INFORMATION, COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY(ICT)

DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device which works under the control of stored instructions (programs),
automatically accepting and processing data to prsubscriptoduce information (which is the result of that
processing).
Some computer terms.
1. Hardware: The physical components of the computer
2. Program: set of instructions written for the computer to perform a task.
3. Software: A group of programs
4. Data –collection of items, letters, numbers or symbols OR refers the raw facts fed into the computer for
processing.
5. Data processing-is the collection and manipulation of items or data.
6. Information Technology- is the technology which supports activities involving the creation, storage,
manipulation and transmission of information.( total apparatus for handling information within an
organization ). This includes computers, electronic systems and telecommunication systems.
7. Peripherals-are devices for input ,output and storage of data e.g. keyboard,
VDU, printers etc.
8. Boot - A term used to describe what happens to a computer when it is turned on, the operating system
begins to run, and then the user is able to use the computer successfully.
a. Cold booting – done using the power button on the computer’s system unit. Normally done when
the computer is initially off.
b. Warm booting – this is done when the computer hangs (it temporarily stops to receive instructions).
It is done by use of the reset/restart button on system unit or by a combination of the following keys
from the keyboard; CTRL + ALT +DEL.
9. Crash - A common term used to describe what happens to a computer when software errors force it to quit
operating and become unresponsive to a computer user.
10. Firmware - Software written into permanent storage into the computer.
11. Bit - A binary unit of data storage that can only be a value of 0 or 1.
12. BIOS - BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System and it is a low level program used by your system to
interface to computer devices such as your video card, keyboard, mouse, hard drive, and other devices.

What is ICT
ICT is an acronym that stands for Information Communications Technology. A collective reference to the
integration of computing technology and information processing. Can also be defined as “diverse set of
technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage
information.” OR Information Communication Technology (ICT) is defined as the use of electronic equipment
and other accessories (i.e. computers hardware, software and other telecommunication equipment) to acquire,
store, process and disseminate information).
 Information can be in the form of text data, voice conversation, radio broadcast, still images, motion
pictures, multi-media presentations etc.
 Communication – refers to the transmission of this information/data the electronic transmission media e.g.
network cables/wires, satellite links etc
 Technology – this includes computer hardware, software, and connectivity media.

Functions/applications of ICT
a) EDUCATION

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 Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the classroom for teacher and
students.
b) BANKING
The computer is the nerve centre of the banking system around the world. It functions to control the entire
banking system that also includes ‘Electronic Banking Services’. Electronic banking provides 24 hour services.
c) INDUSTRY
Computers are used to facilitate production planning and control systems, to support chain management and to
help in product design in the industrial sector. In the industrial sector ,workers, researchers and administrator
benefits from the usage of ICT.
d) E-COMMERCE
E-commerce helps in boosting the economy. It makes buying and selling activities easier, more efficient and
faster. For this application, computers, Internet and shared software are needed.
In the e-commerce sector ,customers r, suppliers and employees benefits from the usage of ICT.
e) COMMUNICATION
Use of mobile phones, sending emails, video conferencing etc
Differences between computerized and non-computerized systems.
BEFORE ICT (non-computerized) WITH ICT (computerized)
Traditional – Chalk and talk education is the science of teaching
and learning of specific skills
EDUCATION
Using only book and paper/magazine it also imparts knowledge, good
judgment and wisdom
banking was done manually by taking all transactions are done by computers
deposits directly
BANKING transactions can only be made during transaction can be done at anytime and
SYSTEM working hours place
takes time to approve any loan online services, phone banking
applications system, credit cards are available
Computers and telecommunications
Production was slow because everything
INDUSTRY industry became very popular and
was done manually and totally depended
profitable since production can be
on human labour.
increased through an all day operation.
Commerce is an activity of exchanging,
buying and selling of commodities on a
large scale involving transportation from
place to place.
Trading was made using the barter E-commerce plays an important role
system and it was then later developed in the economic scene. It includes
COMMERCE into currency. distribution, buying, selling and
servicing products that are done
Advertisement was in the form of word
electronically.
of mouth, billboards and printed flyers.
Trading globally was extremely slow,
late and expensive. Traders had to find
ways to market local products in the
global market.
ADVANTAGES/IMPACT OF ICT
1. FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED
In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or messages
are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of bandwidth,

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 broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant. It saves
time and is inexpensive.
2. LOWER COMMUNICATION COST
Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or
courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet
we do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to
the Internet is relatively cheap.
3. RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION
Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at
anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed
by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the
term GIGO. GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced
according to the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
4. EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION
With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can share
and exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and forums on the
Internet. This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of knowledge based
society.
5. PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT
ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be stored and
retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails, online chat and
instant messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.
6. BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION
Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a borderless
sources for services and information. Through the Internet, information and communication can be
borderless.
DISAADVANTAGES OF ICT
There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays, people tend
to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend to become more
individualistic and introvert.
Another negative effect of ICT is :,fraud, identity theft, Pornography, Hacking
HEALTH PROBLEMS
A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also exposed to bad
posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic
environment can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces back strain and a screen filter is
used to minimize eye strain.
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
Around 3000 B.C, the sumerians used a box of stones as a device for representing numbers. About 2000 years
later the chinese strung stones on threads in a wooden frame, the abascus, a device still in wide use in some part
of Asia.
 1000 BC - Abascus was developed and was used for arithmetic calculations, developed in orient. It was
used in Egypt and in the river valley of Asia. Numbers were represented by pebbles arranged in heaps of
tens. The system was a manually operated storage device which aids the human calculater.
 200 BC chinese artisans developed an entire mechanical ochestra.
 1621 AD Slide rule was developed .
 1642 First automatic adding machine(Braise Pascal was developed.) it was
digital calculating machine for elementary operations.
 1832- Babbage’s analytical engine(“first computer”) Charles Babbage(father of computers)
of England formulated a device which was able to combine arithmetic process with
decision based on its own computation.

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 1890 Use of electricity in data processing project – punched cards.
 1900 Hollerith’s automatic census tabulating machine(used punched cards).
 1944 First electro mechanical computer- Mark I.
 1946 First electronic computer in US (ENIAC)
 1970 Microprocessor chips come into use.
Classification of computers.
Computers are classified by:
a) Generation
b) Type/functionality
c) Size
d) Purpose
First generation:(1944-1958)
 Was based on vacuum tubes which failed frequently- unreliable.
 Used punched cards as input and output media.
 Main memory was made of vacuum tubes
 Produced a lot of heat.
 Much slower.
 Could only run one program at a time.
Examples of 1ST Generation computers:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) built in 1946 for use in World War II. It
contained 18,000 Vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) developed in 1945 by Dr. John Von Neumann.
It was the first computer that used instructions stored in memory.
 UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
 IBM 650.
 LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office).
Second generation.(1959-1963)
 Used transistors and other solid state devices.
 Used Magnetic core memories.
 Removable magnetic disks were introduced.
 Smaller, more reliable, and faster than the first generation.
Third generation(1964 – 1970)
 Use of integrated circuits.
 Widespread use of magnetic disks.
 Supported multiprogramming.
 Had large memory
 Faster then second generation.
 Smaller in size.
Fourth generation(1971)
 Uses large scale integrated circuits (LSI) and very large scale integrated circuits(VLSI).
 Uses microprocessor technology.
 Size, appearance, cost much reduced.
 More reliable and available.
 Computer main memeory increased.
 Use of commercial softwares.
Fifth generation(Now and Future)
Japanese and americans are working on a project for computers to have the following characteristics in future.
 Do parallel processing
 Be based on logical inference operations
 Make use of artificial intelligence which simulate some aspect of human thought.
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TYPES OF COMPUTERS.
1. Digital computers –these are computers which process data represented in digital form (discrete values)
2. Analogue computers –these processes continuously varying data .
3. Hybrid computers- these have a combined features of both digital and analogue computers.
Classification by size.
a) Mainframe –These are very large computers systems typically found in major corporations ,large
education institutions, major government installation and even in research centers. It has several CPUs,
Input/output devices, main and mass storage with very high capacity and massive programs. They are very
fast and powerful. They are usually kept in an air conditioned environment in a special room. They can
handle hundreds of users simultaneously .
b) Minicomputers-The mini computers are physically smaller than a mainframe. They also support a number
of concurrent users, but are usually slower than mainframes computers. They have the same basic structures
as the larger mainframes computers ,and support the same peripheral devices supported by the mainframes.
Are cheaper then than the mainframes and are used for applications such as payroll ,invoicing and stock
control. They are mainly used as corporate servers in large organizations and the government.
c) Microcomputers.-Are smaller than minicomputers. Their CPU is the microprocessor(CPU in a single IC
chip).The newer microcomputers are not only cheaper ,they are also faster, smaller ,more energy efficient,
more reliable and even as powerful as old minicomputers.
d) Super computers: The biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified
and known as super computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds.
e) Notebook/laptop computers: Having a small size and low weight the notebook is easy to carry to anywhere.
Classification by purpose
a) General Purpose computers: used to solve wide variety of problems
b) Special purpose: Carries out a special processing task in one or more applications eg controlling
machines
c) Dedicated: General purpose computers that are commited to some processing task though capable of
a variety of tasks eg word processing only.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPUTER.
1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)
Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip, as their CPU.
In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe & minicomputers, the processing is carried out by
a number of separate, high-speed components instead of a single processor.
2) Processing speed.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operations.
Larger computers have faster clocks and therefore can process many instructions per second compared to
small computers, which have slower clocks.
3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).
All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access memory), which is used to hold the
instructions required to perform a task.
Larger computers have more RAM and therefore can handle large volumes of data & also support many
and sophisticated programs which might require large memory sizes.
4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.
The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the instructions required to
manipulate data.
Larger computers have higher storage capacities than microcomputers.
5) Cost of the computer.
The cost of computers is directly related to the size. Microcomputers are less costly compared to
minicomputers, mainframes or Supercomputers.
6) Speed of Output devices.
The speed of an output device is determined by the amount of information that can be printed in a
specified amount of time.
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 The speed of microcomputer output device is less than that of the larger computers in that:
For a microcomputer, the speed of its output device is measured by the number of characters printed
per second (cps). For larger computers, their output devices are faster and their speeds are measured
depending on the number of lines or pages printed per minute (lpm / ppm).
7) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.
Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However, they can be networked
to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.
ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are used for data
processing functions. Some of the advantages are:
1) Computers process data faster:
The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like typewriters & calculators is
far much higher.
2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:
Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data are entered. They also
have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.
3) Computers are more efficient:
A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or other machines.
4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.
5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of space.
6) Computers occupy very little office space.
7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
8) Computers are flexible:
A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
9) Computers are cheap:
They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which are meant for
individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the costs.
10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.
11) Have made communication easier.
12) Computers produce better information:
Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).
13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:
14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous chemical plants, where human
life is threatened:
DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.
1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.
2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as to operate a computer.

