy. If not, the results from mix design and mix analyses will be
misleading. Wrong measurements of density may very well lead to
rutting, aging or cracking problems in the field

Maintenance
Clean all equipment after use.

Example
A: Mass of oven dried sample in air =2120.0 g
B: Mass of saturated surface dry sample in air =2190.3 g
C: Mass of saturated sample in water =1368.2 g

Bulk density, bd = A 2120 = 2.571 g / cm3

= (2190.3 -
(B -
1368.2)
C)
0.997
0.997
Apparent A 2120
density, ad = = = 2.811 g/ cm3
(A - (2120 -
1368.2)
C)
0.997
0.997
B-A 2190.3 - 2120.0
Water absorption =  100 % =  100 % = 3.32%
A 2120.0

The total sample consists of 64% material retained on the 4.75 mm sieve
and 36% passing the 4.75 mm sieve
The bulk and apparent densities of the material passing the 4.75 mm
sieve have also been determined to be:

pbd = 2.562 g/cmS

pad = 2.701 g/cmS

Average bulk density, bd 100

= 2.568 g/ cm3
= 64 36
+
2.571 2.562

Average apparent density, = 100 = 2.770 g/ cm3


ad
64 36
2.811 + 2.701
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 245
246 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.10
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes
Objective
This method is used to determine the density (ñd) of aggregates passing a
4.75 mm sieve. The density of aggregates is used for various calculations
of mix characteristics and in mix design. This method may also be used to
determine the water absorption of the aggregates.

Main principles
A material sample in saturated surface-dry state is weighed into a
calibrated pycnometer with known volume. The pycnometer is then
filled with distilled water and entrapped air is removed. The pycnometer
is tempered to 25 °C and weighed. This data is used to calculate the bulk
and apparent densities and the water absorption of the aggregates.

Definitions
Density (ñd) is defined as the mass per unit volume of a material at a
given temperature.

Bulk density (ñbd) is defined as the mass per unit volume (including
permeable and inpermeable voids) of a material at a given temperature.

Apparent density (ñad) is defined as the mass per unit volume (excluding
permeable voids but including impermeable voids) of a material at a
given temperature.

References
ASTM C128-88 and ASTM D854

Required equipment
· Pycnometer, large enough to test representative samples.
· Thermometer with accuracy 0.1°C
· Vacuum type dessicator.
· Vacuum pump or other arrangement to create suction within
the dessicator.
· Balance with accuracy 0.01g
· Water bath with a constant temperature of 25 ± 0.1°C
· Heating oven which can maintain a temperature of 110 ± 5 °C.
· Distilled water.
· Metal mould in the form of a frustum of a cone with dimension
as follows: 40 ± 3 mm inside diameter at the top, 90 ± 3 mm
inside diameter at the bottom, 75 ± 3 mm height and the metal
Metal mould and tamping rod needed for having a minimum thickness of 0.8 mm.
determination of saturated surface dry · Metal tamper weighing 340 ± 15 g and having a flat
condition circular tamping face 25 ± 3 mm in diameter.

Test procedure
Number of samples
AlwayS meaSUre On a minimUm Of twO The test procedure involves weighing the material several times. To
parallel SampleS.
attain the desired accuracy in determination of the density, this procedure
should be carried out on at least two parallel samples for each material.

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CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.10
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes
Preparation of test sample
The Sample Size may be redUced tO 300 Step 1: Sieve the material on a 4.75-mm sieve to obtain samples.
gramS fOr Single- One sample should weigh approximately 500 grams.
Sized aggregateS
Step 2: Cover the sample with water in a suitable container and soak for
24 ± 4 hours.

Determination of saturated surface dry condition

Step 3: After soaking the sample, decant excess water (without loosing
fines) and spread the sample onto flat non-absorbent surface.
Expose the sample to a moving current of hot air. Stir the
sample frequently to ensure uniform drying. Continue until the
material approaches a free-flowing condition.

Step 4: Place the conical mould on a flat non-absorbent surface with the
smaller opening facing upward. Fill it loosely to overflowing
with the partially dried material. Tamp the surface of the
material lightly 25 times with the tamping rod. Each drop
should start approximately 5 mm above the surface. Do not add
additional material during or after the tamping.

USe the cOne teSt tO determine the Step 5: Lift the mould vertically. If the material retains it conical shape,
SatUrated SUrface dry cOnditiOn free water is still present. Continue to dry the material and repeat
the cone test until the material slumps slightly on removal of the
mould. This indicates that the saturated surface dry condition has
been reached. If the material slumps on the first trial, it may
have been dried past the saturated surface dry condition. In this
case, add a few ml of water in the sample and permit it to stand
in a covered container for 30 minutes. Continue the process of
drying and testing until the saturated surface dry condition has
been reached.

FOr SOme materialS, the SatUrated For materials that do not readily slump, see alternative
SUrface dry cOnditiOn may be difficUlt tO procedures in ASTM C128.
determine
5illing of pycnometer and removal of entrapped air
Step 6: Transfer the material to a pycnometer. The pycnometer
should not be filled more than half full. Weigh the
pycnometer and sample to the nearest 0.01 grams.

Step 7: Fill the pycnometer with distilled water until approximately

2/3 full. Roll, invert and agitate the pycnometer to eliminate
air bubbles.

Step 8: Place the pycnometer in the vacuum dessicator. Apply suction

to the dessicator (below 100 mm Hg) by using a vacuum pump.
Maintain the reduced pressure for approximately 1 hour.

248 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.10
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes
Step 9: The pycnometer is carefully filled with distilled water
and plugged. Place in a water bath at 25°C for 1 hour.

Step 10: Adjust the water level in the pycnometer with a pipette to
the filling line on the glass top. Remove the pycnometer
from the bath, dry off water on the outside and weigh with
contents.
DO nOt dry the material in the
pycnOmeter
Step 11: Transfer the contents of the pycnometer to a container for
drying. Pour off as much water as possible without loosing any
material. Dry to constant weight and record the mass of oven
dry material.

Results
Calculations
Calculate the bulk density and apparent density to the nearest 0.001 g/cmS
and the water absorption to the nearest 0.01% by using the following
equations:
Bulk density, ρ
= A (g/cm3)
bd
(C - B)
D- 0.997
Apparent density, ρ bd= A
(g/cm3)
(C - A - E)
D-
0.997
Water absorption = B - E - A .
A 100 %
where:
A = mass of oven dry sample, grams
B = mass of saturated surface dry sample + pycnometer, grams
C = mass of saturated sample + pycnometer filled with water, grams
D = volume of pycnometer, cm3
E = mass of clean dry pycnometer, grams

See the following example.

Test precision
Among the largest sources of error when determining the density are air
bubbles in the water and sample when weighing and the determination
of the saturated surface dry condition.

Duplicate measurements shall not be considered suspect unless they differ

by more than the limits give in table 3.10-1.

Table 15 Test precision

One operator Two laboratories
S
Bulk density 0.027 g/cm 0.056 g/cmS
Apparent density 0.027 g/cmS 0.056 g/cmS
Water absorption 0.31 % 0.66 %
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 249
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.10
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and identification of the test sample.

b) Test date.
c) Reference to this procedure.
d) Results of weighing.
e) Calculated bulk and apparent density to the nearest 0.001 g/cmS.
f) Water absorption to the nearest 0.01 %.
g) Description of any deviations from this procedure.

Note: Density (ρd ) may also be expressed as: t/m3, kg/m3, kg/dm3 or kg/l

Practical considerations
lt iS neceSSary tO recOgnize the
impOrtance Of accUrate ValUeS fOr the
The density of aggregates is a very important parameter in asphalt mix
denSity in mix deSign. design and analyses. Binder content, which normally is expressed as
weight-%, must always be considered in proportion to the density of
the aggregates. The density is also used to calculate void contents in
asphalt mixes, a very important parameter in mix design and mix
evaluation.
lnaccUrate ValUeS fOr the denSity
may SeriOUSly affect the perfOrmance
Of an aSphalt mix in the field. In all, it is very important that the density is determined with high
accuracy. If not, the results from mix design and mix analyses will be
misleading.
Wrong measurements of density may very well lead to rutting, aging or
cracking problems in the field. The entire mix design and various mix
investigations rely on highly accurate values for the density.

Maintenance
The pycnometers must be emptied and cleaned carefully immediately after
use. Store the pycnometers properly, protected from dust.

Pycnometers should be calibrated according to test 3.10 regularly, mini-

mum once a year. A new calibration is also required whenever small
pieces of glass are broken from the pycnometer or glass top. Seriously
damaged pycnometers, with cracks or large pieces missing, must never be
used and should be discarded immediately.
250 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.10
Ministry of Works

Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates

Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve

Notes Example
A: Mass of dry sample =56.30 g
B: Mass of saturated surface dry sample + pycnometer =101.56 g
C: Mass of saturated sample + pycnometer + water =186.12 g
D: Volume of pycnometer =106.79 cmS
E: Mass of clean dry pycnometer = 44.13 g

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 251

252 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.11
Ministry of Works

Calibration of glass pycnometers (0.5 - 1 liter)

Notes
Objective
The objective of this method is to calibrate the glass pycnometers used
to determine density of aggregates for bituminous mixes.

Main principles
Clean and dry pycnometers are weighed. The volume of the pycnometers
are then determined by filling and weighing the pycnometers with
distilled water holding a temperature of 25 °C.

References
Norwegian Public Roads Administration’s guidelines for laboratory
investigations, Handbook 014. Test no. 14.5922.

Required equipment
· Balance accurate to 0.01 grams.
· Water bath, accurate to ± 0.1 °C.
· Thermometer, accurate to ± 0.1 °C.
· Distilled water.
· Water bottle.

