A STUDY OF

GROUP THEORY

A Dissertation Submitted to DR. B R AMBEDKAR UNIVERSITY, AGRA

For the partial fulfillment of the requirement of the
Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
MATHEMATICS
(2023-2025)

SUPERVISOR SUBMITTED BY
HIMANSHU VERMA
ROLL.NO. 2403300530003

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
SRI BABULAL MAHAVIDHYALAYA, GOVERDHAN, MATHURA
DR. B R AMBEDKAR UNIVERSITY, AGRA
 SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATE

I hereby that the project work entitled “GROUP THEORY”

submitted to the Sri Babulal Mahavidhyalaya, Mathura affiliated
to Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Agra is a record of an
original work done by me under guidance
department of mathematics Sri Babulal Mahavidhyalaya,
Mathura and this project work submitted by partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the award of the degree of Master Of
Science in Mathematics.

(SUPERVISOR) HIMANSHU VERMA

M.Sc. Previous(Math)
 INDEX
Introduction............................................................................. 1
Review of Literature.................................................................. 3
Main Contents.......................................................................... 4-42
Group........................................................................................ 4-14
• Definition............................................................................. 4
• Example................................................................................ 5
• Some General properties of group....................................... 8
• Addition modulo, Multiplication modulo............................. 10
• Permutation.......................................................................... 13
• Order of elements of a group............................................... 14
Cosets........................................................................................ 15
• Properties............................................................................. 18
Homomorphism and Isomorphism of group............................... 20
• Group Automorphism........................................................... 22
• Inner Automorphism............................................................. 25
• Outer Automorphism............................................................. 25
Lagrange’s Theorem..................................................................... 26
Cayley's theorem......................................................................... 27
Cyclic group...................................................................................... 29
• Properties of cyclic group ...................................................... 31
Subgroup..................................................................................... 32
• Normal subgroup................................................................... 32
• Simple group.......................................................................... 35
Quotient group............................................................................ 36
• Properties of quotient group................................................. 37

iv
 • Kernel of homomorphism.................................................. 40
Sylow theorem …....................................................................... 42
Conclusion................................................................................... 47
References................................................................................... 46
Bibliography................................................................................. 47

v
INTRODUCTION

The group theory is the most crucial ingredient in the present day of science,
mathematics, statistics and computer science. It was ascertained in the
nineteenth century in association with delivering solutions for algebraic
expressions.

In particular, the group was the set of all the permutations of the roots of an
algebraic expression that exhibits the characteristics that the combination of any
two of these permutations belongs to the set.

And later on, the belief was made generalized to the notion of an abstract group.
However, an abstract group is the study of a set, with an operation defined on it.

Binary operation on a set : Let G be a non empty set then G × G = {( a,b) : a

∈ G, b ∈ G}. If f : G×G→ G, then f is said to be a binary operation on the set G . The
image of the ordered pair ( a,b ) under the function f is denoted by a f b. often we
use symbol + ,× , . Etc. to denoted binary operations on a set. Thus ‘ + ‘ will be a
binary operations on G iff
a+ b ∈ G ∀ a, b ∈ G and a + b is unique .
Similarily ‘∗’ will be a binary operation on G iff
a ∗ b∈ G ∀ a, b ∈ G and a ∗b is unique.
A binary operation on a set G is sometimes also called binary composition in the
set G. if ‘*’ is a binary composition in G, then a * b ∈ G ∀ a,b ∈ G . Therefore G is
closed with respect to the composition denoted by *.

1
Algebraic Structure : A non empty set G equipped with one or more binary
operations is calleed an algebraic structure. Suppose * is a binary operation on G.
then ( G, * ) is an algebraic structure.
( N, + ) , ( I ,+ ) , ( I , - ) , ( R , + , . ) are all algebraic structure. Obviously addition
and multiplication are both binary operations on the set R of real number .
Therefore ( R, + ,. ) is an algebraic structure equipped with two operation.

Semi Group
A non-empty set S, (S,*) is called a semigroup if it follows the following axiom:
• Closure:(a*b) belongs to S for all a, b ? S.
• Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ? a, b ,c belongs to S.

Note: A semi-group is always an algebraic structure.

Example: (Set of integers, +), and (Matrix ,*) are examples of semigroup.

Monoid
A non-empty set S, (S,*) is called a monoid if it follows the following axiom:

• Closure:(a*b) belongs to S for all a, b ? S.

• Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ? a, b, c belongs to S.
• Identity Element: There exists e ? S such that a*e = e*a = a ? a ? S

Note: A monoid is always a semi-group and algebraic structure.

2
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

• Basic Concepts: Introductions to groups, subgroups, group operations,

homomorphisms, isomorphisms, and group classification.
• Finite Groups: Literature exploring finite groups, their properties, and
classifications. Important results such as Lagrange's theorem, Sylow
theorems, and the classification of finite simple groups.
• Symmetry Groups: Application of group theory in understanding
symmetries, especially in geometry, crystallography, and physics (e.g., the
study of molecular symmetry).
• Representation Theory: Focuses on representing groups via linear
transformations, with applications in quantum mechanics, particle physics,
and other fields.
• Group Rings and Modules: Exploration of groups in the context of ring
theory and modules, studying their interactions and properties.
• Geometric Group Theory: Investigates groups through geometric objects
and spaces, linking group theory with topology and geometry.
• Combinatorial Group Theory: Concerned with the algebraic and
combinatorial properties of groups, often focusing on group presentations,
word problems, and algorithmic aspects.
• Infinite Groups: Studies infinite groups, their structures, and properties.
Includes free groups, solvable groups, finitely generated groups, etc.
• Applications in Cryptography: Utilizing group theory for cryptographic
protocols, such as in public-key cryptography (e.g., DiffieHellman key
exchange)

3
 GROUP

Definitions and examples

DEFINITION . A group is a set G together with a binary operation .
( a,b ) → a ∗ b : G × G → G
satisfying the following conditions:
G1: ( closure ) for all , a∗b∈ G ∀ a,b ∈ G
G2: (associativity) for all a, b, c ∈ G,
(a ∗ b)∗c = a (b∗c) ;
G3: (existence of a neutral element) there exists an element e ∈ G such that
(a ∗e) =a = e ∗a (1)
for all a∈ G;
G4: (existence of inverses) for each a ∈ G, there exists an a’∈ G such that
a∗ a’ = e =a’ ∗a:
We usually abbreviate (G, ∗) to G. Also,
we usually write ab for a∗ b and 1 for e; alternatively, we write a + b for a∗ b and 0
for e. In the first case, the group is said to be multiplicative, and in the second, it
is said to be additive.