4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This makes it difficult to
control the contents of the computer’s master file.
5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.
6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or machine breakdown.
7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its own, but can only work
as per the set of instructions issued.
8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.
9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought computers could be made
obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.
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 In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers & related facilities to become
outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are now being used to
perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.
11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The computer criminals steal large
amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them out of their company accounts
illegally. In addition, they destroy vital data used in running the companies.

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

The computer is made up of the following hardware components that work together with the software to
accomplish various tasks.
a) Central processing unit
b) Input unit
c) Output unit
d) Storage unit
e) Bus lines.
Computer electronic components block diagram.

Control Unit (CU)

- Interprets stored instructions;
- Issues commands to all elements of the
Input device computer Output device
Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
Input data & Gives out information (result of
instructions Performs arithmetic & logic operations data processing)

Main memory (Primary storage)

- Holds data, instructions & results of
processing

Secondary (Backing) storage

To supplement Main storage
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT(CPU)
The Cpu also called the processor is the electronic device that interprets and carries out the instructions that
operate the computer. It consists of :
i) Control unit
ii) Arithmetic and logic unit
iii) Registers
iv) Bus lines

i) Control unit.
This unit directs and coordinates most of the operations in the computer. For every instruction the control unit
repeats the following functions.
 Fetching the instruction or data item from memory.
 Decoding the instruction into commands the computer understands.
 Executing the commands.
 Storing or writing the results into the memory.
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 Issues necessary control signals to various parts of the computer system.
ii) Arithmetic and logic unit.
Performs the arithmetic, comparison and logic operations to data. Logical operations work with conditions and
logical operators such as AND, OR and NOT.
Iii) The registers are used by the cpu for temporary storage of data and instructions. The functions include
 Storing the location from where the instruction was fetched.
 Storing an instruction while it is being decoded.
 Storing data while the ALU processes it.
 Storing the results of the calculation.
Examples Accumulator, current instruction register, program counter, memory buffer register.

MEMORY.
The main memory carries out the following functions.
 Stores the operating system and other software’s being run in the computer
 Stores data being processed.
 Stores instructions awaiting execution
 Stores instructions being executed.
 Stores data awaiting outputing.

The system unit contains two types of memory.

a) Volatile memory: This type will lose its memory content when power is switched off. This type is
represented by RAM. RAM is a memory chip that the processor can read from and write to.
b) Non volatile memory: This type of memory does not lose its memory content when power is switched off. It
is rep[resented by: ROM. ROM is a a memory chip that only can be read and used during the normal
operation of the computer. Ie it cannot be modified.

The backing storage: the backing storage stores data and programs permanently outside the system unit. It is
characterised by mass storage because it is cheap and easy to fabricate as opposed to the main memory.
Examples include : Magnetic diskettes, hard disk, CD ROM, Magnetic tape.

 Main memory:
o very closely connected to the processor.
o the contents are quickly and easily changed.
o holds the programs and data that the processor is actively working with.
o interacts with the processor millions of times per second.

comparison between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
 Can read and write on this memory read only memory
 Its volatile non-volatile
 Its temporary it is permanent
 Its content are user defined its contents are not user defined

 Secondary memory:
o connected to main memory through the bus and a controller.
o the contents are easily changed, but this is very slow compared to main memory.
o used for long-term storage of programs and data.
o The processor only occasionally interacts with secondary memory.

Differences between primary and secondary memory

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 Primary memory Secondary memory
1. Slow
1. Fast
2. Cheap
2. Expensive
3. Large capacity
3. Low capacity
4. Not connected directly to the processor
4. Connects directly to the processor
5.

INPUT UNIT.
An input unit(hardware) Consists of devices that translate data into form the computer can understand and
process. An input device allows the user to enter data and commands into the memory of a computer. Examples
mouse, keyboard, digital camera etc.

OUTPUT UNIT.
Output hardware consists of devices that translate information processed by the computer into a form that
humans can understand. eg Display unit, printer etc.

NOTE: A peripheral device is any hardware device that is connected to a computer. Example: keyboard,
mouse, monitor, hard disk , printer etc.
Bus lines:
The bus is a group of wires on the main circuit board of the computer. It is a pathway for data flowing between
components.they are data bus, address bus and control bus.
Data Bus – carries data between the components of the computer
Address bus – sends address details btw memory & address register
Control bus – routes command signals to various parts of the computer
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES.
An input is any data or instructions you enter into the memory of a computer.
Output devices.
Output is the process of translating data in a machine readable form into a form understandable to humans or
storing data or information in a secondary storage device readable by other machine. The output devices
interfaces the CPU with the outer world.
Classes of output devices.
a) Hardcopy output devices.- generates a permanent physical copy or print out of the data that may be filed,
duplicated, mailed etc.
b) Softcopy output devices. Provides only temporary copy of the output data eg. Spoken words or an image on
the screen(VDU).
The output devices include:, Printers.,Visual display unit. Speakers.

Bits, Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes:

It is important to know that the terms megabyte (MB) and gigabyte (GB) are used when referring to a
computer's memory capacity. The number of megabytes or gigabytes reflects the amount of electronic holding
places available for instructions or data. The processor only recognizes two digits: the "0" and the "1".

 All information is stored as 0's and 1's.

 The 0's and 1's are referred to as bits. (The smallest unit of information on a computer.)
 a byte is a combination of 8 bits.
 A kilobyte is 1,024 bytes.
 A megabyte is 1024 Kbytes

 A gigabyte is 1024 Mbytes

Other INPUT DEVICES
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INPUT DEVICES.
1. Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick,OMR
2. OCR
3. MICR
4. POS
5. Voice data entry(vde)
6. Digitizer
7. Touch screens
8. Light pens
9. Scanner
10. Graphic tablets
11. Punched cards
12. Badge readers.
13. Camera

Terms used with a mouse(practice)

 Clicking - Pointing to an item and quickly pressing and releasing the mouse button.
 Left clicking - clicking the left button while the pointer is over something on the screen will select it.
 Right clicking - clicking the right button while the pointer is over something on the screen will bring up
a menu of options.
 Double-clicking - Double-clicking means clicking twice with your left mouse button very fast. This is
used to begin programs
 Dragging - Holding down the mouse button while over an object will grab on to it. If you move the
mouse while holding down the mouse button you will be able to move (drag) the object to a new place
on the screen
 Dropping - After dragging an item, releasing the mouse button will leave (drop) the object at the new
place on the screen.
 scrolling is sliding text, images or video across a monitor or display, vertically or horizontally
Keyboard
Keyboard is the primary input device for entering text and numbers. A keyboard include the standard typewriter
keys plus a number of specialised keys.
Keyboard is divided into
 Alphanumeric keys
 Function keys
 Cursor keys
 Editing keys
 Command or special keys
 Numeric Keypad
1. Alphanumeric keys eg. Letter keys(A-Z), Caps lock key, Enter key, Tab key, Spacebar, backspace,
 ENTER or RETURN - Moves the cursor down one line and to the left margin. Enter also process
commands such as choosing an option in a dialog (message) boxes and submitting a form.
 BKSP or BACKSPACE - Deletes the character to the left of cursor and all hightlighted text.
 SPACE BAR - Moves the cursor one space at a time to the right
 CAPS LOCK - Locks the keyboard so it types capital letters (a light goes on when caps lock is on)
 TAB - Moves the cursor five spaces to the right (number of spaces are usually adjustable). Tab moves to the
next field in a form or table (Shift-Tab for previous field).
2. Function keys.
Located along the top. Access commands by themselves or in combination with the three command keys;
CTRL, SHIFT, and ALT.Used for tasks that occurs frequentlyin various programseg F1, F2
3. Cursor or movement keys.
 Arrow/directional keys: to move the cursor to left or right
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 Page up/Page down keys: Move the cursor up or down one page
 Home keys: move the cursor to the beginning of the a line
 End keys: moves the cursor to the end of the current line.
4. EDITING keys
 DEL or DELETE - Deletes the character at cursor and/or characters to the right of the cursor and all
highlighted (or selected) text.
 Insert key: Helps user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position
5. Command or Special keys
Used in combination with others.
 SHIFT KEY - Use the shift keys to type capital letters and to type the upper character on keys with two
characters on them
 ESC or ESCAPE - Cancels a menu or dialog box
 Control key or Ctrl is often used to access commands.
 Alternative key or Alt is often used to access menus.

6. Numeric keypad. Located at the left side of the keyboard. Used when typing numbers.

The output devices include:

1. Printers.
2. Visual display unit.
3. Computer output to microfilm(com)
4. Speakers.
5. Plotters
6. Voice output device.
7. Graphic terminals
Pointing devices
•The mouse is a pointing device. You use it to move a graphical pointer on the screen.The mouse can be used to
issue commands, draw, and perform other types of input tasks.
Variants of the Mouse - Trackballs
•A trackball is like a mouse turned upside-down & needs less working space. Use your thumb to move the
exposed ball and your fingers to press the buttons.
Track pads
•A trackpad is a touch-sensitive pad that provides the same functionality as a mouse. To use a trackpad, you
glide your finger across its surface. Trackpads provide a set of buttons that function like mouse buttons.