Test procedure
AlwayS clean and dry the
pycnOmeterS befOre perfOrming the Step 1: Pycnometers and their corresponding tops are cleaned and
calibratiOn. dried. Cool to room temperature.

Step 2: Add silicon grease to the ground surface on the pycnometer

tops. Avoid excessive use of grease.

Step 3: Pycnometer including top is weighed to the nearest 0.01 gram.

Note the mass (m1).

Step 4: The pycnometer is filled with distilled water to the line/ mark
on the pycnometer top.

Step 5: Place the pycnometer in the water bath. The water should fully
cover the main body of the pycnometers.

Step 6: Leave the pycnometers standing in the water bath at

Adjust the water level in the pycnometers
as the temperature changes. temperature 25 ± 0.1 °C for 1 hour. The water level in the
pycnometer top must be adjusted up to the mark/line as
the temperature changes.

Step 7: The pycnometers are then dried and weighed to the

nearest 0.01 gram. Note the mass (m2).

A minimum of two parallel calibrations should be performed on each

TwO parallel calibratiOnS ShOUld be pycnometer.
perfOrmed On each pycnOmeter.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 253

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.11
Ministry of Works

Calibration of glass pycnometers (0.5 - 1 liter)

Notes
Results
Calculations
Mass of distilled water = m2 - m1

The volume of the pycnometers are calculated using the following

equation:
Volume
= pycnometer, 25 oC
m2 - m l m2 - m l
= 0.997
ρ distilled watev

where:
m1 = mass of pycnometer.
m2 = mass of pycnometer plus water.
pdistilled water = density of distilled water at 25 °C.

Report
After calibrating the pycnometers, prepare a list of pycnometer mass and
Prepare a liSt Of pycnOmeter maSS volume (determined from calibration) as shown in table 3.11-1. This list
and VOlUme after calibratiOn. should be updated every time the calibration routine is performed.

Table 16 Pycnometer calibration data

Pycnometer no. Mass Volume

1 m1 V1
2 m2 V2
3 mS VS

Practical considerations
Pycnometers need not be calibrated every time they are used, but as a
NeVer USe SeriOUSly minimum once a year. A new calibration is also required whenever small
damaged pycnOmeterS.
pieces of glass are broken from the pycnometer or glass top. Seriously
damaged pycnometers, with cracks or large pieces missing, must never be
used and should be discarded immediately.

254 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

255 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.12
Ministry of Works

Mixing of Test Specimens; Hot Bituminous

Mixes

Notes
Objective
The objective of this procedure is to produce hot bituminous mixes in
the laboratory. The conditions are chosen to produce as closely as
possible a mix with characteristics similar to plant-mixed asphalt.

COmbine the different aggregate fractiOnS

Main principles
tO Obtain the cOrrect aggregate grading. If various aggregate fractions are used, they must be prepared and mixed
to produce a final aggregate grading identical to the mix-specification or
mix-formulation. Aggregates and bitumen are preheated and blended at
recommended mixing times and mixing temperatures.

References
Norwegian Public Roads Administration’s guidelines for laboratory
investigations, Handbook 014, Test no. 14.5532.

Required equipment
· Heating oven
· Balance with accuracy of 1g with ample capacity for the quantity of
mix to be made, including the mixing container.
· Balance with accuracy of 0.01g for weighing binder additives.
· Equipment for manual or mechanical mixing.
· Suitable containers for heating the aggregates.

Test procedure
Preparation of aggregates
The cOrrect qUantity Of each fractiOn Step 1: The aggregate grading may be obtained by combining several
mUSt be calcUlated Or taken frOm the fractions. The right proportions of each fraction must first be
mix fOrmUlatiOn. calculated to get the right grain size distribution for the hot mix.
These fractions must then be split down to the required
quantities to avoid segregation problems. The different fractions
are then mixed to produce the final correct aggregate grading in
the correct amount required for the specimens that will be made.

Step 2: Heat the aggregates in a suitable container to maximum 10°C

above the mixing temperature given in Table 3.12-1. Keep
the aggregates at this temperature for min. 2 hours.
Preheat bitUmen and aggregateS
Separately. Step 3: Additives (if used) must be added to the aggregate before heat-
ing if they can withstand the heat. It is important that the
additives are mixed evenly with the aggregates.¨

Preparing the binder

Step 4: The binder is heated gently in a container suitable for pouring
to the mixing temperature found in Table 3.12-1. The binder is
kept at this temperature for maximum 2 hours in a covered
container. Overheating, in temperature or time, will affect the
binder properties and must not occur.

256 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.12
Ministry of Works

Mixing of Test Specimens; Hot Bituminous

Mixes

Notes
Step 5: Any additives to the binder are weighed on a balance with
accuracy 0.01g or better. If no other information is given, the
additives are added to the binder maximum 30 minutes
before mixing with the aggregate.

Table 17 Mixing and compaction temperatures

Binder Mixing temperature Compaction temperature

(°C) (°C)
Pen 40 145 - 155 135 − 145
Pen 60 142 - 152 132 − 142
Pen 85 138 - 148 129 − 139
Pen 180 130 - 140 122 − 132
Pen 250 126 - 136 117 − 127
Pen 370 121 - 131 112 − 122

AlwayS adjUSt the mixing and cOmpactiOn The values given in Table 3.12-1 are based on a mixing temperature at
temperatUre tO the type Of binder USed. which the binder has a viscosity of 170 ± 20 mm2/s and a compaction
temperature at which the binder has a viscosity of 280 ± 30 mm2/s. The
temperature ranges given are approximate. If more detailed information
about the temperature-viscosity relationship for the binder is known, more
exact temperatures may be determined. When using polymer modified
binders the recommended mixing and compaction temperatures given by
the supplier should be used.

Mixing of binder and aggregates

The mixing may be done either manually or mechanically.

Step 6: The container to be used for mixing of binder and aggregate

must be heated to the mixing temperature. It may be practical to
heat the aggregates in the same container that is to be used for
mixing of aggregate and binder.

Step 7: After the aggregate (with any additives) has been placed in the
mixing container, the exact right amount of binder is added.
The materials are mixed until the binder coats the aggregates
Mix Until all the aggregateS are fUlly completely. To avoid a large drop in temperature during
cOated with binder. mixing, the time used for mixing should be kept to a minimum.

Step 8: The procedure from here will depend on which type of

specimens that will be made or which tests that will be
perfor- med. If the mix-temperature drops below the
compaction temperature, the mix should be put back into the
heating oven. The mix should in these cases be covered to
avoid excessive ageing.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 257

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.12
Ministry of Works

Mixing of Test Specimens; Hot Bituminous

Mixes

Notes
Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) Any special observations
d) Mixing temperature
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Practical considerations
lmpOrtant: The reliability of results from
asphalt mix testing is very much depen- The reliability of test results performed on laboratory mixed asphalt
dent on representative samples. Mixing samples depends on preparation of the samples with great accuracy.
must for this reason be performed with Variations in binder content, aggregate grading or binder properties will
great care and accuracy. affect the test results and wrong or misleading conclusions may be drawn.
Consequences of this may be shortened pavement life due to rutting,
cracking or ageing.

Maintenance
Clean all equipment used.

258 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

 x

259 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.13
Ministry of Works

Determination of Max. Theoretical Density of Asp-

halt Mixes and Absorption of Binder into
Aggregates

Notes
Objective
This method (Rice’s method) is used to determine the maximum theoretical
density, also called the void-free density, of asphalt mixes. The maximum
theoretical density is used to calculate the void content of asphalt mixes.

This method is also used to determine the amount of binder absorbed by

the aggregates in an asphalt mix.

Main principles
A weighed sample of oven-dry asphalt mixture in loose condition is placed
in a tared container/bowl. Water holding a temperature of 25°C is added to
completely submerge the sample. Vacuum is applied to remove entrapped
air within the sample. The void-free volume of the sample is measured by
weighing the container (with sample) immersed in water.

The binder absorption is calculated from the difference between the total
volume of all mix components (calculated from mass and densities) and
the void-free volume of the mix determined in this procedure. The binder
absorption is expressed as percentage of the mass of dry aggregates in the
mix.

References
ASTM D2041-95, D4469-85
AASHTO T209-94

Required equipment
Different typeS Of bOwlS, cOntainerS Or
· Thermometer with accuracy 0.1°C.
pycnOmeterS may be USed
· Glass, plastic or metal bowl/container with a capacity of
approximately 2000 ml. Other types of containers may also be
used, see the reference documents.
· Balance with minimum accuracy of 0.1 g.
· Water bath capable of holding a temperature of 25°C.
· Vacuum type dessicator.
· Vacuum pump or other arrangement to create suction within
the vacuum dessicator.

Test procedure
PerfOrm the reqUired teStS in adVance Step 1: To calculate the absorption of binder into aggregates, the bulk
density of the aggregate blend (test 3.9 and 3.10) and the density
of the binder (test 3.2) must be determined in advance. If the
binder content of the mix is unknown, this must be determined
by extraction (test 3.21).

Step 2: Obtain a sample from an existing mixture or prepare a mixture

in the laboratory. Samples prepared in the laboratory must be
identical (in terms of types and grading of aggregates and binder
content) to the mix being investigated. The size of the sample
shall be governed by the maximum nominal aggregate size
according to table 3.13-1.
260 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.13
Ministry of Works

Determination of Max. Theoretical Density of Asp-

halt Mixes and Absorption of Binder into
Aggregates

Notes
Table 18 Eample size

Nominal maximum aggregate Minimum mass of

size, mm test sample, kg
25.0 2.5
19.0 2.0
12.5 1.5
9.5 1.0
4.75 0.5

lMPORTANT: Separate the particleS

Step 3: Separate the particles of the sample without fracturing the
manUally
mineral particles. Particles of the fine aggregate portion should
not be larger than 6.5 mm. If the mixture is not sufficiently soft
to separate the particles manually, place it in a large flat pan and
warm in an oven until it can be handled. The sample must be
dry before proceeding.