Abelian group or commutative group

A group G is to be abelian or commutative if in addition to the above four
postulates the following postulate is also satisfied.
G5 : Commutativity for all ab =ba ∀ a,b ∈ G .

4
 Must satisfy properties

Algebraic Closure Property

Structure
Semi group Closure, Associative

Monoid Closure, Associative, Identity

Group Closure, Associative, Identity, Inverse

Abelian Group Closure, Associative, Identity, Inverse, Commutative.

Finite and infinite group

If in a group G the underlying set G consists of a finite number of distinct
elements then the group is called a finite group , otherwise an infinite group .

Order of a finite group

The number of elements in a finite group is called order of the group. An infinite
group is said to be of infinite order.
We shall denoted the order of a group G by the symbol o ( G ).

Examples
1. Show that the set I of all integers (…, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…}.
Is a group with respect to the operation of addition of integers?
1) Closure Property:
2+2 = 4;
2-2=0;
6+4=10’
4-6=-2;

5
We know that addition of two integers is also in integer.
i.e, a + b ∈ I, ∀ a, b ∈ I
2) Associative Property:
2+(4+6)=(2+4)+6;
2+(4-6)=(2-6)+4;
We know that addition of integer is an associative composition.
i.e, a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c, ∀ a, b, c ∈ I
3) Existence of Identity:
0+2=2+0;
0-2=-2+0;
Therefore there an element exist in given integer set which leaves no effect on
operation.
O is an additive identity.
i.e, a+0=0+a, ∀ a ∈ I
4) Existence of Inverse:
2-2=0=-2+2;
3-3=0=-3+3;
Inverse of elements also exist in given group.
i.e, a + (-a) = 0 = (-a) + a, ∀ a ∈ I
Set ‘I’ have all the properties which a group have.
Hence I is a group with respect to addition.

2.The set N of all natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5… does not form a group with
respect to multiplication or addition but it forms a semi group with respect to
the addition as well as multiplication.
Solution
Here the given set is set N of all natural numbers
N = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5….}

CHECKING UNDER ADDITION

6
Closure property
Clearly for a , b ∈ N we have a + b ∈ N

Associative property
a + ( b + c ) = ( a + b ) + c for every a , b, c ∈ N
Hence N is a semi group under addition

Existence if identity
0 is the identity element such that
0 + a = a + 0 = a for every a ∈ N

Existence of inverse element

Let a ∈ N then - a ∈ N such that
a+(-a)=0=(-a)+a
So - a is the inverse element of a
Hence ( N , + ) is a group

CHECKING UNDER MULTIPLICATION

Closure property
Clearly for a , b ∈ N we have a. b ∈ N
So N is closed under multiplication

Associative property
a . ( b . c ) = ( a . b ) . c for every a , b, c ∈ N
Hence N is a semi group under multiplication
7
Existence of identity
1 is the identity element such that
1 . a = a . 1 = a for every a ∈ N

Existence of inverse element

Every element of N does not have the inverse element in N
For example 3 ∈ N does not have inverse element

Hence ( N , . ) is not a group.

Some general properties of Groups

Axiom 1: If G is a group that has a and b as its elements, such that a, b ∈ G, then
(a × b)-1 = a-1 × b-1
Proof:
To prove: (a × b) × a-1 × b-1 = I, where I is the identity element of G.
L.H.S = (a × b) × a-1 × b-1
=> a × (b × b-1) × a-1
=> a × I × a-1(by associative axiom)
=> (a × I) × a-1(by identity axiom)
= a × a-1 (by identity axiom)
= I (by identity axiom)
= R.H.S
Hence, proved.

8
Axiom 2: If in a group G, ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’ are three elements such that x × y = z × y,
then x = z.
Proof: Let us assume that x × y = z × y. (i)
As 'y' is a member of group G, it follows that there must be some 'a' in G with
identity element I, as follows:
y × a = I (ii)
On multiplying both sides of (i) by ‘a’ we get,
x×y×a=z×y×a
x × (y × a) = z × (y × a) (by associativity)
From eq.(ii);
a × I = c × I [using (ii)]
a = c (by identity axiom)
This is often referred to as the cancellation law.
Hence, proved.

Axiom 3: Uniqueness of identity. The identity element in a group is unique .

Proof: Suppose e and e’ are two identity elements of a group G .
We have
ee' = e if e’ is identity
And ee’ = e’ if e is identity.
But ee’ is a unique element of G.
Therefore ee’ = e and ee’ = e’ ⇒ e= e’.
Hence the identity elements is unique .

9
Axiom 4. Uniqueness of inverse. The inverse of each element of a group is
unique.
Proof. Let a be any element of a group g and let e be the identity element.
Suppose b and c are two inverses of a i.e.,
Ba = e = ab and ca = e =a
We have b(ac) = be [ ∵ ac = e ]
= b. [ ∵ e is identity ]
Also (ba)c = ec [ ∵ ba = e ]
=c. [ ∵ e is identity ]
But in a group composition is associative . Therefore b(ac) = (ba)c. Hence b= c

Addition modulo m

Now here we are going to discuss a new type of addition, which is known as
“addition modulo m” and written in the form a+ mb, where a and b belong to an
integer and m is any fixed positive integer.
By definition we have
a+mb=r, for 0⩽r<m
Here r is the least non-negative remainder when a+b, i.e., the ordinary addition of
a and b is divided by m.
For example, 5+63=25 since 5+3=8=1(6)+2, i.e., it is the least non-negative
reminder when 5+3 is divisible by 6.
Thus to find a+mb, we add a and b in the ordinary way and then from the sum, we
remove integral multiples of m in such a way that the remainder r is either 0 or a
positive integer less than m.

10
When a and b are two integers such that a–b is divisible by a fixed positive integer
m, then we have a ≡ b(mod m). This is read as a is concurrent to b (mod m).
Thus a ≡ b (mod m ) if and only if a-b divisible by m . For example 13 ≡ 3 ( mod 5 )
since 13 – 3 = 10 is divisible by 5 , 5 ≡ 5 ( mod 5 ) , 16 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ),
-20 ≡ 4 ( mod 6)
It can be easily seen that if a ≡ b ( mod m ) , then a + mc = b + mc.
For a ≡ b ( mod m ) ⇒ a-b is divisible by m
⇒ a-b = km for some integers k
⇒ a = b=km .
Now a + mc = ( b + km ) + mc.
= least non negative remainder when ( b + km ) + c is divided by m
= least non negative remainder when b + c is divided by m
= b +mc.