Integrated Pointing Devices

•An integrated pointing device is a small joystick built into the keyboard between G and H.
•To use an integrated pointing device, you move the joystick.
•These devices provide a set of buttons that function like mouse buttons
Alternative Input Devices –
• Pens
• Touch Screens
• Game Controllers
light Pens

•With a pen-based system, you use an electronic pen called as stylus to write on the screen and choose
commands.
•Pens are common input devices for handheld computers, like personal digital assistants (PDAs) and tablet PC
for collecting database
•Pens are handy for making notes or selecting commands, not for inputting a lot of text.
Touch Screens
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•Touch-screen systems accept input directly through the monitor.
•Touch screens use sensors to detect the touch of a finger. They are useful where environmental conditions
prohibit the use of a keyboard or mouse.
•Touch-screen systems are useful for selecting options from menus.
•They are useful for ATM, information centre like railways, departmental stores etc.

Game Controllers
•Game controller is an input device which accepts i/p from the user, process it, and produce o/p in the form of
graphics and sound
•The two primary types of game controllers are joysticks and game pads.
•Game pads usually provide controls for each hand. They are flexible and used to control games
•Joysticks are popular for flight simulator and driving games. Some type includes steering wheel, gearshifts and
foot pedals
scanners
Categories of scanners
Optical scanners
- Magnetic scanners
Optical scanners
•Bar Code Readers
•Image Scanners and OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
Optical Input Devices - Bar Code Readers
•Bar code readers can read bar codes—patterns of printed bars to identify the product.
•The reader emits light, which reflects off the bar code.
Optical Input Devices :Image Scanners and OCR
•Image scanner convert any printed image into electronic form by shining light onto the image and sensing the
intensity of light reflection at every point.

OCR
•When it is a text document we can use Optical character recognition (OCR) software to translate scanned text
into editable electronic documents.
•Image is first stored as bit map. A bit map is grid of dots, each dot is represented by one or more bits.
•OCR translate the array of dots into letters and numbers.
•For that, it looks at each character and tries to match the character with its own assumption. OCR extremely
complex and not 100% accurate.
•It is used to convert the fax into editable document.
OMR (Optical Mark Recognition) is used for recognizing optical marks (checkmarks). Typical applications
of OMR technology include the processing of questionnaires, ballots, educational tests and reporting, and
ordering sheets, where the documents to be processed are form-like and filled in by hand by respondents.
Programmers who need to add OMR technology into their software applications can purchase components to
make the task easy.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, or MICR, is a character recognition technology used primarily by the
banking industry to facilitate the processing of cheques. The technology allows computers to read information
(such as account numbers) off printed documents. Unlike barcodes or similar technologies, however, MICR
codes can be easily read by humans.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING AN INPUT DEVICE.

1. The money available for the purchase of the device.
2. The accuracy of entry of data the device can accord.
3. The volume of data to be entered because certain devices have low uptake of data

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4. The nature and type of computer systems used. They greately vary from on-line to batch processing
systems.
5. Time taken to make the input into computer readable form.
6. Nature of business operations.

PRINTERS.
Printers are classified on the basis of a number of parameters like:
i) Mechanism used for printing – impact or non
ii) Speed of printing.
iii) Quality of output.
iv) Direction of printing
v) Kind of interface they have with the computer(serial or parallel).
vi) Line, serial or page printers.

MECHANISM
i) Impact printers.
Characters are printed by pressing a typeface against an inked ribbon which makes a mark on the paper
– noisy
ii) Non-impact printers.
There is no contact between a typeface and the paper while printing.(quiet).

SPEED
Speed of a printer is measured in terms of cps(characters per second). Lps(lines per second). Or ppm (pages per
minute.)

QUALITY OF OUTPUT
Depending upon the type of characters formed printers can be classified as draft(poor), near letter quality or
letter quality printers.

DIRECTION.
Unidirectional – printing takes place in one direction only.
Bidirectional – printer prints both ways.

INTERFACE.
Deopending upon the number of characters received at a time, printers can be serial or parallel. Serial printers
are obvious slower than parallel printers.
Line printers – print a complete line at a time.
Serial printers/character printers- print one character at a time across the line of print.
Page printers – create a full page at a time.

1. DAISY WHEEL PRINTER.

Uses an interchangeable print wheel which is like a daisy flower. Each spoke on the wheel holds a character
or a symbol. There are between 96 to 130 spokes. Printing is restricted to the characters embosed on the
daisy wheel. Graphical images cannot be printed. It is much slower than Dot Matrix printer because the
daisy wheel is momentarily stationary to position each character. The wheel revolves until thr required
symbol or charater is in the print position. A hammer strikes against the ribbon so that the character is
printed on the paper beneath the ribbon.
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 Print quality is superior to that of dot matrix printer.
It is an impact printer.
The speed is 40 to 50 cps.
Note: although daisy wheel printers have the highest quality text output for serial printers, they are the
slowes and cannot produce graphic outputs.

2. DOT MATRIX PRINTER.

These are the most popular and widely used low speed printers.
Features.
1. Single characters are printed at a time in lines across the page.
2. Characters are formed using a series of needles at the print head. Various combination of wires for
separate characters which are printed when the wires strike a carbon ribbon against the paper.(7X7, 7X5,
9X9 or 24X24)
3. In different print mode can be selected eg. Condensed, underlined and fonts.
4. The more the needles the better the image.
5. The printers are called dual mode because of their dual function capability ie near letter quality and draft
qualities.
6. Speed is in region of 120-150 cps for NLQ and 250 – 150 cps for draft largely because of the
bidirectional printing facilities.
7. Dot matrix are further categorized as monochrome and coloured. Monochrome printer uses the colour of
the ribbons while coloured printer can select on a multicoloured ribbon.
8. Printing takes places from the printers buffer which is magnetic storage device.

3. BARREL PRINTER.
Has at the heart of its print unit a print barrel or drum which consists of a number concentric bands
each band contains all the characters. The printer barrel revolves at a constant speed. Opposite the bands
on the print drum is a row of hammers, each hammer for one band. Between the bands and the hammer
is the carbon paper and the printer stationary.
4. CHAIN PRINTER.
Print chain contains one or more sets of the characters. It is possible to print on the machine as the chain travel
past the hammers and this are activated inorder to print a line. Typically there are 132 positions to a line. Speeds
upto 50 lines per second can be achieved. It is a line and a high peed printer.

5. LASER PRINTER.
A laser printer uses a combination of zerographic photocopier techniques and laser technology. It appear to
print a page at a time and to its phenomenal speed I,e 325 lines/sec. Or 149 ppm.
A laser beam is used to produce a page of print on the drum. A laser beam used is beamed on the drum which is
charged. A toner is then applied as in photocopying , which is attracted to the laser treated parts of the drum
only which passes the image through a heat fixing plate and transfer on to the paper. The drum is then wiped
clean before it commences its next image cycle.

Advantages
1. High speed printer.
2. Give high quality single copies.
3. Use ordinary papers.

Application
They are expensive devices used where large volume and high quality printing is needed.

6. Thermal printers.

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They use thermal electro- sensitive paper and a thin coating of aluminium over a black/blue surface. By paasing
an electric current through the needle onto the paper, a spark is formed which removes a small area of
aluminium, de-exposes the black/blue area under surface. Major disadvantage is the cost of black blue heat
sensitive paper. Also produces bad smell.
Advantages.
1. Compact size.
2. Limited noise.
3. Low purchase price.

7. Ink jet printers,

The printer fires ink droplets on to the paper using an electrostatic field. They are non-impact printer capable of
graphical output. One type can print in colour using a selection of ink.

Factors to consider when selecting a printer.

1. Speed
2. Quality of output.
3. Volume of printing job.
4. Cost
5. Graphics.
6. Column width.
7. Quality of paper.
8. Reliability
9. Colour.

Differences between impact and non impact printers

Impact non impact
Slow faster
Use inked ribbons use thermal or electrostatic principles
Cheaper costly
Noisy quiet
Multiple copy production possible multiple copies production almost impossible

Other Classification of printers

a) Line printers: Prints one line at a time eg drum, chain etc
b) Character printers: Prints one character at a time eg dot matrix
c) Page printers: Prints an entire page at once eg laser printer

PLOTTERS
Uses a mechanism to drive pens to produce combined text, graphics and pictorial display. It converts digital
computer outputs into illustrations such as graphs, charts or technical drawings.
Types: flatbed plotter, drum plotter and electrostatic plotter.

Applications of plotters:
a) Production of graphics, maps and technical designs
b) used in computer aided design(CAD)

Voice(speech) output devices

The devices which allows output to be presented in a spoken form like a human voice.

Advantages of speech output

a) It is fast
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b) Can be accessed by telephone
c) No reading is necessary

Disadvantages of speech output

1. Not suitable for noisy situations
2. Inappropriate for lengthy or permanent information
3. Words not understood must be repeated by the computer
4. recognition is slow
5. limited vocabularies
6. some words sound the same
Applications of speech output devices
1) Computerised speech for toys, games etc
2) In lifts to pass messages to passegers
3) Public address systems
4) Automatic response to services eg in mobiles: “mobile user unavailable”
5) Translating text to speech for the blind
6) Talking voltmeters for electronic components testing
Computer output on microfilm(COM)
Transforming digital output into human readable form and recording it into reduced physical size onto a
photographic film. Features include:
- computer
- recording machine
- control unit to coordinate all the elements