Step 4: Weigh and determine the mass of the bowl/container in air

and immersed in water.

Step 5: Place the sample in the bowl/container (must be dry) and

determine its mass. The sample must at this time be
cooled down to room temperature.

Step 6: Add water to the bowl/container until the sample is completely

covered. Add a wetting agent to facilitate the removal of
Add a wetting agent tO facilitate the entrapped air in the sample. 2 drops of a 10% solution of
remOVal Of air
Teenol or similar detergent is suitable.

Step 7: Place the bowl/container in the vacuum dessicator and reduce

the pressure to 30 mm Hg. Shake the sample at 2-minute inter
vals to facilitate the removal of air. Maintain the reduced pres
sure for 15 ± 2 minutes followed by a gradual pressure
equalizing to atmospheric pressure.

Step 8: Suspend the bowl/container and contents in water at 25 ± 1°C

and determine its mass after 10 ± 1 minute immersion. The
bowl/container should be immersed to a depth sufficient to
cover it completely during weighing.

Supplemental procedure for mixtures with porous aggregates not

completely coated with bitumen
If the pores of the aggregates are not completely sealed by a bituminous
film, they may become saturated with water during the evacuation
process. To determine if this has occurred, proceed with the following. If
this is not considered to be a problem, proceed directly to the
calculations.

Step 9: Drain water from the sample. Loss of particles must not occur.
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 261
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO.3.13
Ministry of Works

Determination of Max. Theoretical Density of Asp-

halt Mixes and Absorption of Binder into
Aggregates

Notes
Step 10: Spread the sample in front of an electric fan to remove surface
moisture. Break conglomeration of the mixture by hand and stir
the sample at regular intervals. Weigh the sample at 10-minute
The drying prOcedUre nOrmally takeS
abOUt 2 hOUrS
intervals. When the loss in mass is less than 0.5 grams after an
interval, consider the sample to be surface dry. Record the mass
of the surface dry sample.

Step 11: Calculate the maximum theoretical density by replacing the dry
mass of the material with the mass of the surface dry material in
the denominator of the equation.

Results
Calculation of maximum theoretical density
Calculate the maximum theoretical density of the mixture to the nearest
0.001 g/cmS from the following equation:

Maximum theoretical density,

A
ρ d maz
=
A - (B - C)
(g / cm3)
ρ watev
where:
A = mass of dry sample in air (or surface dry, in denominator only), grams
B = mass of bowl/container and sample immersed in water, grams
C = mass of bowl/container immersed in water, grams
ρwater = density of water (0.997 g/cmS at 25°C)

Calcula4ion of binder absorp4ion

To calculate the binder absorption, the total volume of the aggregates (use
the bulk density) and binder must be calculated. From this value, subtract
the volume of the void-free sample found in this procedure. The difference
between the two is the binder absorbed by the aggregates. Convert this to
mass of binder. Report the binder absorption to the nearest 0.1%.

Step 1: Determine the mass of binder in the sample:

pxA
D= 100 , grams

where:
A = mass of dry sample in air, grams
D = mass of binder in the sample, grams
p = percentage of binder in the mixture,
%

Step 2: Determine the mass of aggregates in the sample:

(100 - p) x A
E= 100 , grams

where:
A = mass of dry sample in air, grams
E = mass of aggregates in the sample, grams
p = percentage of binder in the mixture. %
262 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.13
Ministry of Works

Determination of Max. Theoretical Density of Asp-

halt Mixes and Absorption of Binder into
Aggregates

Notes
Step 3: Determine bulk volume of aggregates and binder in the sample

Vol E
bulk
= D , cmS
ρbd + ρbίt
where:
Volbulk
= bulk volume of aggregates and binder in the sample, cmS
D = mass of binder in the sample, grams
E = mass of aggregates in the sample, grams
ρbd = bulk density of the aggregates, g/cmS
ρbίt = density of the binder, g/cmS

The difference between the bUlk VOlUme Step 4: Determine the volume of void-free sample:
Of the cOnStitUent partS Of the Sample A - (B - C)
and
the VOlUme Of the VOid-free Sample iS Volvoίdfvee = , cm3
eqUal tO the VOlUme Of abSOrbed ρ watev
binder
where:
Volvoίd-free = void-free volume of the sample, cmS
A= mass of dry sample in air (or surface dry), grams
B= mass of bowl/container and sample immersed in
water, grams
C= mass of bowl/container immersed in water, grams
p water = density of water (0.997 g/cmS at 25°C)

ExpreSS the abSOrbed binder aS a per-

centage Of the maSS Of aggregateS in Step 5: Percentage of binder absorbed by the aggregates:
the Sample (Vol - Vol )xρ
bulk voίdfvee bίt .
Pabs= 100 %
E
where:
Volbulk = calculated bulk volume of aggregates and binder in
the sample, cmS
Volvoίd-free = void-free volume of the sample, cmS
E = mass of aggregates in the sample, grams

Test precision
Duplicate measurements shall not be considered suspect unless they differ
more than the limits given in table 3.13-2.

Table 19 Test precision (for bowl determination only)

One operator Two laboratories

Maximum 0.018 0.055
theoretical density,
g/cm3

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) Type and identification of the test sample

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 263

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.13
Ministry of Works

Determination of Max. Theoretical Density of Asp-

halt Mixes and Absorption of Binder into
Aggregates

Notes
c) Maximum theoretical density to the nearest 0.001 g/cmS
and absorbed binder to the nearest 0.1 %
d) Date
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Practical consideration
The void content is a very important parameter in mix design and mix
evaluation. The void content is calculated directly from the maximum
theoretical density of the mix, which consequently must be determined
with high accuracy. Wrong or inaccurate measurements of maximum
theoretical density may indirectly lead to rutting, aging or cracking
problems in the field. Wrong conclusions may also be drawn in the
laboratory when investigating the causes for poor mix performance in the
field.

Maintenance
Clean all equipment after use.

Example:
The maximum theoretical density of a bituminous mixture is to be
measured at 25°C. The following data for the mix are given:

Binder content: 5.0 %

Average bulk density of aggregates (at 25°C): 2.492 g/cmS
Density of bitumen (at 25°C): 1.011 g/cmS

The mixture contains porous aggregates, which are not all fully coated by
bitumen in the mixture.

Results of weighing:
Mass of bowl in air: 463.1 grams
Mass of bowl immersed in water at 25°C: 402.2 grams
Mass of dry sample + bowl in air: 2464.1grams
Mass of dry sample (calculated): 2001.0grams
Mass of sample + bowl immersed in water at 25°C: 1558.7 grams
Mass of surface dry sample: 2004.3
grams
264 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.13
Ministry of Works

Determination of Maximum Theoretical of Asphalt

Mixes and Absorption of Binder into Aggregates

Notes

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 265

 x

266 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.14
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density of Saturated Surface Dry Asphalt

Mix Samples

Notes
Objective
This method is used to determine the bulk density of hot mixed asphalt
mix samples. The test specimens may be core-drilled from existing
pavements or made in the laboratory. The samples must not have an
exposed open air void system or large cavities in the end faces.

Main principles
The volume of a sample is found by determining its buoyancy in water.
Density is calculated from the sample’s dry mass, saturated surface dry
mass and measured volume.

References
ASTM D2726-96

Required equipment
· Saw for cutting core samples.
· Steel brush.
· Balance, minimum 1200g, with accuracy ± 0.01g.
· Sample container (wire cloth basket) for weighing asphalt
samples immersed n water.
· Water bath 15 liters, thermostatically regulated with an accuracy of
± 0.1°C.
· Distilled water
· Heating oven

Test procedure
Preparation of test specimens from the field
Pavement samples:
Step 1A: Cut two square specimens from the pavement with a cutting
saw. The samples shall not have cracks or other distresses. All
cut surfaces must be made using the cutting saw.

Core-drilled samples:
Step 1B: If the samples consist of one asphalt layer, the surface facing
the sub-base must be cleaned with a steel brush and water or
cut. All samples must be completely clean of particles from
other layers.
The pretreatment Of the SampleS dependS
On type Of Sample
Step 1C: If the samples consist of two or more asphalt layers, the layer to
be investigated (normally the top layer) is cut of.

The top of samples taken from pavements that have been blinded off with
fine crushed aggregates or sand must be cut. Failing to do so will give
inaccurate results. Do not cut of more than required.
The Sample thickneSS ShOUld preferably The thickness of prepared/cut samples should at least be 1.5 times the
be OVer 1.5x the largeSt nOminal
aggregate Size.
largest nominal aggregate size in the asphalt layer, with a minimum
thickness of 20 mm. For square pavement samples, the length of the sides

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 267

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.14
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density of Saturated Surface Dry Asphalt

Mix Samples

Notes
should also be at least 4 times the largest nominal aggregate size. If this
requirement is not met, the test results may become inaccurate.

Procedure
Bulk density should always be determined for a minimum of two parallel
test samples.
COnStant maSS iS defined aS the maSS at
which fUrther drying (at 52˚C) dOeS nOt
Step 2: The samples should be dried to constant mass at room
alter the maSS by mOre than 0.05%. temperature or in a heating oven at low temperature (the samples
must not deform) before determining their volume. Recently
molded laboratory samples need not be dried if they have not
been exposed to moisture.