Multiplication modulo p

Now here we are going to define another new type of multiplication, which is
known as “multiplication modulo p.” It can be written as a × pb, where a and b are
any integers and p is a fixed positive integer.
a × pb=r, for 0 ⩽ r ⩽ p
Here r is the least non-negative remainder when ab, i.e. the ordinary product of a
and b, is divided by p. For example 4 × 72 = 1 , since 4 ×2 = 8 = 1 (7) + 1.
Example 1. prove that the set G = { 1,2,3,4, 5, 6 } is a finite abelian group of order
6 with respect to multiplication modulo 7 .
Solution . Let us form the composition table:

11
 ×7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1

We see that all the entries in the composition table are elements of the set G.
therefore G is closed with respect to multiplication modulo 7. that is ×7.
The compositions ×7 is associative . If a, b, c are any three elements of G, Then
a ×7 (b×7c)= a ×7 ( bc)
= least non negative remainder when a (bc) is divided by 7.
= least non negative remainder when (ab ) c is divided by 7 .
= (ab) ×7c = (a ×7 b) ×7c
Existence of identity . We have 1 ∈ G.if a is any element of G, then from the
composition table we see that 1×7a =a =a ×7 1.
∴ 1 is the identity element.
Existence of inverse. From the table we see that inverse of 1,2,3,4,5,6 are
1,4,5,2,3,6 respectively. For example 3 × 7 5 = 1= 5 ×7 3 implies 3 is the inverse of
5.
The composition is commutative as the corresponding row and column in the
composition table are identical .
The set G has 6 elements . Hence ( G, × 7 ) is a finite abelian group of order 6.

12
Permutation

Definition: Suppose S is a finite set having n distinct elements. Then a one-one

mapping of S onto itself is called a permutation of degree n.
The number of elements in the finite set S is known as the degree of permutation.

Symbol for a permutation . Let S = { a1,a2,a3,….......an } be a finite set having n

distinct elements .if f : S S and f is one one , onto, then f is a permutation of
degree nn. Let f ( a1 ) = b1 , f ( a2 ) = b2 ,…......,f ( an ) = bn, where { b1, b2, …., bn}={
a1, a2, …....., an} I.e is b1, b2 …...... bn is nothing but some arrangement of the n
elements of S . We find it conveninent to introduce a two line notation to write
this permutation . In this notation , we write

Each element in the second row is the f – image of the elements of the first row
lying directly above it,
If S = { 1,2,3,4} is a finite set having four elements , then

Are all permutations of degree 4 . Here in the permutation f the elements 1,2,3,4
have been repalced respectively by the elements 2,4,1,3. Thus f(1) = 2 , f(2) = 4 ,
f(3) = 1, f(4)= 3. In other words each elements in the first row is to be replaced by
the elements directly below in the second row.

13
Order of an elements of a group

Definition
Suppose G is a group and the composition has been denoted multiplicatively . By
the order of an element a G is meant the least positive integers n , if one exists,
such that
an = e ( the identity of G )
If there exits no positive integers n such that an = e , then we say that a is of
infinite order or of zero order .
We shall use the symbol o (a) to denoted the order of a .
In additive notation be use the words na = e in place of a n = e .
Important . If there exists a positive integers m such that a m =e . Then the order
of a is definitely finite . Also we must have o (a) ≤m.
When am =e , the the question of order of a being greater than m does not arise.
At the most it can be equal to m . If m itself is the least positive integers such that
am = e , then we will have
O (a) = m
In any group in identity element e is always of order 1 and it is only element of
order 1.
We have e 1 = e ⇒ o(e) = 1 . Also if o (a) = 1 , then a1 =a = e.

14
Coset
Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G.
Define a left coset of H with representative g∈G∈ to be the set
gH ={gh: h∈H}.
Right cosets can be defined similarly by
Hg = {hg: h∈H}.
If left and right cosets coincide or if it is clear from the context to which type of
coset that we are referring, we will use the word coset without specifying left or
right.
Examples
1. Let H be the subgroup of Z6 consisting of the elements 0 and 3.
Solution
The cosets are
0+H=3+H={0,3}
1+H=4+H={1,4}
2+H=5+H={2,5} .
We will always write the cosets of subgroups of Z and Zn with the additive
notation we have used for cosets here. In a commutative group, left and right
cosets are always identical.

2. Let H be the subgroup of S3 defined by the permutations {(1),(123),(132)}. The

left cosets of H are
(1)H = (123) H=(132) H= {(1),(123),(132)}
(12)H = (13)H = (23)H = {(12),(13),(23)}.

15
The right cosets of H are exactly the same as the left cosets:
H(1) = H(123) = H(132) = {(1),(123),(132)}
H(12) = H(13) = H(23) = {(12),(13),(23)}.

Solution
It is not always the case that a left coset is the same as a right coset. Let K be the
subgroup of S3 defined by the permutations {(1),(12)}.{(1),(12)}. Then the left
cosets of K are
(1)K = (12)K = {(1),(12)}
(13)K = (123)K = {(13),(123)}
(23)K = (132)K = {(23),(132)}
however, the right cosets of K are
K(1) = K(12) = {(1),(12)}
K(13) = K(132) = {(13),(132)}
K(23) = K(123) = {(23),(123)}.

Lemma
Let H be a subgroup of a group G and suppose that g1,g2∈G. The following
conditions are equivalent.
1. g1H=g2H;
2. Hg1-1=Hg2-1;
3. g1H⊂g2H;
4. g2∈g1H;
5. g1-1g2∈H.

Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the left cosets of H in G partition G.. That
is, the group G is the disjoint union of the left cosets of H in G.
Proof

Let g1H and g2H be two cosets of H in G.

16
We must show that either g1H ∩ g2H = ∅ or g1H = g2H.
Suppose that g1H ∩ g2H ≠ ∅ and a ∈ g1H ∩ g2H.
Then by the definition of a left coset, a=g1h1=g2h2 for some elements h1 and h2 in
H. Hence, g1=g2h2h1-1or g1∈g2H.
By Lemma , g1H=g2H.

Theorem: If G is an abelian group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then aH = Ha.

Proof: Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑎. Then x = ha for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
As ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ ∈ 𝐺. Again, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and G is abelian, ha = ah
⇒ x = ah for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎 𝐻.
Thus, Ha ⊆ 𝑎𝐻
Similarly, if 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻. Then x = ah for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
As ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ ∈ 𝐺. Again, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and G is abelian,
we have, ah = ha ⇒ x = ha for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑎. Thus, aH ⊆ 𝐻𝑎. Hence, a H = Ha.