types of microfilm used

- Microfilm roller
- Jackets
- Microfiche- separate sheets of film each sheet containing over 100 frames or pages of information
- Aperture cards
- Micro cards
Advantages of COM
1) Works faster than a printer
2) Lasts longer than any other chemical printing
3) Cheaper
4) Secure: Cant be read by naked eyes
5) Less voluminous
6) High capacity density
7) Easy access
8) Capable of producing many copies
Disadvantages of COM
1) Requires special equipments
2) COM equipment is expensive than printers
3) Causes eye strain
4) Less convenient
Factors to consider when choosing output
- Speed of the output device
- Quality of output
- Cost
- Adaptability
- Types of output devices available
- Compatibility with your computer
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What is a peripheral device.
A peripheral is generally defined as any auxiliary device such as a computer mouse, keyboard, hard drive, etc.
that connects to and works with the computer in some way. Other examples of peripherals are expansion cards,
graphics cards, computer printers, image scanners, tape drives, microphones, loudspeakers, webcams, and
digital cameras
Flash memory: Flash memory may be considered as a development of EEPROM technology. Data can be
written to it and it can be erased, although only in blocks, but data can be read on an individual cell basis. To
erase and re-programme areas of the chip, programming voltages at levels that are available within electronic
equipment are used. It is also non-volatile, and this makes it particularly useful. As a result Flash memory is
widely used in many applications including memory cards for digital cameras, mobile phones, computer
memory sticks and many other applications. Flash memory stores data in an array of memory cells. The
memory cells are made from floating-gate MOSFETS (known as FGMOS). These FG MOSFETs (or FGMOS
in short) have the ability to store an electrical charge for extended periods of time (2 to 10 years) even without a
connecting to a power supply.
SECONDARY STORAGE (also called Auxiliary or Backing memory).
Secondary memory is used by the computer to hold programs, data files & backup information that is not
needed immediately (not currently in use) by the Processor. It is also used by the computer to supplement the
computer’s main (internal) memory in case of mass storage purposes. This storage is provided by less expensive
devices such as:
(i). Magnetic disks (Hard disks &Floppy diskettes).
(ii). Winchester disks.
(iii). Magnetic tapes.
(iv). Optical disks, which include CD-ROMs & WORM (Write once Read Many) disks, and
(v). Digital Video Disks (DVDs), which can be connected to the computer.
What is a Disk drive?
 A Disk drive is a computer device for reading or writing data from or into a storage media.
 A Disk drive is a hardware on which files can be stored.
 A Disk drive is a unit that houses a disk.
Examples;
 Hard disk drive (HDD or drive C:).
 Floppy disk drive (FDD or drive A:).
 CD-ROM drive.
 DVD-ROM drive.
NOTE: A Disk drive can be used as an Input device, Output device or Secondary storage device.
Characteristics of Secondary storage devices.
(i). They provide slow access of information –
(ii). They have high data storage capacity.
(iii). The devices are cheap.
(iv). They are non-volatile. Secondary storage units store data permanently.
(v). Used for mass storage of data & program files not currently being operated on, but which will be
transferred to the main storage when required.
THE NEED FOR SECONDARY STORAGE IN COMPUTERS.
1. The amount of storage needed on a typical Microcomputer system might be greater than the storage space
available in the Main memory.
2. Whatever is in memory(RAM) is lost when the computer is switched off. Thus, there is a need to store
programs & data in secondary storage devices from which it can be retrieved when needed.
3. Primary storage is expensive, thus the need for secondary storage devices which are cheaper.
FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES.

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(i). Used to store backup data & instructions that is not needed immediately (or not currently in use) by the
CPU. This helps in creating space for another data to be stored in the memory.
(ii). Used for transportation & distribution of data & software, i.e., for transferring files from one machine to
another.
(iii). Used to back up files (keep copies of data & programs) for safe-keeping.
Whatever is in memory is lost (or can be corrupted) when the computer or the power supply is switched
off. Disks can therefore be used to store programs & data, which can be retrieved when needed.
(iv). Used to install new software.

MAGNETIC DISKS.
A Magnetic disk is a round platter made of a plastic or a metal & coated with a magnetic material, which is
used for storage of information.
Data recorded on a magnetic disk can be read/ retrieved in 2 ways: -
(a). Sequentially or Serially – whereby data from a given track are read or written sequentially as the disk
rotates.
(b). Directly.
A Magnetic disk can be of 2 forms: -
(i). Floppy diskettes (Soft disks).
(ii). Hard disks.

FLOPPY DISKETTES.
A Floppy disk is a disk that can be inserted in & removed from a disk drive. A Floppy disk is made from a
thin, flexible plastic circular material. The plastic material is coated with a magnetic substance (usually Iron
Oxide), which enables data to be recorded on the disk. The plastic disk is protected in a rigid smoothly lined
plastic envelope; that safeguards the recording surface against external influences, e.g., touch and dust
accumulation onto the recording surface.
Floppy diskettes can bend easily.
The diskettes are relatively cheap and conveniently handled. However, they are only suitable as storage media
in Microcomputer systems because, they store relatively low volumes of data and have a short life.

Uses of Floppy diskettes.

Floppy diskettes are used: -
(i). To distribute software on microcomputers.
(ii). To collect or input data for subsequent transfer and input to another system.
(iii). As backup media for small hard disks.
Common types of Floppy drives.The diskettes come in different sizes.
1). 3.5-inch drives, which accept the small 3.5” disks.
2). 5¼-inch drives, which accept the big 5¼” disks.
3). 8-inch drives.

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 Physical Appearance of a 3.5-inch Floppy disk.

(i). Permanent label.It has on it an arrow indicating the direction of inserting the diskette into its drive,
(ii). Temporary label.This is the label, which is attached onto the diskette by its user to specify, e.g. the name
of the owner, name of programs maintained on the diskette, etc.
(iii). Security tags.Are used to safeguard the contents of the diskette. When the hole is covered by the shutter
(a plastic band), the diskette cannot be written to or its contents altered.
(iv). Spindle hole.It is the hole used by the disk drive to hold/ clump the diskette over its turntable for the
drive motor to spin the diskette past the Read/Write heads so that the reading or writing operations can be
performed on the recording surface(s) of the diskette.

(v). Read/Write region (Read/write head slot)This is where the diskette’s recording surface is exposed. It is
used to give the heads of the disk drive access to the disk.
Comparison between 5¼-inch and 3½-inch diskettes.
5.25-inch Floppy B: 3.5-inch Floppy A:
Densities Low-density High-density Low-density High-density
Capacity 360KB 1.2MB 720KB 1.44MB
(Bytes)
Tracks 40 80 80 80
Sectors 9 15 9 18
Heads 2 2 2 2
Type Flexible Flexible Rigid Rigid

DS – Double-Sided. HD - High-Density.
The disk surface is divided into concentric circles called Tracks. The Tracks are further sub-divided into
Sectors, which are used for data storage. Data or information is recorded on the Tracks & sectors. Typically,
each sector is 512 bytes.The tracks are described as concentric, because they allow the moving around one track
from a given start point and end up at the starting position.

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HARD DISK.
Hard disk is made of metal & is usually rigid/ firm. Hard disk is not removable like the floppy disk, but it is
fixed inside the computer. A hard disk is made up of one or more platters (disk plates), arranged one on top of
the other to form a disk pack. The platters are made from a metallic material, usually an Aluminum alloy or
Glass in order to make them light. The glass platters have enough Ceramic within it to resist cracking & also
they can better resist the heat produced during operation.
Each platter is coated on both sides with a magnetic material, usually Iron Oxide, which enables data to be
recorded on the platter. This is why many platters are brownish orange in colour.

The disk pack plates are held on a rotational Spindle, which is used by the drive motor to rotate the plate
surfaces past the Read/write heads in order for the read & write operations to be performed on the recording
surfaces.

Notes.
 The Read/Write heads do not touch the disk plate’s recording surface. They fly over to avoid the R/W
head’s ‘crash’, which may result in the wearing away of the magnetic coating over the recording surfaces
that may cause loss of the recording property of the magnetism.
 The distance between the head & the platter is very small such that the drive must be assembled & repaired
in a very clean room because one dust particle can throw the whole drive off.

DATA STORAGE IN A HARD DISK.

The surface of each disk is divided into a no. of concentric circles called Tracks, each track being divided into
Sectors.The storage capacity of a hard disk is much higher than that of a floppy disk, & is therefore able to
store much more data than a floppy disk of the same size because of technical differences.
Advantages of Magnetic Disks.
Magnetic disks (Floppy disks & Hard disks) are the most commonly used medium for online secondary storage
in microcomputer systems because of the following reasons: -
(i). They are cheap (Low cost).
The cost of Hard disks has decreased making them to be widely used on microcomputers.
(ii). Have relatively fast access times for data stored anywhere on the disk.
(iii). Have high storage capacities.
(iv). They are re-usable - the disk space can be re-used by simply recording new data over old data.

20
(v). They are Non-volatile - information is stored permanently.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Disks.
(i). Data stored on magnetic disk is not human-readable, i.e., to verify the accuracy of data stored on the disk,
a computer run has to be made, which reads the contents on the disk.
(ii). A disk is susceptible (prone) to dust, stroke & magnetic fields; which can distort (deform/disfigure) data
on the disk causing disk-reading errors.
(iii). Require enough skills to manage the disks effectively.
Differences between Hard disks & Floppy diskettes.
Floppy diskette. Hard disk.
1). Can be inserted in & removed from a disk 1). It is not removable like the floppy disk, but
drive. It can also be transferred between permanently housed in a disc unit inside the
computers. computer.
2). Made of a flexible plastic material & can bend 2). Made of a metal & is usually rigid/ firm.
easily. 3). Made of more than 1 platter arranged one on top
3). Consists of a single platter/ disk. of the other to form a disk pack.
4). Cheaper. 4). Relatively expensive than floppy disks.
5). Low storage capacities compared to hard disks, 5). Hard disks have a much higher storage capacity
e.g. a Floppy disks store between 100KB – than floppy disks, e.g. can store between 10 - 80
2MB of characters. million characters.
6). Slower access times, e.g. the data transfer rate 6). Have faster access times for data stored in it
between memory & the disk is between 30,000 than a floppy disk,
– 150,000 characters per second.
MAGNETIC TAPES.
These are the storage media mostly used in Mini and Mainframe computers.
A Magnetic Tape reel is made of a plastic ribbon/ band coated on one side with a magnetic material that enables
data & instructions to be recorded/ stored on the tape.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes as secondary storage medium.