Step 3: Record the dry mass.

Step 4: Immerse each specimen in water at 25 ± 1.0°C for 4±1 minutes

and record the immersed mass.
Any water that SeepS frOm the Specimen
dUring the weighing OperatiOn iS Step 5: Remove the specimen from the water, damp dry the specimen by
cOnSide- red part Of the SatUrated blotting with a damp dry towel as quickly as possible. Determine
SUrface dry Specimen. the surface dry mass immediately.

Results
Calculation of bulk density
The bulk density is calculated as follows:
Mass in air (dry specimen): ml
Mass submerged in water: m2
Mass of saturated surface dry specimen: m3

Volume of test sample: Vl= m - m

3 2
ρ watev
Bulk density of specimen: ρbd = m
l

V
l

where ρwater = density of water at 25°C, set to be 0.9970 g/cmS.

Calculation of water absorption

Determine the percentage of absorbed water by volume as:

Water absorption = m3 -
.
100 %
ml
Vl
If the water absorption exceeds 2 percent, this test method is not suitable
to determine the bulk density. Use test 3.15 or 3.16 instead.

Test precision
Duplicate measurements shall not be considered suspect unless they differ
more than the limits given in table 3.14-1.
268 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.14
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density of Saturated Surface Dry Asphalt

Mix Samples

Notes Table 20 Test precision

One operator Two laboratories

S
Bulk density, g/cm 0.035 0.076

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure.
b) Type and identification of the test sample.
c) Calculated density to three decimal points and absorbed water
to the nearest 0.1%.
d) Test date.
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 269

270 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.15
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density of Paraffin-Coated Asphalt Mix

Samples

Notes
Objective
This method is used to determine the bulk density of asphalt mix
DO nOt USe thiS methOd fOr SampleS
With large Open ViSible VOidS. lf thiS iS samples. The test specimens may be core-drilled from existing
the caSe (VOid cOntent > apprOximately pavements or made in the laboratory. This method is suitable for samples
12%), USe teSt 3.16 tO determine the that contain open or interconnected voids and/or absorb more than 2
bUlk denSity. percent water as determined in test 3.14.

Main principles
The volume of a paraffin-coated sample is found by determining its
buoyancy in water. Density is calculated from the sample’s dry mass,
mass of paraffin on the sample and measured volume of the paraffin-
coated sample.

References
ASTM D1188-89
AASHTO T275-91

Required equipment
· Saw for cutting the samples.
· Steel brush.
· Balance, minimum 1200g, with accuracy ± 0.01g.
· Sample container (wire cloth basket) for weighing asphalt
samples immersed n water.
· Water bath 15 liters, thermostatically regulated with an accuracy of
± 0.1°C.
· Distilled water
· Paraffin
· Heating oven

Test procedure
Preparation of test specimens from the field
Pavement samples:
Step 1A: Cut two square specimens from the pavement with a cutting
saw. The samples shall not have cracks or other distresses. All
cut surfaces must be made using the cutting saw.

Core-drilled samples:
Step 1B: If the samples consist of one asphalt layer, the surface facing t
he sub-base must be cleaned with a steel brush and water or
cut. All samples must be completely clean of particles from
other layers.

Step 1C: If the samples consist of two or more asphalt layers, the layer to
The pretreatment Of the SampleS dependS be investigated (normally the top layer) is cut of.
On type Of Sample
The top of samples taken from pavements that have been blinded off with
fine crushed aggregates or sand must be cut. Failing to do so will give
inaccurate results. Do not cut of more than required.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 271

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.15
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density of Paraffin-Coated Asphalt Mix

Samples

Notes
The thickness of prepared/cut samples should at least be 1.5 times the
The Sample thickneSS ShOUld preferably
largest nominal aggregate size in the asphalt layer, with a minimum
be OVer 1.5x the largeSt nOminal
aggregate Size. thickness of 20 mm. For square pavement samples, the length of the sides
should also be at least 4 times the largest nominal aggregate size. If this
requirement is not met, the test results may become inaccurate.

Procedure
Bulk density should always be determined for a minimum of two parallel
test samples.
COnStant maSS iS defined aS the maSS at Step 2: The samples should be dried to constant mass at room
which fUrther drying (at 52˚C) dOeS nOt temperature or in a heating oven at low temperature (the samples
alter the maSS by mOre than 0.05%. must not deform) before determining their volume. Recently
molded laboratory samples need not be dried if they have not
been exposed to moisture.

Step 3: Record the dry mass.

The temperatUre Of the melted paraffin
ShOUld be apprOximately 5˚C abOVe the
Step 4: Coat the sample with melted paraffin sufficiently thick to seal
melting pOint.
all voids. Allow the sample to cool at room temperature for 30
minutes.

Step 5: Record the mass of the paraffin-coated sample.

lf the SampleS will be USed fOr fUrther
teSting, the SampleS ShOUld be dUSted Step 6: Immerse each specimen in water at 25 ± 1.0°C for 4±1 minutes
with talc priOr tO cOating. ThiS will eaSe and record the immersed mass.
the remOVal Of paraffin frOm the
SampleS. Step 7: Determine the density of paraffin at 25°C, if this is unknown.
The density of paraffin is approximately 0.90 g/cmS.

Results
Calculation of bulk density
The bulk density is calculated as follows:

Mass of sample in air (dry specimen): ml

Mass of paraffin-coated sample in air: m2
Mass of coated sample in water: m3
Density of paraffin: ρp m -m
Volume of test sample: V=
2
( 3
) (m - m )
2 l

l
ρwatev ρρ
Bulk density of specimen: ml
bd
= V
ρ
l
where:
pwater = density of water at 25°C, set to be 0.9970 g/cm3
pp = density of paraffin at 25°C, set to be 0.90 g/cmS if not measured

Test precision
Duplicate measurements of bulk density by the same operator shall not be
considered suspect unless they differ more than 0.02 g/cmS.
272 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.15
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density of Paraffin-Coated Asphalt Mix

Samples

Notes Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Reference to this procedure.

b) Type and identification of the test sample.
c) Calculated density to three decimal points.
d) Test date.
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 273

274 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.16
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density of Asphalt Mix Samples, Caliper

Measurements

Notes
Objective
This method is used to determine the density of asphalt mix
samples with interconnecting voids or open air void systems above
approximately 12%.

Main principles
The volume of a sample is calculated from measurements of diameter
and height using a caliper. Density is calculated from measured dry
mass and volume.

References
Norwegian Public Roads Administration’s guidelines for laboratory
investigations, Handbook 014. Test no. 14.5622.

Required equipment
· Saw for cutting core samples.
· Steel brush.
· Balance, minimum 1200g, with accuracy ± 0.01g.
· Caliper

Test Procedure
Preparation of test specimens from the field
Pavement samples:
Step 1A: Cut two 100x100mm samples from the pavement with a
cutting saw. The samples shall not have cracks or other distres-
ses. All cut surfaces must be made using the cutting saw.

Core-drilled samples:
Step 1B: If the samples consist of one asphalt layer, the surface facing
the sub-base must be cleaned with a steel brush and water or
cut. All samples must be completely clean of particles from
other layers.

Step 1C: If the samples consist of two or more asphalt layers, the layer
to be investigated (normally the top layer) is cut of.

The pretreatment of the samples depends The top of samples taken from pavements that have been blinded off
on type of sample with fine crushed aggregates or sand must be cut. Failing to do so will
give inaccurate results. Do not cut of more than required.

Do not inClUde intended sUrfaCe strUCtUre Any intended surface structure of the samples should not be included
to the void Content. in the void content. Samples with this type of surface structure
should be cut before the caliper measurements and weighing.

Procedure
Density should always be determined for a minimum of two
parallel test samples.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 275

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.16
Ministry of Works

Bulk Density of Asphalt Mix Samples, Caliper

Measurements

Notes
Step 2: The samples should be dried to constant mass at room
temperature or in a heating oven at low temperature (the samples
must not deform) before determining their volume.
Use a Caliper to measUre height
Step 3: Measure the sample height in four locations and diameter in
and diameter.
two locations

Results
Calculations
The density is calculated as follows:

xπ xh

where:
pd = sample density, g/cmS
m1 = mass of dry sample accurate to 0.1 g
d = average diameter accurate to 0.1
mm h = average height accurate to 0.1 mm

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure.
b) Type and identification of the test sample.
c) Calculated density to two decimal points.
d) Test date.
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure.

276 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

 x

x x

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 277

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.17
Ministry of Works

Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous

Mixes

Notes
Objective
This method is used to calculate the void content, voids filled with
binder and voids in mineral aggregate for bituminous mixes. The density
of the mix, which is used in the calculation, may be determined from
analysis of core-drilled samples or samples made in the laboratory.

Main principles
The void content is calculated using the density and the maximum
theoretical density of the samples. The voids in mineral aggregate are
determined from the bulk volume of the asphalt mix sample and the bulk
volume of aggregates in the mix. The voids filled with binder are
determined from the volume of effective binder in the mix and the volume
of voids in the aggregate.

Definitions
The void content is defined as the volumetric percentage of a sample that
is not filled by aggregate or binder at 25°C.

The voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) is defined as the difference in bulk

volume of the mix and mineral aggregates in the mix, expressed as a
percentage of the bulk volume of the mix.

The voids filled with binder is defined as the volume of effective binder in
the mix, expressed as a percentage of the volume of voids in the
aggregates (VMA).