Theorem: If H is a subgroup of G and a, b ∈ 𝐺, then

I) Ha = H if and only if a ∈ 𝐻
II) Ha = Hb if only if 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
Proof:
(i) Firstly, suppose Ha = H.
As H is subgroup of G, so 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻
Thus, 𝑒𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.
Hence, Ha = H ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.
Conversely, suppose 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻. To prove Ha = H.
17
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 = ℎ𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
Now, ℎ, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻.
This shows that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝐻𝑎 ⊆ 𝐻. …..……(eq. 1)
Now, take 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻. 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑥𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐻. ⇒ (𝑎 −1 )𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥(𝑎 −1𝑎) ∈ 𝐻𝑎
⇒ 𝑥. 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑎
This proves that if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻𝑎. ……..(eq. 2)
From eq. (1) & (2), we have Ha = H.
( ii ) Firstly, suppose Ha = Hb.
Now 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻, as H is a subgroup of G ⇒ 𝑒𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎
⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑏, since Ha = Hb
⇒ 𝑎 = ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 = (ℎ𝑏)𝑏 −1 = ℎ(𝑏𝑏 −1 ) = ℎ 𝑒 = ℎ
Thus, 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Conversely, suppose 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Therefore, 𝑎𝑏 −1 = ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
⇒ (𝑎𝑏 −1 )𝑏 = ℎ𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎(𝑏 −1𝑏) = ℎ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = ℎ𝑏.
Thus, Ha = H (hb) = (Hh)b = Hb.

Properties of cosets
Let G be a group and H be its subgroup. The following are a few properties of left
cosets and right cosets.
1. For h ∈ H, the corresponding left (or right) coset is H, that is, hH=H=Hh.

18
2. H itself a left coset (or a right coset).

3. For h ∉ H, the coset hH and H are distinct.

4. Two cosets are either identical or disjoint.

5. Any two left (or right) cosets have the same cardinality.

6. For a fixed subgroup H of G, the left cosets form a partition of G.

7. Normal subgroups are defined using the concept of cosets. For a normal
subgroup N of G, the set of all left cosets of N in G form a group, called the
quotient group and it is denoted by G/N.

19
Homomorphism and Isomorphism of Group

Homomorphism of groups :
Let (G,o) & (G’,o’) be 2 groups, a mapping “f ” from a group (G,o) to a group (G’,o’)
is said to be a homomorphism if –
f(aob) = f(a) o' f(b) ∀ a,b ∈ G
The essential point here is : The mapping f : G –> G’ may neither be a one-one nor
onto mapping, i.e, ‘f’ needs not to be bijective.

Example –

If (R,+) is a group of all real numbers under the operation ‘+’ & (R -{0},*) is another
group of non-zero real numbers under the operation ‘*’ (Multiplication) & f is a
mapping from (R,+) to (R -{0},*), defined as : f(a) = 2a ; ∀ a ∈ R
Then f is a homomorphism like – f(a+b) = 2a+b = 2a * 2b = f(a).f(b) .
So the rule of homomorphism is satisfied & hence f is a homomorphism.

Homomorphism Into –
A mapping ‘f’, that is homomorphism & also Into.
Homomorphism Onto –
A mapping ‘f’, that is homomorphism & also onto.

Isomorphism of Group :
Let (G,o) & (G’,o’) be 2 groups, a mapping “f ” from a group (G,o) to a group (G’,o’)
is said to be an isomorphism if –
1. f(aob) = f(a) o' f(b) ∀ a,b ∈ G
2. f is a one- one mapping
3. f is an onto mapping.

20
If ‘f’ is an isomorphic mapping, (G,o) will be isomorphic to the group (G’,o’) & we
write :
G ≅ G'
Note : A mapping f: X -> Y is called :

1. One – One – If x1 ≠x2, then f(x1) ≠ f(x2) or if f(x1) = f(x2) => x1 = x2. Where
x1,x2 ∈ X
2. Onto – If every element in the set Y is the f-image of at least one
element of set X.
3. Bijective – If it is one & Onto.

Example of Isomorphism Group –

1. If G is the multiplicative group of 3 cube-root units , i.e., (G,o) = ( {1, w, w2 }

, *) where w3 = 1 & G’ is an additive group of integers modulo 3 – (G’, o’) =
( {1,2,3) , +3). Then : G ≅ G’ , we say G is isomorphic to G’.
+3 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 2 0
2 2 0 1

*3 1 w w2
1 1 w w2
w w w2 1
w2 w2 1 w
• The structure & order of both the tables are same. The mapping ‘f’ is
defined as :
f : G -> G’ in such a way that f(1) = 0 , f(w) = 1 & f(w 2) = 2.
• Homomorphism property : f(aob) = f(a) o’ f(b) ∀ a,b ∈ G . Let us take a = w
&b=1
LHS : f(a * b) = f( w * 1 ) = f(w) = 1.

21
 RHS : f(a) +3 f(b) = f(w) +3 f(1) = 1 + 0 = 1
=>LHS = RHS
• This mapping f is one-one & onto also, therefore, a homomorphism.

2. f(x)=log(x) for groups (R+,*) and (R,+) is a group isomorphism.

Explanation –
• f(x)=f(y) => log(x)=log(y) => x=y , so f is one-one.
• f(R+) = R, so f is onto.
• f(x*y)=log(x*y)=log(x)+log(y)=f(x)+f(y) , so f is a homomorphism.

NOTE :
1. If there is a Homomorphism f form groups (G,*) to (H,+) . Then f is also a
Isomorphism if and only if Ker(f)={e} .Here e is the identity of (G,*).
Also, Ker(f) = Kernel of a homeomorphism f :(G,*) → (H,+) is a set of all the
elements in G such that an image of all these elements in H is the identity
element e’ of (H,+) .
2. If two groups are isomorphic, then both will be abelians or both will not be.
Remember a group is Abelian if it is commutative.
3. A set of isomorphic group form an equivalence class and they have identical
structure and said to be abstractly identical.

Group Automorphism

For a group (G,+), a mapping f : G → G is called automorphism if

• f is one-one.
• f homomorphic i.e. f(a +b) = f(a) + f(b) ∀ a, b ∈ G.

NOTE :
1. A set of all the automorphisms( functions ) of a group, with a composite of
functions as binary operations forms a group.

22
 2. Simply, an isomorphism is also called automorphism if both domain and
range are equal.
3. If f is an automorphism of group (G,+), then (G,+) is an Abelian group.
4. Identity mapping as we see, in example, is an automorphism over a group is
called trivial automorphism and other non-trivial.
5. Automorphism can be divided into inner and outer automorphism.

Example. Show that a → a-1 is an automorphism of a group iff G is abelian .

Solution. Let f : G → G be such that f(x) = x –1 ∀ x ∈ G .

The function f is one one because
f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x-1= y-1⇒ (x-1 ) -1 = (y-1)-1⇒ x= y.
Also if x ∈ G , then x-1 ∈ G and we have f(x-1 ) =( x-1)-1= x .