(i). Tapes have a high storage capacity (or high data recording density)
(ii). Tapes are cheaper compared to other removable storage media.
(iii). Have high data transfer rates.
(iv). Tapes are re-usable.
Disadvantages of storing records on Magnetic Tapes.
(i). Data stored on a tape must be read/ accessed sequentially, one record after another.
(ii). Data stored on magnetic tape (& disk) is not human-readable.
(iii). Tapes have short life spans (average of about 2 yrs).
(iv). A tape is susceptible (prone) to dust, stroke & magnetic fields; which can distort (deform) data on the tape
causing tape-reading errors.
(v). Tapes do not fully use their recording surface.
OPTICAL DISKS.
Optical disks use Lasers to read or write data. When writing, a laser beam is used to align a permanent data
pattern on the disk surface. When reading, the data contents are sensed by the pattern of light reflected from the
beam by the data on the disk surface. There are 2 types of Optical disks:
1. CD-ROMs (Compact disc Read-Only Memory)
2. WORM (Write Once Read Many) discs.
CD-ROMs (Compact Disc Read Only Memory).
What is CD-ROM (Data CD)?
A CD-ROM (also known as a data CD) is a compact disc used to store computer data.
 CDs (Compact discs) were originally developed for the music industry. They use small disks identical to
the ones that hold music to hold computer information.
 They have higher storage capacities than traditional Magnetic disks.
21
 The current CDs can hold about 650 MB of data compared to the 3.5” floppy diskette, which can only hold
1.44 MB of data.

The CD-ROM Technology

A CD is made by having information burnt into the Polymer material using a laser. The indentations appear as
fine circular tracks in the CD.Data is written on the CD in a continuous spiral running from the center of the CD
to its outside rim. All the bits in a file are written one after the other from beginning to end, then the next file is
written, and so on.

The current CD-ROM drives use Multi-session & Multi-speed technologies due to the intense requirements of
most multimedia applications. The Multi-session technology allows data to be written to a CD again & again
until it reaches its maximum capacity (650MB).
The Multi-speed technology increases the rotational speed of the disk, thus increasing the data transfer rate of a
CD-ROM drive.
Uses of CD-ROMS (CDs).
(i). Archiving data.
(ii). Backing up a hard drive or other media.
(iii). Creating a test copy of a CD before having it factory-duplicated.
(iv). Disseminating information to field offices.
(v). CDs are the primary methods of installing software.
Most software companies distribute application software in CD-ROMs.
(vi). CDs are used in Multimedia (the integration of text, motion video, graphics, & sound). Programmers
pack Multimedia in the CD-ROMs enabling consumers to enjoy the work of multimedia inventions.
(vii). To provide reference works, catalogues, directories, encyclopedias, software front descriptions, graphical
images and sound.
Types of Compact Discs:
There are 2 types of Compact Discs (CD-ROMs): -
 CD-Recordable (CD-R) discs.
 CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) discs.
CD-R (Recordable).
A CD-R holds data permanently, i.e., once written, it cannot be erased or overwritten.
CD-R can be used to store or backup a lot of data (about 650MB), thus making it suitable for businesses that
need to record/ store a lot of information.
Advantages of CD-R
(i). Good for permanent data storage.
(ii). Less expensive per disc than CD-RW disc (CD-R discs are cheaper compared to CD-RW).
(iii). Readable on virtually all CD-ROM and CD-R drives.
(iv). Use when you do not need to erase the data.
(v). CD-R drives can write faster than most CD-RW drives.
Disadvantages of CD-R.
(i). The disc can only be written once, (i.e. once something has been recorded on a CD-R, it can’t be erased or
written over again).
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(ii). The future of CD-R drives seems to be in doubt since CD-RW drives can accomplish the same thing as
CD-R drives.
Note. In a CD-R drive, there are 2 speeds listed.
The faster of the two speeds is the speed at which the drive reads information from a disc, while the slower one
is the speed at which the drive records information onto a CD-R.
CD-RW (ReWriteable).
It is possible to record data on a CD-RW more than once. With CD-RW drive you can also erase the contents
of a CD and re-write new information to it.
In addition, CD-RW drives can play audio CDs, use the regular CD-ROMs & read CD-R discs. This makes
CD-RW drives very desirable. Most CD-RW drives can also record to CD-R discs, making it possible to use
CD-R discs with a CD-RW drive.
Advantages of CD-RW.
(i). Used when you need to erase the data and re-write new information (e.g., updating files). Data written to a
CD-RW is not permanent, i.e. it can be overwritten or erased.
(ii). Used to make a practice CD or to test the contents of a CD before making a permanent one.
(iii). More cost effective for near line data storage requirements than CD-R.
Disadvantages of CD-RW.
(i). CD-RW drives & media are expensive/more costly than CD-R drives.
(ii). CD-RW are slower than CD-R & CD-ROM drives.
It takes about 1hr to format CD-RW discs & about ½ an hour to copy 250 MB of data to the disc, while
CD-R discs take a few minutes to format and have the same write time.
(iii). Data can be read and written to CD-RW discs only by CD-RW drives.
(iv). CD-RW drives are currently facing stiff competition from the DVD-Recordable (DVD-R) because the
DVD-R can store more information than CD-RW.
Note. Both CD-RW & CD-R can be read by standard CD-ROM drives.
WORM (Write Once Read Many) discs.
A WORM disc looks like a CD. Also, data is read from the disk in a similar way to that on a CD.
The WORM disc surface has 40,000 Tracks, 25 Sectors and a total storage capacity of 1GB.
Data is written into the disc by burning a permanent pattern into the surface of the disc by means of a high
precision laser beam.
The WORM discs are exchangeable.
WORM discs are non-erasable & are less prone to data loss compared to Magnetic disks.
Access speed of a WORM disc is slower than that of Magnetic disks.
To use the WORM discs, a WORM disk unit/drive is needed. The drive is similar to magnetic disk unit.
An example of a WORM drive is the CD-R, which uses the same size of disks as CDs and once written using
the CD-R drive, it can be read in a CD-ROM disk drive as well as in a CD-R drive.
Uses of WORM disks.
√ WORM drives store large amounts of data.
√ They are used to put data online for reference purposes.
Advantages of Optical discs as secondary storage media.
(i). Have very high storage capacities. This enables them to be used for multimedia applications.
(ii). Have relatively high access speeds.
(iii). Are Non-volatile, i.e. information kept in them is permanent. Therefore, they are more secure against
alteration.
(iv). Are cost effective (cheap) especially if used for large storage volumes.
(v). They are robust – they resist temperature, electromagnetic fields, and not affected by water or dust.
(vi). Have very high data transfer rates.
Modern CD-ROM drives have data transfer rates of between 150 – 4,800 KB/second.
(vii). Some Optical discs allow data to be written to them a no. of times, e.g., CD-RW.
Reasons why Optical discs (CD-ROMs) are not mostly used in microcomputer systems as secondary
storage media.
23
1). CD-ROMs require special writers to write to the disk. The CD Writers are usually expensive, thus limiting
the utility/ usefulness of CD-ROMs as computer storage devices.
2). Are expensive (not economical) especially if used for low storage volumes.
3). Require CD-ROM drives to use the discs, which are not installed on most desktop computers.
4). Most CD-ROMs are produced by the manufacturer or can only be written once. Therefore, they are not
reliable especially for businesses that may need to re-programme the CDs to suit their needs.
5). Are slow to prepare, i.e., it takes time to format & also to copy data into the discs, e.g. CD-RW disks take
about 1hr to format & about ½ an hr to copy 250 MB of data to the disc.
6). The Access speed of an Optical disk is low.
DVD (Digital Video Discs).
A DVD looks like a CD-ROM. However, a DVD can store much more information.
Currently, DVDs are used primarily for movies. To use a DVD, your computer should have a DVD-ROM. To
read the DVD-ROM, a DVD-ROM drive is required.In order to enjoy all the functionality of a DVD, the
computer must have a Motion Picture Expert Graph (MPEG) decoder card or MPEG software. This
enables the user to view full screen video or video clips from a DVD video disc.
DVD drives are reasonably/ fairly priced.
DVD drives can read all other ROM formats - audio CDs, CD-ROMs, CD-R, CD-RW & DVD-ROM discs.
HANDLING PRECAUTIONS FOR MAGNETIC MEDIA.

(i). Should be stored in optimum temperature ranges, e.g. 10oC – 52oC for diskettes.
(ii). Should be protected in their cases when not in use in order to safeguard their recording surfaces against
environmental influences such as dust, touch, direct sunlight, radiations, etc.
(iii). When loading/ mounting the media into its reading/writing unit, care should be taken to avoid brushing
the recording surfaces against the mechanical components of the drive.
(iv). Should never be brought near moving or magnetic bodies. Such bodies might cause the demagnetization
of the recording surfaces (i.e., remove the magnetic property from the surfaces) making recording in terms
of magnetism impossible.
(v). Put on the power before mounting the media and off after removing the media from the drive. This is
because the fluctuation in power might also cause de-magnetization.
Physical storage considerations.
Recording density – The no. of useful storage cells per unit of length or area.
Volume - A term used for any individual physical storage medium that can be written to or read from. E.g., a
fixed hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, a disk cartridge or tape cartridge.
Formatting - Before a diskette can be used, it must be formatted. This prepares the disk so that the drive can
use it.
Initialization - Before a disk is recorded, it has to be initialized, i.e., writing zeros to every byte on every track.
This eliminates all trace of any existing data.
Fragmentation - When data is written on a newly formatted disk, it is usually written to unused contagious
sectors. If data is erased, then the deleted sectors may leave spaces among used sectors. Overtime, after many
inserts and deletes, these free sectors may be scattered across the disk. In such a phenomenon, the disk is said
to be fragmented.