References
ASTM D3203
AASHTO Designation PP19-93

Test procedure
Density and maximUm theoretiCal density The following data must be measured/calculated in advance:
of the asphalt mix and density of binder and
aggregates mUst be known in advanCe. · Maximum theoretical density of the samples (test 3.13).
· Bulk density of the asphalt mix samples (test 3.14, 3.15 or 3.16).
· Density of binder and aggregates in the mix (test 3.2, 3.9 and 3.10)

Results
Calculations
To determine the void content, voids in mineral aggregate and voids filled
with binder, the following calculations must be made in advance. The
basis of these calculations is 100 cmS of the mix.

Mass of aggregates in the sample:

where:
magg = mass of aggregate in the mix, grams

278 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.17
Ministry of Works

Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous

Mixes

Notes
pbd mix = bulk density of asphalt mix sample,
g/cmS p = binder content i %

Mass of binder in the sample:

where:
mbit = mass of binder in the mix, grams
pbd mix = bulk density of asphalt mix sample, g/cmS
p = binder content i %

Mass of absorbed binder:

x

where:
mabs = mass of absorbed binder, grams
pabs = binder absorbed by the aggregates (test 3.13),
% magg = mass of aggregate in the mix, grams

Mass of effective binder:

where:
meff = mass of effective binder, grams
mabs = mass of binder in the sample,
grams mabs = mass of absorbed binder,
grams

Volume of aggregates:

where:
Vagg = volume of aggregates in the mix,
cmS magg = mass of aggregates in the
mix, grams
pbd agg = average bulk density of total aggregates (test 3.9), g/cmS

Volume of effective binder:

where:
Vbit = volume of effective binder in the mix, cmS
meff = mass of effective binder in the mix, grams
pbit = density of the binder (test 3.2), g/cmS
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 279
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.17
Ministry of Works

Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous

Mixes

Notes
Calculation of void content
The void content is calculated using the following equation:

where:

V0 = void content in %
pd max = maximum theoretical density of sample, g/cmS
pbd mix = bulk density of asphalt mix sample, g/cmS

Calculation of voids in mineral aggregate

The voids in mineral aggregate is calculated using one of the following
two equations:

where:

VMA = voids in mineral aggregate, %

Vagg = volume of aggregates,
cmS p = binder content in %
pbd mix = bulk density of asphalt mix sample, g/cmS
pbd aggr. = average bulk density of total aggregates, g/cmS

Calculation of voids filled with binder

The voids filled with binder is calculated using the following equation:

where:

Vfb = voids filled with binder, %

Vbit = volume of effective binder,
cmS VMA = voids in mineral
aggregate, %

Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Reference to this procedure

b) Type and identification of the test sample
c) Calculated void content, voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)
and voids filled with binder to the nearest 0.1 %
d) Date
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

280 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.17
Ministry of Works

Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous

Mixes

Notes Example:
Determine void content, voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) and voids
filled with binder for the following asphalt mix:
· Binder content = 6.0 %
· The bulk density of the total aggregates has been determined to be
pbd agg = 2.577 g/cmS
· The density of the binder has been determined to be bit = 1.011 g/cmS
p
· The average bulk density of several core samples has
been determined to be pbd mix = 2.214 g/cmS.
· The maximum theoretical density of these samples has been
determined to be pd max = 2.360 g/cmS.
· The percentage of binder absorbed by the aggregates has been
determined to be: pabs = 0.1 %

Based on 100 cmS of asphalt mix (compacted mix):

x
x
x

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 281

 x

282 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.18
Ministry of Works

Marshall Test

Notes
Objective
The Marshall test is used to measure physical properties of asphalt
specimens that relate to plastic deformation properties of asphalt mixes.

Main principles
The Marshall test Can be Used for mix The Marshall test is used for asphalt mixes containing bitumen or bitumen
samples with maximUm aggregate cutback where the maximum aggregate size is 25.4 mm or less. Asphalt
size
25.4 mm or less. specimens are loaded on their cylindrical side-edges with a Marshall
loading head at specified loading rate and temperature. The resistance
against plastic flow is measured.

References
ASTM D 1559-89

Required equipment
· 3 Specimen Molds − 101.6 mm in diameter by 76.2 mm high.
· Marshall Compaction Apparatus.
· Specimen Mold Holder.
· Marshall Test Apparatus with a load and deflection
measuring device.
· Heating oven.
· Automatic or manuals mixing equipment for asphalt
mix specimens.
· Water Bath and temperature control unit with minimum
1.0°C accuracy.
· Heating gloves.
· Slide caliper for measuring specimen thickness with an accuracy of
± 0.1 mm.

Test procedure
Preparation of test specimens
At least 3 parallel test specimens should be prepared. Each specimen
Prepare at least 3 parallel samples. requires approximately 1200 g of bituminous material. The mass required
should be adjusted so that each test specimen has a height of 63.5 ± 1.3
mm after compaction. If necessary, a preliminary specimen should be
made to find the right amount of material for the remaining specimens.

Step 1: Dried and preheated aggregate is mixed with preheated binder

until a homogeneous mixture is achieved. For asphalt concrete
specimens (AC-mixes) the mixing temperature should be
equal to the temperature at which the binder has a viscosity of
170 ± 20 mm2/s. See also test 3.12 “Mixing of Test Specimens;
Hot Bituminous Mixes”.

Step 2: The specimen molds are preheated in an hot air oven to a

temperature in the range 93-149°C. The bituminous
material should have a temperature during compaction at
which the binder has a viscosity of 280 ± 30 mm2/s.

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 283

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.18
Ministry of Works

Marshall Test

Notes
Step 3: The mixture is transferred into the specimen molds and the
surface is leveled. The mold now containing asphalt mix is
immediately placed into the Marshall compaction
apparatus.
CompaCt speCimens with 75 blows to
eaCh side.
Step 4: The specimen is compacted with 75 blows to each side.
Immediately after compaction, remove the compacted specimen
from the mold and allow it to cool to room temperature.

Step 5: Measure the thickness of the specimen to the nearest 0.1 mm.

Step 6: Place the samples in a preheated water bath holding the

correct temperature, see Test conditions.

Test conditions
The specimens are heated in the water bath to their testing temperature
according to the type of binder:

The testing temperatUre depends on the Asphalt mixes containing bitumen

type of mix.
60 ± 1.0°C for 30-40 minutes

Asphalt mixes containing bitumen cutbacks

40 ± 1.0°C for 30-40 minutes

The load is applied with the Marshall breaking head at a constant rate of
50.8 mm/min. The Marshall breaking head should during testing be in the
temperature range of 21-38°C. Do not preheat the breaking head to 60°C.

Procedure
Step 7: After the required temperature equilibration time, remove the
specimen from the water bath and immediately place it in
the testing-head of the Marshall Test apparatus.

Step 8: Apply the load to the specimen at the specified loading rate
until the maximum load is reached and the load decreases. The
flow value must be recorded from the micrometer at the exact
time of maximum load. The elapsed time from removing the
test specimen from the water bath to the maximum load is
detected should not exceed 30 seconds.

Results
Measurements
The following should be recorded during the test:
· Mixing temperature (°C)
· Compacting temperature (°C)
· Number of blows during compaction
· Height of test specimen to the nearest 0.1 mm
· Temperature of test specimen at testing (°C)
· Flow value (1/10 mm)
284 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.18
Ministry of Works

Marshall Test

Notes · Maximum load value (N), also called the Marshall stability value.
This value must be corrected according to the specimen height
(see Calculations).

Calculations
MeasUred stability valUes mUst The Marshall stability is calculated by multiplying the maximum load
be CorreCted for speCimen
height.
value with a correction factor depending on the specimen height.
Correction factors are given in Table 3.18-1.

Table 21 Correction factors according to specimen height

CorreCtion faCtors Specimen Correction Specimen Correction

height (mm) factor height (mm) factor
25 5.70 51 1.46
26 5.31 52 1.41
27 4.99 53 1.36
28 4.69 54 1.32
29 4.45 55 1.27
30 4.20 56 1.23
31 3.99 57 1.19
32 3.81 58 1.16
33 3.62 59 1.13
34 3.49 60 1.10
35 3.32 61 1.07
36 3.11 62 1.04
37 2.95 63 1.01
38 2.80 64 0.99
39 2.61 65 0.96
40 2.45 66 0.94
41 2.30 67 0.92
42 2.18 68 0.89
43 2.07 69 0.88
44 1.96 70 0.86
45 1.87 71 0.84
46 1.79 72 0.82
47 1.72 73 0.81
48 1.64 74 0.79
49 1.57 75 0.78
50 1.51

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) All measured values including:
· Corrected Marshall stability (N) as the average of at least
3 test specimens
· Flow value (mm) to the nearest 0.1 mm as the average of
at least 3 test specimens

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 285

CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.18
Ministry of Works

Marshall Test

Notes
c) Test date
d) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Practical considerations
Stability and flow will differ considerably on laboratory made specimens
and core samples all though the mix is the same. The Marshall test should
therefor always be performed on laboratory made samples, not on core
samples.
InCorreCt testing proCedUres may lead to
Testing performed at incorrect temperature or with badly maintained
poor performing mixes.
Marshall Test Apparatus may seriously affect the test results. In
connection with Marshall Mix Design, this may lead to poorly performing
mixes in the field. Typically, rutting problems may occur.

Maintenance
Check and calibrate the loading cell and deflection-measuring device
every 6 months. Clean and lubricate the Marshall test apparatus and
breaking head to prevent corrosion.

Example:
3 Marshall samples have been prepared in the laboratory to measure
Marshall stability and flow. Sample height, measured stability and flow,
correction values and corrected stability values are given in table 3.18-2.

Table 22 Eample data

286 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000

Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 287
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.19
Ministry of Works

Marshall Mix Design

Notes
Objective
The objective of the Marshall Mix Design procedure is to find the
optimum binder content in a mix where the aggregate grading and type of
bituminous binder is predetermined. The results from Marshall Mix
Design are often used to set up asphalt mix formulation and
specifications.