∴ f is onto
Suppose G is abelian. Let a,b any two elements of G .
Then f(ab) = (ab)-1
= b-1 a-1
= a-1 b-1
= f (a)f(b)
∴ f is an automorphism of G.

Conversely suppose that f is an automorphism of G.

Let a,b ∈ G .
We have f(ab) = (ab) -1
= b-1 a-1 = f(b)f(a)
= f(ab)
Since f is one- one , Therefore
f(ab) = f(ba)⇒ ab= ba⇒ G is abelian.

Group of automorphism of a group

Theorem : The set of all automorphisms of a group forms a group with respect
to composite of function as the composition
23
Proof :-
Suppose A (G) be the set of all automorphism of a group G.
Then A (G) = {f: f is an automorphism of G}.
Now, we have to show that A (G) is a group with respect to composite of function
as composition. For this, we prove the followings:-
i. Closure property: suppose f, g ∈ A (G). Then f, g are one one mapping of G onto
itself. So gf is also a one-one mapping of G onto itself.
Suppose a, b be any two elements ∈G. Then we have
gf (ab) = g {f (ab)} = g[f(a)f(b)]; since f is automorphism
= g [f (a)] g[f(b)]; g is an isomorphism
= [gf (a)] [gf(b)].
So, gf is also an automorphism of G.
Thus A (G) is closed w.r.t composite mapping.
2. Associative Property: As we know that composite of any arbitrary mappings f,
g, h are associative therefore composite of automorphism is also associative.

3. Existence of identity: The identity function I on G is clearly one-one and if a, b ϵ

G, there I (ab)=ab=I (a) I (b).
Therefore I on G is also an automorphism of G.
This Iϵ A (G) and if f ϵ A (G), the if =f=f I.

4. Existence of inverse: Let f ϵ A (G).

Since f is a 1-1 mapping of G onto itself, therefore f −1 is also 1-1 mapping of G
onto itself
Now, we prove that f −1 is also an automorphism of G.
Let, a, b ϵG2 (Second group). Then there exists

24
a ′ , b ′ ϵ G1 (first group) such that
f −1 (a)=a' and f −1 (b)=b'
Now, f −1 (a) = a ′ ⇒ f (a ′ ) = a and f −1 (b) = b ′ ⇒ f(b ′ ) = b
We have f −1 (ab) = f −1 f(a ′ ) f (b ′ )
= f −1 f (a ′b ′ ) ;f is an isomorphism
= a' b' = f −1 (a)f −1 (b).
Therefore f −1 is an automorphism of G and thus f ϵ A (G). So, each element A (G)
possesses inverse.
So, A (G) is a group w.r.t composite f n .

Inner automorphism
If G is a group , the mapping
fa : G → G defined by fa(x) = a-1xa , ∀ x ∈ G.
Is an automorphism of G known as inner automorphism.
Also an automorphism which is not inner is called inner is called an outer
automorphism.

25
Lagrange’s Theorem
The order of each subgroup of finite group is a divisor of the order of the group .
Proof.
Let G be a group of finite order n.
Let H be a subgroup of G and let o ( H) = m. suppose h1, h2, …..., hm are the m
members of H .
Let a∈ G . Then Ha is right cosets of H in G and be have
Ha = { h1a, h2a, …........, hma}.
Ha has m distinct members, since hia = hja ⇒ hi = hj.
Therefore each right cosets of H in G has m distinct members. Any two distinct
right cosets of H in G are disjiont that is they have no element in common.
Since G is a finite group, the number of distinct right cosets of H in G will be finite,
say,equal to k . The union of these k distinct right cosets of H in G is equal to G.
Thus if
Ha1, Ha2, ....................Hak
Are the k distinct right cosets of H in G , then
G = Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ …....................∪ Hak
⇒ The numbers of elements in G = The numbers of elements in Ha 1 + the
numbers of elements in Ha2+............................+The numbers of elements in Hak.
⇒ O (G ) = km= n = km
⇒ K = n\m ⇒ m is divisor of n
⇒ O (H) is a divisor of o (G).
Hence the theorem.

26
Cayley’s theorem
Every group is isomorphic to a permutation group.

Proof : Let G be a finite group of order . If a∈G then ∀ x ∈G, ax∈G.

Now consider a function from G into G , defined by

fa(x) ax ∀ x∈ G
For x,y ∈G,fa(x) = fa(y)⇒ ax = ay ⇒ x=y
Therefore, the function fa is one-one.
The function fa is also onto because if x is any element of then there exists an
element a–1x such that

fa(a–1x) = a(a–1x)=(aa–1)x = ex =x
Thus fa is one-one from G onto G. Therefore, fa is a permutation on G.
Let G′′ denote the set of all such one-to-one functions defined on G
corresponding to every element of G, i.e.
G′={fa: a∈G}
Now, we show that G′ is a group with respect to the product of functions.
(i) Closure Axiom: Let fa, fb ∈ G′
Where a,b∈G , then

(fa∘fb)x=fa [fb(x)] =f a(bx )= a(bx)

=(ab)x
=fab(x) ∀x ∈ G
Since ab ∈G therefore fab ∈ G′ and thus G′ is closed under the product of functions.

(ii) Associative Axiom:

27
Let fa,fb,fc ∈ G′ where a,b,c ∈ G, then

fa∘(fb∘fc)=fa∘fbc
= fa(bc)
= f(ab)c
=fab∘fc= (fa∘fb)∘fc
The product of functions is associative in G′.

(iii) Identity Axiom:

If e is the identity element in G, then fe is the identity of G′ because ∀ fx ∈ G′

we have fe∘fx = fex = fx
and fx∘fe=fxe=fx.
(iv) Inverse Element:

If a–1 is the inverse of a in G, then fa–1 is the inverse of fa in G′ because

fa–1∘fa = fa–1a=fe and fa∘fa–1=faa–1=fe.
Hence G′ is a group with respect to the composite of functions denoted by the
symbol ∘.
Now consider the function g and G into G′ defined by g(a) = fa ∀ a∈G.
G is one-one because for a,b∈G.

g(a) = g(b)⇒fa = fb ⇒ fa(x) = fb(x)

⇒ax = bx ⇒ a = b,∀ x ∈ G
G is onto because if fa ∈ G′ then for a ∈ G, we have g(a)=fa
g preserves composition in G and G′ because if a,b ∈ G then

28
 g(ab) = fab = fa∘fb = g (a)∘g (b)
Hence G≅G’ .

Cyclic Group
Definition : A group G is called cyclic if for some a G, every element x G is of the
form an, where n is some integers . The element a is then called a generator of G.
There may be more than one generator of a cyclic group . If G is a cyclic group
generator by a, then we shall write G = {a} or G = (a).
The elements of G will be of the form
….....,a-3, a-2, a-1, a0, e, a, a2, a3, .......
Of course they are not necessarily all distinct.