TYPES OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

A program is a set of computer instructions (in machine code) that tells the computer what to do. Software is a
set of computer programs. The software is developed in programming languages.
The Computer software is classified into two main categories:
 Application software.
 System software.
 Programming languages
1. Application Software

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A set of programs a user uses to solve particular problems It is also known as application package. The ready
packages are also available in market on CDs for various purposes. Some of application packages are:
1. Word processing software.
2. Spreadsheet software.
3. Database Management System software.
4. Graphics software.
5. Communication software.
Application software can be either a general purpose or special purpose software. General purpose software
such as wordprocessors, spreadsheets, are packaged and made available for general use. Special purpose
applications such as DTP video editingare used to carry out specialized tasks.
1. Word Processing Software
This software is used to create and to edit documents such as letters, reports, essays etc. The most popular word
processing software programs are: Microsoft Word, Word Perfect etc.
2. Spreadsheet Software
Spreadsheet software is used to store and process data in an electronic sheet having columns and rows. The
most popular example of spreadsheet software is Microsoft Excel etc.
3. Database Management Software
Database management software is used to create and manage databases. The Microsoft Access, Oracle etc. are
most popular examples of Database Management Software.
4. Presentation Graphics Software
The presentation graphic software is used to create slides for making presentations. The presentation graphic
software also has pre-drawn clip art images, which can be inserted into slides and can be modified. Examples:
powerpoint,
5. Communication Software
The Communication software is used to exchange information electronically. It is most commonly used
software to send and receive information on the Internet. The Internet Explorer, mozilla firefox, are examples of
this software.
2. System Software
System software is a set of programs that control the operations of a computer and devices attached with the
computer. It creates links between user and computer as well as controls the execution of application programs.
System software are essential for a computer to do work, Without this software no link can be created between
user and computer.
The examples of system software are:
 Operating systems.
 Utility programs.
 Device Drivers.
 Networking software
 firmware
Utility programs:
Utility programs help manage, maintain and control computer resources. These programs are available to
help you with the day-to-day chores associated with personal computing and to keep your system running at
peak performance.
Some examples of utility programs include:
 Virus scanning software(antivirus program): designed to protect your computer from computer viruses
 Backup software: assists you in backing up your files and even the entire computer hard drive
 Scandisk: your disks to see if there are any potential problems on the disk, such as bad disk areas.
 Disk defragmenter : assists you in keep reorganizing your disk drives
 Editors: creating text documents
 Debuggers: Locating and correcting errors in programs

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  Desktop enhancers – Change the desktop look and organization, allowing users to create and switch
between multiple desktops.
 File conversion – Converts from one file format to another so that a file can be used by another
application.
 Internet organizers – Helps in the management and use of favorite Web sites, searching the Web and
reporting on site changes.
 Linker.:The Linker is a utility software that accepts the separately translated program modules as its
input and logically combines them into one logical module, known as the Load Module that has got all
the required bits & pieces for the translated program to be obeyed by the computer hardware.
 Loader.: The Loader is a utility program that transfers the load module (i.e. the linker output) into the
computer memory, ready for it to be executed by the computer hardware.
Device drivers
- A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to your computer. There
are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-ROM readers, diskette drives, and so on.
Firmware is a combination of software and hardware. Computer chips that have data or programs recorded on
them are firmware. These chips commonly include the following: ROMs, PROMs
Networking software: network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of multiple computers across
a network:
OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system is the program that coordinates the activities of hardware devices and allow application
software to be run. Examples include windows, MSDOS, Unix/linux, Novell, Machintosh, etc
Functions of operating systems
1. Process Management:
The control and efficient management of all the processes that must be executed by a computer
2. Memory management:
It is responsible for allocating memory to programs to ensure that each application has sufficient
memory available so as not to interfere with other processes
3 Input/Output management:
Ensure that i/o devices communicate with software by using drivers.
4. Secondary memory management
It manages the creation, update and removal of files on a variety of storage devices
5. Error handling and protection:
Error trapping and reporting
6. Interface with operators:
Communication with operators
7. Accounting:
Keep record of the activities of the different users.
8. Source management
Manage all hardware (CPU, memory, etc) and peripherals
9. Security management
Security- protecting the use of hardware, software and data from misuse. Most multiuser OS allow each user to
log on , which is the process of entering a user name and a password into the computer before you can access
certain computer resources

Types of operating systems

 Real-time operating system (RTOS) - Real-time operating systems are used to control machinery,
scientific instruments and industrial systems.
 Single-user, single task - As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the
computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. eg Palm OS

26
  Single-user, multi-tasking - This operating systems that will let a single user have several programs in
operation at the same time. For example, it's entirely possible for a Windows user to be writing a note in
a word processor while downloading a file from the Internet while printing the text of an e-mail
message.
 Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the
computer's resources simultaneously. Unix, VMS and mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are
examples of multi-user operating systems.
USER INTERFACES.
A user interface is the part of the software with which you interact; it controls how data and instructions are
entered and information is presented on the screen. Types of user interface are command line, menu and
graphical.,
COMMAND LINE USER INTERFACE.
You type keywords or press special keys on the keyboard to enter data and instructions examples are MSDOS,
UNIX, NOVEL.
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE.
A graphical user interface (GUI) combines text, graphics, and other visual clues to make software easier to use.
Elements of GUI

27
 a) Desktop: a desktop is an onscreen work area with common graphical elements such as icons, buttons,
menus, links, windows and dialog boxes.
b) Icon an icon is a small image that represent a program, document or some other objects.
c) Button : this is a graphical element that causes a specific action to take place.
d) Menu: A menu is a list of commands that make a computer program perform a specific action
e) Window: this is a rectangular area used to display a program, data and or information.
f) Dialog box : this is a special window that provide information, presents options or requests a response.

MENU DRIVEN INTERFACE

The user performs his tasks by selecting a list of command(a menu) using the keyboard or a mouse.
COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
A programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a machine,
particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a
machine and/or to express algorithms precisely. Two levels.
1. Low Level Languages.
2. High Level Languages.

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low Level Languages
Low level computer languages are machine codes or close to it. Computer cannot understand instructions given
in high level languages or in English. It can only understand and execute instructions given in the form of
machine language i.e. language of 0 and 1. There are two types of low level languages:
Machine Language. AND Assembly Language

Machine Language: was the first type of programming language to be Developed. Machine Language is
basically the only language which computer Can understand. Instructions are represented inside the computer
by a String of binary digits (bits) 0 and 1..
Advantages of Machine Language
i) It makes fast and efficient use of the computer.
ii) It requires no translator to translate the code i.e.Directly understood by the computer
Disadvantages of Machine Language:
i) All operation codes have to be remembered
ii) All memory addresses have to be remembered.
iii) It is hard to amend or find errors in a program written
In the machine language
iv) These languages are machine dependent i.e. a particular
v) Machine language can be used on only one type of computer
vi) Tideous

Assembly Language
It was developed to overcome some of the many
inconveniences of machine language. Its Operation codes and operands are given in the form of alphanumeric
symbols known as mnemonic codes instead of 0’s and l’s. e.g. ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction,
START,LABEL etc. Because of this feature it is also known as ‘Symbolic Programming Language’. The
language mainly helps in compiler orientations. The instructions of the Assembly language needs be converted
to machine codes by language translator to be executed by the computer. The language translator is known as
ASSEMBLER.
Advantages of Assembly Language
i) It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language.
ii)It is easy to locate and correct errors.
iii) It is modified easily
Disadvantages of Assembly Language
i) Like machine language it is also machine dependent.
ii) Since it is machine dependent therefore programmer Should have the knowledge of the hardware also.
High Level Languages
High level computer languages give formats close to English language and the purpose of developing high level
languages is to enable people to write programs easily and in their own native language environment (English).
High-level languages are basically symbolic languages that use English words and/or mathematical symbols
rather than mnemonic codes. Each instruction in the high level language is translated into many machine
language instructions thus showing one-to-many translation. The translator language is called compiler or
interpreter.
Basic differences between Compiler and Interpreter:
 Compiler translates the high level instruction into machine language, but the interpreter translates the
high level instruction into an intermediate code.
 The compiler executes the entire program at a time, but the interpreter executes each and every line
individually.

29
  Compiler reports the list of errors that are caused during the process of execution, but the interpreter quits
translating soon after finding an error, the progression of the other lines of the program will be done after
refining the error.
 Autonomous executable file is generated by the compiler while interpreter is compulsory for an
interpreter program.
Types of High Level Languages

1) 3rd generation programming languages (3GL, "high level language") A language designed to be easier for
a human to understand, including things like named variables. English words are used to denote variables,
programming structures and commands, and Structured Programming is supported by most 3GLs. Examples are
 BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
 FORTRAN (Formula Translation).
 PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1).
 ALGOL (Algorithmic Language).
 APL (A Programming Language).
 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language).
 RPG (Report Program Generator
2) 4th generation programming languages.
A fourth generation (programming) language (4GL) is a grouping of programming languages that attempt to get
closer than 3GLs to human language, form of thinking and conceptualization.
4GLs are designed to reduce the overall time, effort and cost of software development. The main domains and
families of 4GLs are: database queries, report generators, data manipulation, analysis and reporting, screen
painters and generators, GUI creators, mathematical optimization, web developmentand general purpose
languages
Examples
Visual DataFlex, SAS, SPSS. Oracle Designer , Oracle Developer Suite , Informatics MARK-IV, MAPPER,
NOMAD, RAMIS, SQL, and FOCUS
3) 5th generation programming languages.
A fifth-generation programming language (abbreviated 5GL) is a programming language based on solving
problems using constraints given to the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a 5GL’s are designed
to make the computer solve a given problem without the programmer. This way, the programmer only needs to
worry about what problems need to be solved and what conditions need to be met, without worrying about how
to implement a routine or algorithm to solve them. 5GL’s are used mainly in artificial
intelligence research. Examples Prolog, OPS5, and Mercury
Advantages of High Level Language
 User-friendly
 Similar to English with vocabulary of words and symbols
 Therefore it is easier to learn.
 They require less time to write.
 They are easier to maintain.
 Problem oriented rather than 'machine' based.
 Program written in a high-level language can be translated into many machine language and therefore
can run on any computer for which there exists an appropriate translator.
 It is independent of the machine on which it is used i.e.Programs developed in high level language can
be run on any Computer
Disadvantages of High Level Language
 A high-level language has to be translated into the machine language by a translator and thus a price in
computer time is paid.
 The object code generated by a translator might be inefficient Compared to an equivalent assembly
language program
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 POWER AND INTERFACE CABLES
 1. Power cables: used to supply power to the motherboard and other internal devices of the computer.
 2. Interface cables: connects peripheral devices to the motherboard. Eg printer cable.
 3. Data cables: Connect the hard disk and floppy disks to the motherboard.
 4. Parallel interface cables: Transmit data simultaneously using set of many conductors: Faster than
serial ones: connect devices like printers.
 5. Serial interface cables: Transmit data one bit at a time. Eg mouse, keyboard cables
 6. Universal serial bus interface cables: Transmit one bit at a time but at a very high speed. Connect
most devices like camera, printers, mouse etc
 7. Small computer system interface(SCSI) Transmit data in parallel but faster than parallel cables. Can
connect up to 7 devices on one cable. pronounced "scuzzy".
 PORTS.
A port is a socket on the outside of the system unit that allows you to plug in a peripheral device.
1. Infra red port: Used for wireless communication.
2. PS/2 port: It is serial and connects devices like mouse, printer etc.
3. Video ports: Connects monitor or data (LCD)projector.
4. Audio ports. For connecting microphone or speakers.
5. LAN ports. For connecting the computer to the local area network.
6. Modem port: Connects external modem to the computer.