Main principles
The binder content is varied in steps of typically 0.5% around an assumed
optimum binder content. The binder content is determined, which best
complies with Marshall stability, flow, void content, voids filled with
binder and density requirements for the mix being investigated.

References
ASTM D 1559-89: “Standard Test for Resistance to Plastic Flow of
Bituminous Mixtures Using Marshall Apparatus”.

The Asphalt Institute, Maryland, USA, 1994: “Mix Design Methods for
Asphalt Concrete and other Hot-mix Types”
Use at least 3 speCimen moUld to
work effeCtively.
Required equipment
The same equipment as is used for the Marshall Test, see test 3.18. To
work efficiently, it is recommended to have more than 3 specimen molds
available.

Graphical method for blending aggregates

Step 1: As a starting point, a diagram is prepared for aggregate size dis-
tribution with percentage passing from 0-100% on the y-axis and
sieve sizes on the x-axis. The x-axis is until further without a
scale.

Step 2: Draw a diagonal from the origin of coordinates to the upper

right corner of the diagram.

Determine the aggregate blend Step 3: From the specifications for the desired final aggregate
distribution, determine the percentage passing each sieve size.

Step 4: Draw a horizontal line from the percentage passing on the y-

axis (determined in step 3) to the diagonal and down to the x-
axis.
Place the corresponding sieve size number on the x-axis at this
location. Repeat this for all sieve sizes in step 3. A relative
scale is now placed on the x-axis.

Step 5: Draw the sieve size distribution for all aggregate fractions
into the diagram.

Step 6: Determine the percentage of each aggregate fraction in the final

blend. Start from the right side of the diagram and draw a
vertical line at the location where the distance “a” is equal for
the 2 rightmost aggregate fractions. See figure 3.19-1.
288 Laboratory Testing Manual 2000
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.19
Ministry of Works

Marshall Mix Design

Notes Step 7: From the intersection between this vertical line and the
diagonal, draw a horizontal line to the right. The distance from
the top of the diagram down to the horizontal line gives the
percentage of the rightmost of the two fractions. See example in
figure 3.19-1.

Step 8: If only two aggregate fractions will be used, the percentage of

the second fraction is the remaining. If 3 or more fractions
will be used, repeat steps 6 and 7 for the remaining fractions
and determine the final blend.

7igure 2 Graphical method for blending aggregates

Marshall mix design procedure

Step 1: The aggregate size distribution and type of binder is
predeter- mined according to the type of bituminous mix that
is being designed. The aggregate size distribution and type of
binder must be the same for all asphalt specimens.
Step 2: If not known, determine the density of the binder rbit and aggre-
gates rbd agg according to test 3.2, 3.9 and 3.10. Step 1:
Determine the combined density of the final aggregate blend by
using the
following equation:
CalCUlate the Combined bUlk density of 100
the aggregate blend  bd,combined  31 32 33
   ............
1 2 3
where:
P1, P2, PS…. = percentage of fractions in final aggregate
blend r1, r2, rS,…. = bulk densities of the fractions
Prepare at minimUm of 3 series of Step 3: Prepare at least 3 series of 3 test specimens. Choose an assumed
samples. 4-5 series will improve the overall optimum binder content that is used for one series. Vary the
qUality of the mix design binder content for the other series in 0.5% intervals around the
assumed
Laboratory Testing Manual 2000 289

100
90 D
E
80 39% A

70 Fraction B
J
LV 60
Q
D
50 23% B
H
S
D
WJ 40 Fraction
H Fraction C
UFH
Q 30
3
20 38% C
E
10 D
0
0.075 0.300 0.600 2.36 4.75 9.5 12.5

6LHYH VL]H PP
CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory TEST NO. 3.19

Ministry of Works

Marshall Mix Design

Notes
optimum value. To obtain reliable results, 4-5 series with different binder
contents is recommended. The variation in binder content may then be
reduced to a somewhat lower value than 0.5 % (0.3-0.4%).

Preparation of test specimens

Step 4: Preparation of test specimens is carried out as described for the
Marshall Test, see test 3.18. Also prepare a sufficient amount
of mix to determine the maximum theoretical density.
Step 5: Determine the maximum theoretical density according to test
3.13 Step 6: Measure the thickness of the specimens (at room
temperature)
with a slide caliper to the nearest 0.1 mm.
Step 7: Determine the bulk density of the compacted specimens
according to test 3.14, 3.15 or 3.16

Procedure
Step 8: The Marshall Test, test 3.18, is carried out on each test specimen.

Results
Measurements
The same measurements as described for the Marshall Test, test 3.18,
shall be recorded during the testing of each individual sample.

CalCUlate void Content, VMA and voids Calculations

filled with binder for all samples.
· Calculate the corrected stability and determine the flow as
described in test 3.18.
· Calculate the void content, voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)
and voids filled with binder for all samples as described in test
Determine the optimUm binder Content 3.17.
· Determine the optimum binder content as the average of:
- The binder content at maximum stability
- The binder content at maximum mix bulk density
- The binder content at which the void content is halfway between
the upper and lower void requirements for the mix

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) From the Marshall Test for each test series:
· thickness of test specimens to the nearest 0.1 mm
· average corrected Marshall stability (N) of at least 3 test specimens
· average flow value (mm) to the nearest 0.1 mm of at least 3
test specimens
· testing temperature (°C)
c) In addition the following measurements for each test series:
· maximum theoretical density (pd max)
· average bulk density (pbd)
· average void content (V0)
· average voids filled with binder (Vfb)
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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.19
Ministry of Works

Marshall Mix Design

Notes d) Results presented in graphs as shown in figure 3.19-2.

PUt great effort into performing a high e) Test date
qUality mix design. The performanCe of a f) Description of any deviations from this procedure.
mix in the field is highly dependent on this
Practical considerations
High quality mix design is required to optimize the properties of a mix
with the given raw materials available. The sample preparation, as well as
the measurements of stability, flow, void content etc., must be performed
with high accuracy to ensure reliable results. A poor mix design will not
utilize the potential of the materials, and will in many cases lead to
shortened pavement life. Problems such as rutting, cracking or severe
ageing may occur due to poor mix design.

Maintenance
Check and calibrate the loading cell and deflection-measuring device
every 6 months. Clean and lubricate the Marshall test apparatus, Marshall
breaking head and molds to prevent corrosion.

Example:
5 series of 3 parallel test specimens (with varying binder content) have
been prepared for Marshall Mix Design.
The following data for the mix (table 3.19-1) have been measured or
calculated.

Table 23 Eample data, average of three samples

Sample density, voids, voids filled with binder, stability and flow are
presented as functions of binder content as shown in figure 3.19-2.

The procedure from here is to determine the optimum binder content. The
original Marshall procedure determines the optimum binder content as
the average of the following three values:
1. Binder content at maximum stability (5.0% from figure 3.19-2).
2. Binder content at maximum mix density (5.0% from figure 3.19-2).
3. Binder content giving a void content halfway between the
upper and lower requirements for the mix in consideration
(5.1% from figure 3.19-2).

The optimum binder content in this example is 5.0% (the average of the
three above values ).

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TEST NO. 3.19
Ministry of Works

Marshall Mix Design

Notes
If requirements for Marshall stability, flow etc. are not met at this binder
content, one should consider if a slightly higher or lower binder content
would meet the requirements. If not, adjustments to the aggregate grading
or binder stiffness may be required. In this case, a new full mix design may
be required.

7igure 3 Presentation of Marshall Mix Design results

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.20
Ministry of Works

Refusal Density Mix Design

Notes
Objective
The refusal density procedure is used as a supplement to the standard
Marshall mix design procedure. The objective of the refusal density
procedure is to design asphalt mixes which will retain a required minimum
air void content after secondary compaction by traffic.

Main principles
Trial mixtures with varying binder content are subjected to an extended
Marshall compaction. The Marshall compaction is continued until no
further densification of the samples is obtained. This state of maximum
density is called the refusal density. The optimum binder content is
determined as the binder content meeting the normal Marshall
requirements and giving minimum 3% air voids at the refusal density.

An alternative procedure to the extended Marshall compaction called

“Extended Vibrating Hammer Compaction” may also be used. See the
reference document.

References
TRL Overseas Road Note 31, appendix D “Refusal Density Design”.

Required equipment
The same equipment as used for sample preparation in the Marshall test,
see test 3.18.

Test procedure
Initial investigations
Step 1: The normal Marshall mix design procedure using 75 blows
on each face should first be completed to check that Marshall
requirements for the mix are met and to provide input to the
refusal density procedure. See test 3.19. Prepare the graphs as
shown in figure 3.19-2. Do not determine the optimum binder
content for the mix yet.

Refusal density design procedure

Step 2: Determine the binder content corresponding to 6 % air
voids from the Marshall mix design results.

Step 3: Prepare additional Marshall samples at three binder contents,

namely the binder content giving 6 % air voids and at binder
contents which are 0.5 % above and 0.5 % below this value.
These samples must be compacted to their refusal density
(maximum obtainable density using the Marshall
compaction equipment).

Step 4: The number of blows required to produce the refusal density

condition will vary from one mix to another. It is preferable
to conduct a trial using the lowest binder content and
compact

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TEST NO. 3.20
Ministry of Works

Refusal Density Mix Design

Notes
samples using an increasing number of blows, say 200, 300,
400, etc. until no further increase in density occurs. Usually
500 blows to each face is found to be sufficient.

Step 5: Plott a graph of air voids in the mix (at the refusal
density) against binder content.