Examples
1. The multiplicative group G = { 1, -1, i, -i } is cyclic . We can write
G = { i, i2, i3, i4}. Thus G is a cyclic group and I is a generator . Also we can write
G { -i , (-i)2, ( i )3, (i)4 } .
Thus -i is also a generator of G.
2. The multiplicative group {1, w, w2} formed by the cube roots of unity is a
cyclic group.
Sol. Let G be the group of cube roots of unity under multiplication.
∴ G = {1, w, w2}.
Here, 1 = w3, therefore each element of G is an integral power of w.
∴ G is cyclic group generated by w.
i.e., G = <w>
3. The group G = {(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), +6} is a cyclic group under the operation
addition congruence modulo 6.

29
Sol. Since 1 = 1(1)
2 = 1 +6 1 = 2(1)
3 = 1 +6 1 +6 1 = 3(1)
4 = 1 +6 1 +6 1 +6 1 = 4(1)
5 = 1 +6 1 +6 1 +6 1 +6 1 = 5(1)
0 = 1 +6 1 +6 1 +6 1 +6 1 +6 1 = 6(1)
∴ Every element n of G can be written as
n = n(1).
∴ G = <1>
i.e., G is a cyclic group.

Note: Here G is also generated by 5, i.e., G = <5>.

∴ A group may have more than one generators.

Theorem :- Every cyclic group is an abelian group.

Proof. Suppose G is a cyclic group that is generated by a.
Let’s take two elements x & y ∈ G.
Suppose, x = am & y = an for some integers m, n.
Now, the product of these two elements is
xy = am . an
xy = am+n
xy = an+m
xy = an . am
⇒ xy = yx
⇒ x y = y x which shows that this cyclic group is an abelian group (because it
satisfies the condition of the abelian group (a ∗ b = b ∗ a) )
Therefore, G is an abelian group.
Hence it is proved that every cyclic group is an abelian group.

30
Some Properties of cyclic group

1. Every cyclic group is also an Abelian group.

2. If G is a cyclic group with generator g and order n. If m < n, then the order
of the element gm is given by
3. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
4. If G is a finite cyclic group with order n, the order of every element in G
divides n
5. If d is a positive divisor of n, the number of elements of order d in a cyclic
group of order n is Φ(d), where Φ(d) is Euler Phi function.
6. The order of a cyclic group and the order of its generator is same.

31
Subgroup

A nonempty subset H of the group G is a subgroup of G if H is a group under

binary operation (*) of G. We use the notation H ≤ G to indicate that H is a
subgroup of G. Also, if H is a proper subgroup then it is denoted by H < G .
For a subset H of group G, H is a subgroup of G if,
• H≠φ
• if a, k ∈ H then ak ∈ H
• if a ∈ H then a-1 ∈ H
Ex. – Integers (Z) is a subgroup of rationals (Q) under addition, (Z, +) < (Q, +)

Note:
1. G is a subgroup of itself and {e} is also subgroup of G, these are called trivial
subgroup.
2. Subgroup will have all the properties of a group.
3. A subgroup H of the group G is a normal subgroup if g -1 H g = H for all g ∈
G.
4. If H < K and K < G, then H < G (subgroup transitivity).
5. if H and K are subgroups of a group G then H ∩ K is also a subgroup.
6. if H and K are subgroups of a group G then H ∪ K is may or maynot be a
subgroup.

Normal Subgroup
A normal subgroup H of a group G is a subgroup of G which satisfies the similarity
transformation with any fixed arbitrary element in G. if G is an abelian group and
x is an arbitrary element of G, then Hx is a right coset of H in G and xH is a left
coset of in G. Since G is abelian then xH = Hx.
Hx = xH ; ∀x ∈ G or
xhx-1 ∈ H ; ∀x ∈ G & h ∈ H

32
Theorem: A subgroup H of G is a normal subgroup of G if and only if
𝑔ℎ𝑔 −1 ∈ 𝐻 ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
Proof:
Firstly, suppose H is a normal subgroup of G.
Therefore, 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
Let ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺. Then 𝑔ℎ ∈ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 ⇒ 𝑔𝐻 ∈ 𝐻𝑔.
This implies that 𝑔ℎ = ℎ1𝑔 for some ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑔ℎ𝑔 −1 = ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑔ℎ𝑔 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Conversely, suppose H is a subgroup of G such that
𝑔ℎ𝑔 −1 ∈ 𝐻 ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
We have to show that H is a normal subgroup,
i.e., 𝑎 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Then by given condition
𝑎ℎ𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐻 ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
Suppose 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻.
Then 𝑎𝐻 = (𝑎𝐻𝑎 −1 )𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝐻𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎𝐻 ⊂ 𝐻𝑎 … . (1)
Again, let 𝑏 = 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐺.
Then by given condition 𝑏ℎ𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
But 𝑏ℎ𝑏 −1 = 𝑎 −1ℎ(𝑎 −1 ) −1 = 𝑎 −1ℎ𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.
Let ℎ𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎. Then
ℎ𝑎 = (𝑎𝑎 −1 )ℎ𝑎 = 𝑎(𝑎 −1ℎ𝑎) ∈ 𝑎 𝐻
⇒ ℎ𝑎 ∈ 𝑎 𝐻 ⇒ 𝐻𝑎 ⊂ 𝑎 𝐻…….(2)
From (1) and (2), we get 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
Hence, H is a normal subgroup of G.

33
Theorem: Let H be subgroup of a group G. Then the following are
equivalent:

(𝑖) 𝑔ℎ𝑔 −1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑔𝐻𝑔 −1 = 𝐻, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
Proof: (𝒊) ⇒ (𝒊𝒊) Given 𝑔ℎ𝑔 −1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
Let 𝑔ℎ𝑔 −1 = ℎ1 ∀ ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻, ⇒ 𝑔𝐻𝑔 −1 = 𝐻 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
(𝒊𝒊) ⇒ (𝒊𝒊𝒊) Given 𝑔𝐻𝑔 −1 = 𝐻, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ (𝑔𝐻𝑔 −1 )𝑔 = 𝐻𝑔, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑔𝐻(𝑔 −1𝑔) = 𝐻𝑔, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑔𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑔, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) ⇒ (𝑖) 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔, ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑔 ℎ = ℎ1𝑔 ∀ ℎ, ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑔 ℎ𝑔 −1 = ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑔 ℎ𝑔 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Hence, the theorem.

34
Simple Group
Definition
A group having no proper normal subgroups is called a simple group.
Every group of prime order is simple. By Lagrange’s theorem such a group has no
proper subgroups.