USB

PS2
keyboar
d Mouse

LPT

SCSI

COM

(Newer Models) (Older Models)

WORD PROCESSING.
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Word processing is the art of text manipulation. It involves creating & producing professional looking documents such as letters,
memos, reports, etc.
Definition of a Word Processor.
 A Word Processor is a computer program that enables a person to create, save, retrieve, edit, format, and print text based
documents.
Initially, the term Word processor was used to refer a computer system with a special piece of software used for the production of
documents.
Purpose of Word Processing.
A Word processor is a tool that can be used to prepare & produce documents. It can be used in:
(i). Writing Letters (i.e., Business & general mail).
(ii). Writing Memos.
(iii). Writing Books.
(iv). Writing Articles, Research letters such as Reports/thesis and Term papers.
(v). Writing Essays and Projects.
(vi). Writing Curriculum vitae and Resumes.
(vii). Writing weekly Newsletters on sports, entertainment, etc.
(viii). Writing Lease agreements and other legal documents.
Common Features (Characteristics) of a Word processor.
A Word processor performs the same function as a typewriter, but offers very many useful features / facilities, which can be used to
make your work more efficient and attractive.
A Word processor can be used to produce quality-finished documents of high standards compared to a typewriter.
The following are some of the facilities provided by all Word processors:
 They allow the user to create a file, save it, and retrieve (recover/open) it when required for reuse, printing, editing or formatting.
 Has Text- editing features, such as: -
(i). Copy & Paste, which allows a marked block of text to be moved to another part of the document.
(ii). Find, which allows the user to search for words or phrases within the document.
(iii). Search & Replace, which allows replacement of every occurrence of a certain combination of characters with another set of
characters.
(iv). Undo, which allows actions that have been performed to be reversed, such that if some text was accidentally deleted, then the
action can be undone.
 Contains Text and Page formatting features such as: -
(i). Justification of text, which could be Left, Right, Centre, or Full.
(ii). Indents and use of Tabs for text alignment.
(iii). Page Numbering.
(iv). Insert of page Headers and Footers.
 Has different Fonts (lettering/typescripts), Character sizes & Styles such as Bold, Italic, Underline, etc.
 Enables Printing of documents: single or multiple copies, full or part of a document.
 Enables creation of Tables, which can be used to perform certain calculations & sorting on a given text.
 Has an inbuilt dictionary.
 Contains Tools such as Spelling and grammar checkers, Bookmarks & Thesaurus (which provides alternative words –
synonyms).
 Typing errors can be corrected and the text modified before printing the final version.
 Enables the use of document templates, which can be used to quickly create the most frequently used documents once the format
has been set.
 Allows Mail merging, which makes it possible to combine several letters.
This is very useful when similar letters has to be sent to several people. The names and addresses of each person can be merged
with one single standard document and printed out.
 Enables creation of Newspaper layouts, which can be used for manipulation of Column text.
 Has the ability to add graphics within documents.
 Allows creation of Footnotes and Endnotes.
 Provides file protection using Passwords.

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 Contain Macros, which can be used to automate the most frequent & repetitive tasks.
 Have the ability to create and import tables, text and graphics from other programs.
 All Word processors have similar document windows with the following features:
(a). They are designed to look like a piece of paper with a few electronic improvements.
(b).The screen is blank before typing of text.
(c). There is a Cursor, which blinks at the position where you can begin entering text.
(d).There is a Status bar that provides the user with information about current status such as saving operation, the name of the
file in use, the current page, and column cursor position.
(e). Word wrap: A facility/feature that automatically moves a word or cursor to the beginning of the next line if there is
insufficient room at the end of the current line.
(f). Scrolling: This is the vertical movement of text document on the screen, either using the Up or Down arrow keys, Page Up or
Page Down keys, or using the Mouse in Windows based word processors.
(g). Help: Contains instructions, tips, pointers, explanations and guidance on how to use an application.
(h).Editing modes: Word processors have two editing modes; Insert mode and Type over mode.
In Insert mode, every character typed between words, lines or characters is placed at the cursor position. This pushes all the
text in front of the cursor away without deleting it.
In Type over mode, every character typed deletes what was there before and replaces it with new text at the cursor position.
Common examples of Word processors: -
* Microsoft Word. * WordStar.
* Corel WordPerfect. * Wang writer.
* Lotus WordPro. * WordWrite.
Advantages of Word processors.
Word processors have almost replaced typewriters and other writing tools as the means of creating documents. This is because; a
word processor has a number of advantages that include:
(i). A document can be stored in the computer for future reference in computer files. The files do not occupy physical space like
the one on paper; hence, this creates a paperless document processing environment.
(ii). Typing using a word processor is easier & more efficient because some actions are automated.
Examples;
- Word wrap feature automatically takes the cursor to the beginning of the next line once you reach the end of the current
line.
- Automatic insertion of a new page after reaching the end of the current page.
(iii). Most word processors have special editing tools such as Spelling and grammar checkers that help the user to easily correct
grammar and spelling mistakes. Thesaurus helps to find a word with similar meanings.
(iv). Most word processors have Insert and Type over modes. Therefore, one can easily insert or replace a word or a phrase without
affecting the structure and neatness of the document.
(v). Word processors have superior document formatting features such as underlining, boldfacing, italicization, applying different
colours, etc.
Formatting refers to the art of making the document more attractive and appealing to the eye.
(vi). A Word processor enables one to produce many copies of a document through printing; whereas, a typewriter may require
retying of the entire document when we want many copies.
(vii). Word processor has Cut, Copy and Paste commands that enable the user to incorporate other text without having to retype it.
(viii). Provides secrecy in writing documents through Passwords.
(ix). Allow simple arithmetic operations such as additions, multiplications, etc.
(x). Allows Mail merging (combining of several documents).
Disadvantages of Word processors.
(i). They are Expensive.
(ii). The use of Word processors creates unemployment.
(iii). The use of the Word processors is limited only to those areas with power supply.
(iv). There is need of a literate person to operate it.
Factors to consider when choosing a Word processor.
The choice of a word processor depend on:

33
1. The type of operating system.
E.g., most microcomputers are currently running on Windows based operating systems. This means that you should consider
acquiring a Word processor based on graphical user interface.
2. Its user-friendliness (ease to use).
3. Its formatting and editing features. They should be good and in variety.

FORMATTING A DOCUMENT.
Formatting:
 Formatting refers to applying various styles or features to enhance the appearance of a document.
Importance.
√ To create professional documents by using different colours, and adding special effects like dropped capitals, Superscripts and
Subscripts.
√ To draw attention to important words or sentences by making them Bold, Italic or Underlined.
√ To draw attention to titles and headings by making them larger and changing their font type.
√ To draw attention to some important paragraphs and text by creating additional effects with the text in a document.
√ To make the overall document appealing to the eye as you read through.
TEXT FORMATTING.
Text formatting refers to features such as changing font types & font style, changing size of characters, changing text color,
underlining, bolding, italicizing, text alignment, etc.
You can use the Formatting toolbar or the Format menu to change the format of a given text.
Applying Bold, Italics, Underline, and changing the Font type, Font Size & Color of text.
Bolding text: Bolding makes the selected text appear darker than the rest of the text.
Underline text: Underlining refers to placing a line at the base or bottom of a word or phrase.
Italicizing text: To italicize is to make the text slant forward.
Font (also called typeface): A graphic design applied to numerals, symbols, & alphabetic characters.
Changing the font color: Changing the color of the selected text from black to either blue, green, etc.
Method 1. Using the Formatting toolbar.
1. Select the text you want to format.
2. On the Formatting toolbar,
 Click the Bold or Italic or Underline button to format selected text as bold, italics or underlined.
 To change the font type, click the arrow next to the Font box, then click a font name.
 To change the size of text, type (or click) a size in the Font Size box. E.g., type 10.5.
 To change the text color, click the Font Color button. This applies the color appearing on the Font Color button.
To apply a different color, click the arrow next to the Font Color button, then select the color you want from the Color palette.
PARAGRAPH FORMATTING.
CAPITALIZATION OF TEXT.
You can capitalize letters by changing their case, or by creating a large letter at the beginning of a paragraph.
Changing the case of text.
When typing a text, the user can apply different cases in order to create contrast within the text.
They include;
Sentence Case: – makes the first letter of the first word in the selected sentences a capital.
Lowercase: - changes all selected text to small letters.
UPPERCASE: - changes all selected text to capital letters.
Title Case: - makes the first letter of each word in the selection a capital.
tOGGLE cASE: - changes all uppercase letters in the selection to lowercase and vice versa.
1. Select the text you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Change Case.
3. Form the Change Case dialog box, click the case type you want to be applied.
4. Click the OK button.
ADDING BULLETS & NUMBERS TO TEXT.
Bullets and numbers are used to mark steps in a procedure or items in a list.
Bullet: - A dot or any other symbol placed before text, such as items in a list, in order to add emphasis.
TEXT ALIGNMENT
Text Alignment refers to how text is positioned (lined up) in a paragraph relative to the left, right, or centre of the page.
34
Types of text alignment.
There are 4 ways in which text can be aligned;
(a). Left alignment.
This is the default alignment.
Lines of text are lined up evenly along the left margin, but unevenly at the right margin.
E.g., in a left-aligned paragraph, the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin.
(b). Right alignment.
Lines of text are lined up evenly along the right margin, but unevenly at the left margin.
(c). Center alignment.
The lines of text are centered unevenly between the left & right margins.
(d). Justification.
Lines of text are arranged evenly along the left & right margin.
The Justify option expands the spaces in each line so that the text is aligned evenly along both the left &
right margins.
Changing the space between lines or paragraphs.
Line spacing:
 Line spacing refers to the vertical distance between two lines of text in a paragraph.
 The amount of space from the bottom of one line of text to the bottom of the next line.
Line spacing determines the amount of vertical space between two lines of text in a paragraph. If a line contains a large text
character, graphic, or formula, Ms-Word increases the spacing for that line so that it can be accommodated.
Types of line spacing.
(i). Single line spacing.
Single line spacing accommodates the largest font in that line, leaving a small amount of extra space
between the lines, which varies depending on the font used.
(ii). 1.5 line spacing.
It is 1½ times that of single line spacing.
(iii). Double line spacing.
It is twice that of single line spacing.
(iv). At least.
This is the minimum line spacing that is needed to fit the largest font or graphic on the line.
(v). Exactly.
It is a fixed line spacing that Ms-Word does not adjust.
(vi). Multiple line spacing.
It is a line spacing that is increased or decreased by a % that you specify, e.g. setting line spacing to 1.2
will increase the space by 20%.
Creating Paragraph Indents.
Indentation refers to moving the text away from the margin.
Page margins determine the distance (or the space) between the text & the edge of the page, while paragraph
Indents and alignment determines the distance of the paragraph from either the left or right margins.
Types of paragraph indents.
(i). Left indent.
(ii). Right indent.
(iii). First-line indent.
This is a type of indent where only the first line of the paragraph is indented.
(iv). Hanging indent.
This is a type of indent where the first line of the paragraph extends to the left of the paragraph, but the
other lines of a paragraph are indented more than the first line (i.e., they ‘hang’ below the first line).
(v). Negative indent (also known as an outdent): - pulls the paragraph out towards the left margin.