Step 6: From the plott prepared in step 5, determine the binder

content which will give 3 % air voids at the refusal density.
This value should be determined by interpolation, not by
extrapolation. If necessary, extend the binder content range
upwards or downwards to permit this.

Step 7: Check the results from the Marshall mix design (step 1) to
ensure that the mix at this binder content meets the Marshall
requirements. The final binder content should give a mix
meeting the Marshall requirements and have minimum 3 %
air voids at the refusal density.

Results
Test precision
No precision and bias statement has been prepared for this procedure.

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure.
b) Type and identification of test material.
c) Void content at refusal density for all samples and the
estimated binder content giving 3 % air voids in the mix at
refusal density.
d) Test date.
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure.

Practical considerations
Multi-blow Marshall compaction may cause breakdown of aggregate
particles. If this occurs to a significant extent, this procedure is not likely
to be valid.

There are no national or international standards for this procedure. As

experiences are gained, this procedure is likely to be subjected to further
development.
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TEST NO. 3.20
Ministry of Works

Refusal Density Mix Design

Notes
Example:
From figure 3.19-2, the binder content corresponding to 6% air voids is 4.8
%. According to the refusal density procedure, additional samples have
been prepared at binder contents of 4.3, 4.8 and 5.3 % and compacted to
refusal density. Figure 3.20-1 shows the void content at refusal density
plotted against the binder content.

7igure 4 Void content at refusal density

As can be seen from figure 3.20-1, the binder content at 3% air voids is
4.9%. This is the maximum binder content for the mix. The procedure
from here is to compare this binder content to the results from the
Marshall mix design (figure 3.19-2) and determine a final binder content
where all requirements are met.

The final binder content must meet the regular Marshall requirements for
the mix and have a void content at refusal density of minimum 3%.

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TEST NO. 3.21
Ministry of Works

Indirect Tensile Strength Test

Notes Objective
The test procedure is used to determine the indirect tensile strength and E-
modulus of bituminous mixes. The results can be used to evaluate the
relative quality/strength of materials as well as in pavement design,
evaluation and analysis.

Main principles
A cylindrical test specimen is loaded on two diametrically opposite sides.
This induces a tensile stress in the test specimen. The test is performed
with a constant deformation speed until failure. The maximum load is
recorded and is used to calculate the indirect tensile strength.

References
ASTM D3967
Norwegian Public Roads Administration’s Handbook 014: “Guidelines for
laboratory investigations”, test No. 14.554.

Required equipment
· Testing machine, typically Marshall type test apparatus
(loading speed of 2” / minute)
· An indirect tensile stress loading frame, figure 3.21-1.
· Water bath accurate to 1.0 °C.

The loading frame used consists of two parallel quadratic metal plates, 183
mm apart, held in place by stiff springs and metal rods in each of the four
corners, as shown in Figure 3.21-1.

7igure 5 Typical loading frame for the indirect tensile strength test.

In the middle of each plate is a loading strip. These should be at least be of

the same length as the test specimen height. The width of the loading
strips should be 12.7 mm, with the same curvature as the test specimen.

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.21
Ministry of Works

Indirect Tensile Strength Test

Notes
Test procedure
Preparation of test specimens
The test specimens used in this test can either be core samples taken from
road pavements or made in the laboratory. For further details about pre-
paring test specimens, see test 3.12 and 3.18.
MinimUm 3 samples are reqUired to
determine the indireCt tensile Minimum 3 parallel tests are required to determine the indirect tensile
strength. strength. For core samples with uneven surfaces this should be increased
to a minimum of 5 parallel tests.

Step 1: Prepare test samples. When drilling cores from surface or base
layer made from cold-mixed materials one should keep the use
of water to a minimum, so that the specimens are not
moistened unnecessarily. Before testing, the samples must have
smooth, parallel surfaces. Cutting of core samples is therefor
Preparation of Core samples is reqUired required. The height after cutting should be between 40
before testing.
and 75 mm. The ideal height is in the range 50-60 mm.
Laboratory made samples should in general not be cut.

Step 2: After preparing the test samples, the height should be

measured in 3 places and the diameter in 2 places with a
caliper.

Conditioning
Cold mixes:
Cold mixes mUst be dried before testing.
Step 3A: After cutting the specimens must be dried at room temperature
for 24 hours. The cold mix samples are then placed inside
watertight plastic bags and conditioned in a water bath at 29 °C
for 3-4 hours. The samples must not be in direct contact with
water during conditioning.

Other mixes:
Step 3B: The test specimens are conditioned by placing them directly into
a water bath at 29°C for 30-40 minutes.

Test procedure
Step 4: The specimen is placed in the loading frame. The lateral
surfaces of core samples are often uneven. If this is the case,
a thin rubber tissue should be placed between the test
specimen and the loading strips. Test the sample.
Store the samples after testing to
determine their dry mass. Step 5: Dry the specimens after testing in a heating oven at
approx- imately 110°C. Weigh to the nearest 0.01 g.

The test must be completed within 3 minutes after removing the specimen
from the water bath.
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TEST NO. 3.21
Ministry of Works

Indirect Tensile Strength Test

Notes
Results
Measurements
Maximum load (N) is recorded.

Calculations
The indirect tensile strength is calculated as:
(636.62 x 3 )
max
6W 
(W x ')
where:
St = indirect tensile strength
(kPa) Pmaz = maximum load at
failure (N) t = height of
specimen (mm)
D = diameter of specimen (mm)
The Emod- eqUation has been determined
The material’s E-modulus is calculated using the following equation:
from measUrements of E-modUlUs
and indireCt tensile strength on x
bitUminoUs mixes in Norway.

Calculate the specimen dry bulk density based on registered dry mass and
height/diameter measurements (mass/volume).

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Test date
c) Reference to this procedure
d) Description of any deviations from this procedure
e) Dry bulk density, indirect tensile strength and E-modulus for
each individual test specimen.
f) Average dry bulk density, indirect tensile strength and E-
modulus for all specimens.

Practical considerations
The E-modulus is often used for pavement design purposes. Incorrect
measurements, due to poor measuring routines or sample preparation,
may over- or underestimate the load distribution properties of the
material. This may in the worst cases lead to under-dimensioning of the
pavement structure and cause premature cracking and failure.

Maintenance
Check and calibrate the loading cell and deflection-measuring device every
6 months. Clean and lubricate the test apparatus and breaking head to
prevent corrosion.

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.21
Ministry of Works

Indirect Tensile Strength Test

Notes
Example:
Three laboratory samples have been cored out from an existing pavement
to determine indirect tensile strength and E-modulus for the mix.

Sample dimensions (height and diameter) and measured maximum load at

failure from the indirect tensile test is given in table 3.21-1. The equations
above have been used to calculate the material’s indirect tensile strength
and E-modulus.

Table 24 Calculations of indirect tensile strength and X-modulus.

The material’s indirect tensile strength is: 1369 kPa

The material’s E-modulus: 8453 MPa

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x x

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.22
Ministry of Works

Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate

Grading by Extraction

Notes
Objective
This method is used to determine the binder content in samples from
all types of bituminous materials. The aggregates obtained by this
method may later be sieved to determine the aggregate grading within
the material.

Main principles
The bituminous mix is extracted with trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-
trichloroethane or methylene chloride using an extraction unit similar
to the one shown in figure 3.22-1. The binder content is determined as
the difference in mass, between the original bituminous sample and the
extracted binder-free aggregates, expressed as a percentage of the total
mass.
AlWayS USe SOlVent prOOf glOVeS and Precautionary measures must be taken in all work involving use of
gaS maSkS When WOrking With
SOlVentS.
solvents. Solvent proof gloves and gas masks must be used. Work
involving solvents should be carried out in well-ventilated areas.

References
ASTM D 2172-88 Method B: “Standard Test Methods for Quan-
titative Extraction of Bitumen from Bituminous Paving Materials”.

Norwegian Public Roads Administration’s guidelines for laboratory

investigations, Handbook 014. Test No. 14.5512.

Required equipment
· Suitable solvent (trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane
or methylene chloride)
· Balance with accuracy 0.1g
· Extraction apparatus, see figure 3.22-1.
· Electric hot plate, thermostatically controlled
· Centrifuge with approx. 3500 rotations per minute
· Centrifuge cylinders
· Heating oven
· Water bottle
· Filter paper
· Steel rod for stirring
· Brush
· Large flat pan for splitting or quartering samples
· Heat insulated gloves
· Solvent proof gloves
· Gas masks

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TEST NO. 3.22
Ministry of Works

Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate

Grading by Extraction

Notes

7igure 6 Typical extraction apparatus

Test procedure
A) Extraction of bitumen from hot mixed bituminous materials
Heat Up and Split intO Step 1: Hot mixed bituminous materials that have cooled off, must be
repreSentatiVe SampleS. reheated in a heating oven to obtain a plastic consistency
before splitting or quartering into representative samples if
required.
The temperature in the heating oven should in this case not
exceed the paving temperature for the specific mix.

For AC-mixes, the samples should preferably between 1.0-2.0 kg.

Experience has shown that the sample size must be increased
when extracting coarser mixes such as bituminous base courses.
In some cases, it may be necessary to increase the sample size up
to as much as 4 kg.
PerfOrm tWO parallel extractiOnS.
Two parallel extractions should always be performed.

Step 2: The empty wire cloth basket is weighed to an accuracy of

0.1g. The sample is then placed into the wire cloth basket,
which is weighed again to the nearest 0.1g. The wire cloth
basket, now including the sample, is placed in the extraction
cylinder.
Be caUtiOUS and dO nOt OVerheat. The
SOlVent ShOUld bOil gently. Step 3: Approximately 500 ml of solvent is added and the metal
conden- ser is placed on top. Turn on the water circulation
through the condenser, and place the extraction unit on the
electric hot plate. Adjust the temperature of the hot plate so that
the solvent boils gently and condensed solvent flows through the
wire cloth basket.