35
Quotient Group

Let G be any group & let N be any normal Subgroup of G. If ‘a’ is an element of G ,
then aN is a left coset of N in G. Since N is normal in G, aN = Na ( left coset = right
coset).
We can say that Na is the coset of N in G.
G/N denotes the set of all the cosets of N in G.

Quotient/Factor Group = G/N = {Na ; a ∈ G } = {aN ; a ∈ G} (As aN = Na)

If G is a group & N is a normal subgroup of G, then, the sets G/N of all the cosets
of N in G is a group with respect to multiplication of cosets in G/N. It is called the
quotient / factor group of G by N.
Sometimes it is called ‘Residue class of G modulo N’.
If the composition in the group is addition, ‘+’, then G/H is defined as :

Quotient/Factor Group = G/N = {N+a ; a ∈ G } = {a+N ; a ∈ G} (As a+N = N+a)

NOTE – The identity element of G/N is N.

Example 1 – Consider the group G with addition modulo 6 where G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,

5}. Let N = {0, 3),
then the quotient/ factor group is :

G/N = { aN ; a ∈ G } = { a{0,3} ; a ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}}

= {0{0,3}, 1{0,3}, 2{0,3}, 3{0,3}, 4{0,3}, 5{0,3} }
= { {(0+0) mod6 , (0+3) mod6 }, { (1+0) mod6 , (1+3) mod6 } , { (2+0) mod6 , (2+3)
mod6 } , { (3+0) mod6 , (3+3) mod6 }, { (4+0) mod6 , (4+3) mod6 }, { (5+0) mod6 ,
(5+3) mod6 } }

36
= {{0,3}, {1,4}, {2,5}, {3,0}, {4,1}, {5,2} }
= {{0,3}, {1,4}, {2,5}}

Example 2 – Let G = {1, -1, i, -i } and H = {1, -1}; H is the normal subgroup of G in
binary operation ‘,’ . What will be the quotient group; G/H?

G/N = { aN ; a ∈ G } = {a{1,-1} ; a ∈ {1,-1,i,-i}

= {1.{1,-1}, -1.{1,-1}, i{1,-1}, -i.{1,-1}}
={{1.1,1.-1}, {-1.1,-1.-1}, {i.1, i.-1}, {-i.1, -i.-1}}
={{1,-1}, {-1,1}, {i,-i}, {-i,i}}
={ {1,-1}, {i,-i}}
In other words, we can say that if G is a group & N is a normal subgroup of G, then
G/N of all the cosets of N in G together with a binary composition defined by :

NaNb = Nab ; where Na ∈ G/N, Nb ∈ G/N is a group.

G/N is called the quotient group of G by N.

Properties of Quotient/ Factor group :

1. If N is a normal subgroup of a finite group G, then –

O(G/N) = O(G)/O(N), where : O(G/N) => No of distinct right / left cosets of N
in G.
2. If N is a normal subgroup of a finite group G such that the index of N in G is
prime, the factor group G/N is cyclic.
3. The factor group of an abelian group is abelian, but the converse is not
true.
4. Every factor group of a cyclic group is cyclic but the converse is not true.

37
Theorem: Let H be normal subgroup of G. Then the set G/H of all the left(right)
cosets of H in G forms a group under the composition defined by (aH)(bH) = abH.
Proof: Let H be normal subgroup of group G.
Then the set 𝐺 /𝐻 = { 𝑎𝐻: 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}
For 𝑎𝐻, 𝑏𝐻 ∈ 𝐺 𝐻 ⁄ Define the composition in 𝐺 /𝐻 as (aH)(bH) = abH
To show that the above composition is well-defined.

Let 𝑎 𝐻 = 𝑐𝐻 & 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑑𝐻 ∀𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝐺

Now 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑐𝐻 ⇒ 𝑐 −1𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑐 −1𝑎 = ℎ1 ∀ ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑐ℎ1 ∀ ℎ1 ∈ H.
Thus, 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑐𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑐ℎ1 ∀ ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻.
Similarly, 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑑𝐻 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑑ℎ2 ∀ ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻.
Hence, the composition is well-defined if (aH)(bH) = (cH)(dH)
if abH = cdH if (𝑎𝑏)(𝑐𝑑) −1 ∈ 𝐻.
To show 𝐺 /𝐻 is a group, let 𝑎𝐻, 𝑏𝐻, 𝑐𝐻 ∈ 𝐺 /𝐻 ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺.

Closure Property: 𝑎𝐻 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑎𝑏𝐻 ∈ 𝐺 /𝐻 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Associativity:(𝑎𝐻. 𝑏𝐻)𝑐𝐻 = (𝑎𝑏𝐻)(𝑐𝐻) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐𝐻 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)𝐻

(since 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 )
= 𝑎𝐻(𝑏𝑐𝐻) = 𝑎𝐻(𝑏𝐻. 𝑐𝐻).

Existence of Identity: Let 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑒𝐻 ∈ 𝐺 /H

(aH)(eH) = aeH = aH= eaH = eHaH.

Thus, He =H is identity element of 𝐺 /𝐻

Existence of Inverse: For 𝑎𝐻 ∈ 𝐺/ 𝐻

38
we have 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎 −1 𝐻 ∈ 𝐺/ 𝐻
(𝑎𝐻)(𝑎 −1𝐻) = 𝑎𝑎 −1𝐻 = 𝑒𝐻 = 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑒 = 𝑎 −1𝑎𝐻 = (𝑎 −1𝐻)(𝑎𝐻)
Thus, a-1 H is the inverse of 𝑎𝐻 ∈ 𝐺/ 𝐻 .
Hence, 𝐺/ 𝐻 forms a group.

39
Kernel of Homomorphism
If F is a homomophism of a group G into a group G’ , then the set K of all those
elements of G which are mapped by f onto the identity e’of G’ is called the kernel
of the homomorphism f .
Thus if f is a homomorphism of G into G’ , then K is the kernel of f if
k={x ∈ G : f(x) = e’ where e’ is the identity of G’.}
Theorem:
Let G and G′ be any two groups and let e and e′ be their respective identities. If f is
a homomorphism of G into G′, then
(i) f(e)=e′
(ii) f(x–1)=[f(x)]–1 for all x∈G.
(iii) K is a normal subgroup of G.
Proof:
(i) We know that for
f(x)⋅e'=f(x)=f(xe)=f(x)⋅f(e)
and therefore by using left cancellation law we have e’=f(e)or f(e)=e’
(ii) Since for any x∈G xx–1=e
we get

f(x).f(x–1)=f(xx–1)=f(e)=e'

Similarly x–1x=e , gives f(x–1)⋅f(x)=e’

Hence by the definition of [f(x)]–1 in G'
We obtain the result

f(x–1)=[f(x)]–1

40
(iii) Since f(e)=e’, e ∈ K this shows that K ≠ ϕ, now
let a,b∈K x∈G a∈K, b∈K,

⇒f(a)=e',f(b)=e’
⇒f(a)=e’,f(b–1)=[f(b)]–1=e'
⇒f(ab–1)=f(a)[f(b)]–1=e’⋅e'=e'
⇒ab–1∈K⇒
This establishes that K is a subgroup of G.
Now, to show that it is also normal we prove the following:

f(x–1ax)=f(x–1)f(a)f(x)
=[f(x)]–1f(a)f(x)
=[f(x)]–1e’f(x)=[f(x)]–1f(x)=e’
Therefore, x–1ax∈K
hence the result.