Step 4: The time required to complete an extraction will vary with size,
binder and filler content of the sample. To check if the extraction
is complete, remove the basket from the cylinder. Let the
solution drip onto a filter paper. If the extraction process is
completed, a
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CML 3 Asphalt

Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.22
Ministry of Works

Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate

Grading by Extraction

Notes
distinct clear ring is formed around an inner dark center of filler.
If the outer ring is of a brownish color, the extraction process is
not complete. The extraction process should then be continued
until the outer ring becomes clear.

When extracting mixes with high binder and filler contents, the
outer ring may be clear even if the extraction process is not
completed. This is caused by the formation of a core of non-
extracted material within the sample. For these materials,
carefully stir the sample and add some additional solvent on the
sample before dripping on the filter paper. Continue the
extraction process if required.

Dry the aggregateS When the extractiOn iS Step 5: When the extraction is completed, the wire cloth basket
cOmpleted. containing the aggregates is placed in a heating oven at 110°C
for drying. After drying and cooling the aggregates are
weighed (and sieved if aggregate grading is required).

Step 6: After extraction, the solvent in the glass cylinder now

contains the dissolved binder and some filler that has been
washed through the wire cloth. This filler must be cleaned,
dried and weighed to find the total mass of the aggregate
within the sample. A centrifuge is used for this operation.

Transfer the solvent containing binder and filler into centrifuge

cylinders. The cylinders can be filled up to 2/3 full and should
after filling not differ more than maximum 1 g in mass. The
The filler iS Separated frOm the SOlVent centrifuge cylinders must be weighed in advance. The solution
by meanS Of a centrifUge. is centrifuged for 15-20 minutes at 3500 rpm. When completed,
the solvent and binder can be poured out of the centrifuge
cylinders, leaving the filler behind.

To clean the filler completely, the centrifuge procedure must be

repeated several times until the solvent is clear (or slightly
brown at the most) when pouring it from the centrifuge
cylinder. The cleaned filler is dried in a heating oven at 110°C,
cooled and weighed in the centrifuge cylinder.

When calculating the binder content and particle size

distribution, this filler must be included.

Step 7: The binder content is calculated by finding the difference

between initially weighed material and the sum of cleaned
and dried aggregates (including the filler).

B) Extraction of bituminous materials containing water

In cOld mixeS, all traceS Of Water mUSt be Cold mixes may often due to use of emulsions or lack of heating in the
remOVed frOm the Sample befOre mixing process contain some water. The same may also in some rare
extractiOn. cases be for hot mixes if the sampling and extraction analysis is
performed

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TEST NO. 3.22
Ministry of Works

Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate

Grading by Extraction

Notes
immediately after mixing in the hot mix plant (water content of up to 0.2%
may occur).

In cases where recovery of the bitumen is required, determination of water

content and removal of water from the sample must be performed
according to ASTM test method D 1461.

In cases where recovery of bitumen is not required, the entire test

specimen may be dried to constant mass in an oven at 110 ± 5 °C prior to
extraction. By weighing the sample before and after drying in the oven,
water content may also be determined. The sample should be always be
cooled down to room temperature before weighing.

Extraction of mixes containing absorptive aggregates

When abSOrptiVe aggregateS are Bitumen, which has been absorbed into the aggregates, may be very
preSent, a mOdified extractiOn prOcedUre difficult to extract using the normal extraction procedure. This may be a
mUSt be USed tO extract all the bitUmen
and find the cOrrect binder cOntent.
significant source of error in the determination of binder content, even for
moderately absorptive aggregates. Crushing the extracted aggregates in the
laboratory followed by an additional extraction may solve this problem.

The following procedure can be used when absorptive aggregates are

present in the mix. If the types of aggregates in the mix are unknown, a
trial extraction should be performed to determine if adsorptive aggregates
are present and thus choose the final extraction procedure.

Step 1: Perform a normal extraction. Determine visually when bitumen is

no longer extracted from the aggregates. Stop the extraction.

The abSOrbed bitUmen Will in principle alSO Step 2: Determine binder content and aggregate grading according to the
affect the calcUlated aggregate grading. normal procedure. Take care to retain all the aggregates from the
ThiS effect iS hOWeVer Very Small and different sieves after the sieve-analysis.
ShOUld be ignOred.
Step 3: Crush all the aggregates using suitable laboratory equipment.
Take care not to loose any material.

Step 4: Repeat the extraction procedure to determine the amount

of absorbed bitumen.

Step 5: Add the mass of absorbed bitumen to the mass of bitumen

found from the first extraction (step 1). Calculate the final
binder content. See example.

Calculations
Calculate binder content and aggregate grading according to the following
equations:

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Central Materials Laboratory TEST NO. 3.22

Ministry of Works

Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate

Grading by Extraction

Notes
where:
M1 = mass of test specimen
M2 = mass of water in test specimen (if determined according to ASTM
D1461)
MS = mass of extracted mineral aggregate
M4 = mass of mineral filler in the centrifuged extract
x

where:
Msieve = mass of mineral aggregate on the sieve of interest.

See also example of calculations

Test precision
Determination of binder content in two properly conducted tests on the
same batch shall not vary by more than the values given in table 3.22-1.
Note that this test precision data is not valid for the modified extraction
procedure for absorptive aggregates.

Table 3.22-1 Test precision

Acceptable difference between 2 parallel results

One operator Two laboratories
0.52% 0.81%

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Test date
c) Reference to this procedure
d) Test results, individual values and average values to one
decimal point
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Example:
An extraction has been performed to determine binder content and
aggregate grading of an asphalt mix, in this case with absorptive
aggregates. The procedure to determine binder content and aggregate
grading is shown in tables 3.22-2 and 3.22-3 respectively. In the case of
non-absorptive aggregates, the second extraction (absorption) should
not be performed.

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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.22
Ministry of Works

Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate

Grading by Extraction

Notes

Table 26 Calculation of binder content (including absorbed binder)

Table 27 Calculation of aggregate grading

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Central Materials Laboratory TEST NO. 3.23

Ministry of Works

Effect of Water on Bituminous Coated

Aggregate

Notes
Objective
This test method covers a rapid procedure for visually observing the loss
of adhesion in uncompacted bituminous-coated aggregate mixtures due to
the action of boiling water. The test can be used to assess the water
sensitivity of bituminous mixtures and effects of anti-stripping agents.

Main principles
A sample of bituminous mixture is placed into a glass beaker with boiling
water. After a specified period of time, the retained coating on the
aggregates is visually estimated.

References
ASTM D 3625-96 “Effect of Water on Bituminous-Coated Aggregate
Using Boiling Water”.

Required equipment
· Scoop, shovel or similar capable of removing a
representative sample from a larger mass of bituminous
coated aggregates.
· Two heat resistant glass beakers, 1500-2000 ml in size.
· Distilled water.
· Heating source, hot plate or similar.
· Thermometer
· Stop watch

Test procedure
The temperatUre Of hOt-mix SampleS mUSt Preparation of test sample
be belOW the bOiling temperatUre Of Water Step 1: Prepare an uncompacted bituminous-coated aggregate
and abOVe 85˚C befOre placing in the
bOiling Water. COld mixeS Shall be at Or mixture, approximately 500 grams, following established
abOVe rOOm temperatUre. laboratory procedures. See test 3.12. Alternatively, obtain a
sample of plant-produced mixture, approximately 500 grams,
using a scoop or similar.

Step 2: Split the 500-gram sample into two 250 gram samples.

Procedure
Step 3: Pour distilled water into a glass beaker such that the container
is approximately half full and heat to boiling.
AVOid manipUlatiOn Of the mix dUring
handling after bOiling Step 4: Place the sample into the boiling water while the container is
exposed to the heat source. Bring the water back to boiling
and maintain boiling for 10 min ± 15 seconds. Avoid
excessive manipulation of the mix during handling.

Step 5: After the 10-minute period, remove the container from the
heat source.

Step 6: Skim off any free bitumen from the surface of the water. Cool to
room temperature, decant the water and empty the wet mix
onto a white paper towel.
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Central Materials Laboratory

TEST NO. 3.23
Ministry of Works

Effect of Water on Bituminous Coated

Aggregate

Notes
Step 7: For comparison, place a similar amount of fresh bituminous
material into the second beaker and fill with unheated water.
After a period of 10 minutes, decant the water and empty the
wet mix onto a white paper towel
EStimate the cOated area in percent Step 8: Visually observe the aggregates (coarse and fine) for retained
immediately after the Sample iS placed On
the White tOWel.
bitumen. Determine the coated area in percent. Any thin
brownish, translucent areas shall be considered as fully coated.
Make the visual observation immediately after the sample is
placed on the white towel. Light and low magnification may
aid in the observation

Results
Measurements
Report the estimated coated area in percent

Test precision
No precision and bias statement has been developed for this test.

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Reference to this procedure
b) Type and identification of the test material
c) Estimated coated area
d) Test date
e) Description of any deviations from this procedure

Practical considerations
The teSt iS USefUl tO identify pOSSible This test method is useful as an indicator of the relative water
prOblem materialS bUt can nOt be
expected tO accUrately predict field susceptibility of bituminous-coated aggregates and to identify possible
perfOrmance problem materials. However the test method can not be expected to
accurately predict field performance as no such correlation has been
established.

Maintenance
Clean all equipment used.

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June 2000
ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 3 - 1