41
Sylow Theorem
Sylow p-subgroup of a finite group (p- SSG):
if G be a finite group and 𝑝 𝑛 /𝑂(𝐺) but 𝑝 𝑛+1 does not divides O (G) then the
subgroup of order 𝑝 𝑛 is called sylow p-subgroup
Example: let 𝑂(𝐺) = 60. 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 2 /𝑂(𝐺) but 2 2does not divides O (G) then the
subgroup of order 𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟒 is called 2-ssg

Cauchy’s theorem for finite Abelian groups: suppose G is a finite Abelian group
and p ⁄O (G), where p is a prime number. Then their exists 𝒂(≠ 𝒆) ∈ 𝑮 such that
𝒂 𝒑 = 𝒆.if G is finite abelian group and a positive integer k divides O(G).
then G contains a subgroup of order k.

Sylow first theorem

If G is finite group and 𝑝 𝑛 ⁄ 𝑂(𝐺) then G has subgroup of order 𝑝 𝑛 .
Example: if G is finite group of order 10.then G has subgroup of order 5 and 25.
Solution: Since 𝑂(𝐺) = 100.𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 5/𝑂(𝐺) then G has subgroup of order 5.
Now 5 2 /𝑂(𝐺) then G has subgroup of order 5 2 .

Theorem: let 𝐺 = 𝑆20 (symmetric group of order 20!), then find the order of 7-
sylow subgroups in G.
Proof 𝐺 = 𝑆20 then 𝑂(𝑆20) = 20!
=1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8...13.14.15....20
=7 2 (1.2.3 … 6.8 … .13.2.15 … 20)
=7 2 . 𝑚 where m =1.2...6.8.....13.2.15...20 and gcd (7, m) =1
Now 7 2 /𝑂(𝑆20) but 7 2+1 does not divides 𝑂(𝑆2𝑜). then 𝑆20 has 7-sylow subgroup of
order 7 2 = 49.

42
Theorem: let 𝐺 = 𝐴20(𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 20!/ 2 ) and H is 7-sylow
subgroup of 𝐴20. Then show that 𝑂(𝐻) = 49 and any 7-sylow subgroup of 𝑆20 is
subset of 𝐴20.
Proof: G = A20 and O ( 𝐴20)= 20!/ 2
= 1 .2 .3…6.7.8…..13.14.15…20 /2
= 7 2 (1.2.3…6.8…13.2.14…20)/ 2
=7 2 . 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 gcd(𝑚, 7) = 1
Now 7 2 /𝑂(𝐴20) But 7 2+1 does not divides 𝑂(𝐴20).
Then order of 7-sylow subgroup in 𝐴20 is 7 2 = 49. Which implies O (H) =49.
Thus 7-sylow subgroup in 𝑆20 is same 7-sylow subgroup in 𝐴20.
Then any 7-sylow subgroup of 𝑆20 is subset of 𝐴20.

Sylow 2nd theorem:

Let G be a finite group then any two p-sylow subgroups of G are conjugate. That
is let H and K are two p-sylow subgroups of G then there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝐾
= 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 .

Example:
Show that H= {I, (1, 2)} and K= {I, (2, 3)} are conjugates?
Solution: let 𝑥 = (1,3) ∈ 𝑆3
Such that (1, 3) K(1,3) −1 = (1,3){𝐼, (2,3)}(1,3) −1
= {(1, 3)(1,3) −1 , (1,3)(2,3)(1,3) −1 }

= {I, (1, 2) }=H

Then H and K are conjugates.

Sylow 3rd theorem

43
Let G be a finite group and p, a prime number such that p/O(G).Then number of
psylow subgroups is of the form to 1+pk, where k is some non-negative integer
such that 1+pk/O(G).
Example: if 𝑂(𝐺) = 14. then sylow subgroups of order 7 in G can be calculated as.
Solution: 𝑂(𝐺) = 14 = 2 × 7.
Now 7 1 /O (G) But 7 1+1 does not divides O (G)
Then the subgroups of order 7 are 7-sylow subgroup.
Then 𝑛7 = 1 + 𝑝𝑘
Put k=0, then 𝑛7 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑1/𝑂(𝐺) then 𝑛7 = 1.
Put k=1 then 𝑛7 = 8 but 8 does not divides O (G).then 𝑛7 = 8 is not possible for 7-
sylow subgroup of G
Put k=2 then 𝑛7 = 15 𝐵𝑢𝑡 15/O (G) then 𝑛7 = 15 are not possible for 7-sylow
subgroup of G
Similarly k =3, 4, 5, 6... Are not possible for 7-sylow subgroup of G
Then 𝑛7 = 1 then G has unique subgroup of order 7`

44
Conclusion

Following completion of this free OpenLearn course, Group theory, as well as

extending your understanding of group theory, you should also find that your
skills and confidence in reading, understanding and writing mathematical
arguments are improving.
You should now be able to:
• apply the Internal Direct Product Theorem in simple cases
• decide whether a given group is cyclic, and given a finite cyclic group, find a
generator for a subgroup of a given order
• express a given finite cyclic group as the direct product of cyclic groups of
prime power order and, given two direct products of cyclic groups,
determine whether or not they are isomorphic
• express products of elements of a group defined by generators and
relations in appropriate standard form
• recognise the dihedral and dicyclic groups when described using a standard
form.

45
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• Borel, Armand (1991), Linear algebraic groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics,
vol. 126 (2nd ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-
0941-6, ISBN 978- 0-387-97370-8, MR 1102012
• Carter, Nathan C. (2009), Visual group theory, Classroom Resource Materials
Series, Mathematical Association of America, ISBN 978-0-88385-757-1, MR
2504193
• Cannon, John J. (1969), "Computers in group theory: A survey",
Communications of the ACM, 12: 3–12, doi:10.1145/362835.362837, MR
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symmetries in physics and other sciences.

46
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