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 PAGE FORMATTING.
INSERTING PAGE BREAKS.
A Page break identifies the end of one page and the beginning of the next page.
When typing, the text cursor inserts a new page automatically when the current a page is full with text or
graphics during typing. Such a page break is referred to an "Automatic" (or Soft) page break.
However, if the user wants a page to begin at a particular spot (even before the end of the page), he/she can
insert a page break manually. Such a page break is referred to as a "Manual" (or Hard) page break.
When a manual page break is inserted, Ms-Word automatically adjusts the automatic page breaks that follow.
In Normal view, a page break is indicated by a dashed line across the page from left to right.
PAGE SETUP
Page setup has options that allow the user to specify the size of the margins, paper size, and layout/appearance of a printed page.
Setting Page margins
Page margins are the visible blank spaces outside the printing area of a page. They mark the distance that the
text starts on a page away from the edge of the page.
Setting page Orientation.
Page orientation refers to how the text will be positioned on the printed page. It specifies how the document on the screen will be
printed on a page.
There are 2 types of page orientations:
1. Portrait: - Text & graphics are printed with the longest side of the page vertically upright.
2. Landscape: - Text & graphical objects are printed with the longest side of the page placed horizontally and the lines of text
printed parallel.
CREATING HEADERS & FOOTERS
Headers & footers contain standard text or information such as Page numbers, Chapter titles, or a Company logo. They may also
contain graphics.
A Header appears above the top margin of every page or in a section; Footer appears below the bottom margin of every page in a
document.
Note. Headers and footers appear only in Print layout view, and in printed documents.
Adding a border to a page
1. Click on Format, choose Borders and Shading, then click the Page Border tab.
2. Under Settings, click a border option.
3. To specify an artistic (a special) page border, select it in the Art box.
4. Under Apply to, specify a particular page or section where the border will appear in.
5. Click the OK button.
To remove the border, under Settings, click None, then click the OK button.
INSERTING FOOTNOTES & ENDNOTES
Footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment on, or provide references for text in
a document.
Footnotes Endnotes
1. Footnotes appear either at the bottom of 1. Endnotes appear either at the end of a
each page in a document or directly below document or at the end of each section.
the text.
2. Footnotes can be used for detailed 2. Endnotes can be used to quote or mention
comments. sources.
A Footnote or Endnote consists of 2 linked parts:
(i). The note reference mark,
(ii). The corresponding note text.

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SPREADSHEETS.
A Spreadsheet is a ledger sheet that lets the user enter, edit, and manipulate numerical data.
There are 2 types of spreadsheets:
1). Manual spreadsheet:
A Manual spreadsheet is ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into rows and columns for
entering/writing data. The data is entered manually using a pen or pencil.
2). Electronic Spreadsheet:
A computer program that looks like the manual ledger sheet with rows & columns for entering data that can
be manipulated mathematically using of formulae.
Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Worksheets.
1. Has a large worksheet for data entry & manipulation as compared to manual worksheet.
2. Has inbuilt formulae called Functions that are non-existent in manual worksheets. These functions enable
the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data.
3. Uses the power of the computer to quickly carry out operations.
4. Has better formatting & editing qualities than the manual worksheet.
5. Utilizes the large storage space available on computer storage devices to save & retrieve documents.
6. Can easily be modified in its form, while a manual spreadsheet involves a lot of manual calculations & are
very difficult to amend.
7. The user can very quickly & efficiently perform complicated computations using the information stored in
an electronic spreadsheet.
8. It is accurate in its calculations & allows automatic recalculation on formulae.
9. It offers graphical representation of data leading to comprehensive decisions.
10. Replaces the pencil & paper approach of the manual operations of the worksheet.
11. It improves on the capabilities & speed of the Calculator.
Examples of the commonly used Spreadsheet packages
 VisiCalc – this was the 1st type of spreadsheet to be developed for PCs.
 Lotus 123 – this is an integrated software with spreadsheet module, graphs, and database.
 Microsoft Excel.
 Corel Quattro-Pro
 Microsoft Works Excel
 Super calculators.
 Multiplan.
 Vp-Planner.
A spreadsheet has 3 main components, namely;
(a). Workbook.
(b). Database.
(c). Graphs / Charts.
Workbook: A Workbook is a file in a spreadsheet package that contains one or more worksheets. The
worksheets are made up of rows & columns in which you work and store your data.
Database:
These are features which are found on the Data menu, were incorporated in Excel but they belong to Database
Management System software. Examples: Filtering of records, use of Forms, calculating of Subtotals, data
validation, Pivot tables and Pivot chart reports.
Graphs/Charts:

37
A Chart is a graphical/pictorial representation of data in a worksheet. Charts are used to summarize data
in a worksheet in a pictorial form.
They enable the users to present complex data elements from a worksheet in a simple format that they can
understand.Charts make it easy for users to see comparisons, patterns, and trends in data, e.g., instead of having
to analyse several columns of a worksheet, one can see at a glance whether sales are falling or rising.
Examples of charts are: Pie charts, Line graphs, Bar charts, Histograms, Column charts, etc.
Application areas of spreadsheets (Areas where Spreadsheets are used)
1. Accounting.
Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means of financial management. For example; a spreadsheet
can be used to do the following:
 Record sales & purchases.
 Calculate profits.
 Produce Invoices, and also compile financial statements.
 Prepare budgets.
 Assist the management of an organization to monitor the current state of payments from customers in
relation to goods delivered.
 Detect aged debtors (i.e., those people who have owed you money for more than the period allowed in
your terms of business.
 Track the value of assets over time (i.e., Appreciation and Depreciation).
2. Data management.
A spreadsheet enables information to be produced easily and kept up-to-date. For example;
 It enables the user to create, edit, save, retrieve and print worksheet data & records.
 It enables data to be arranged neatly in tabular structure.
 Related data can be typed on the same worksheet. If the data is on different worksheets, the worksheets can
be linked so that the data can be accessed easily. Some of the data management functions include:
 Sorting (i.e., arranging worksheet records in a particular order so as to easily access the data items).
 Filtering (i.e., displaying only the records that meet a given condition).
 Use of Forms to enter & view records.
 Use of Total/Subtotal function.
3. Scientific Applications.
Spreadsheet programs can be used by Scientists & Researchers to compile & analyse their results.
4. Statistical analysis / Mathematical operations.
Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to develop complex statistical analyses.
In addition, some of the tools generate charts.Examples of statistical functions include:
 AVERAGE – used to calculate the mean of a set of values.
 MEDIAN – used to give the value in the middle of a set of values.
5. Forecasting (What if analysis).
What if analysis is a feature in a spreadsheet that is used to find out the effect of changing certain values in
a worksheet on other cells.It involves changing the value of one of the arguments in a formula in order to
see the difference the change would make on the result of the calculation.This method can be used for
financial forecasting, budgeting, cost analysis, etc.
Common features of Electronic spreadsheets.
1. Have the ability to create, edit, save & retrieve worksheets.
2. Have inbuilt functions & formulae which can be used to perform calculations.
3. Allows Automatic recalculation, i.e., when you change one value, the rest of the values in the
spreadsheet are automatically recalculated by the computer to correspond with the different input. This
enables you to play “what if” games with your system.
4. Have the ability to Sort and filter data (i.e., arrange data in a predefined order).
5. Have a Data validation facility, which ensures that the correct data is entered into the Spreadsheet.
6. Have a Chart facility that can be used to draw line graphs, Bar charts, histograms, etc.
38
7. Have the ability to adjust Column widths & Row heights automatically.
8. Have the ability to hide and unhide rows & columns, and also freeze panes.
9. They enable printing of worksheets within the shortest time possible.
10. They have pre-designed Templates for automating tasks.
A Template is a document that acts as a blueprint or outline for other documents of the same type. It
contains the standard text, graphics & formatting that will be used in all documents of this type.
11. Have the ability to summarize data using Consolidation and Pivot tables.
Consolidation allows the merging of several worksheets into a summary sheet, while still keeping the
original worksheets intact. Consolidation adds together cells with the same co-ordinates in the various
worksheets.
Pivot tables can be used to cross-tabulate large amounts of data.
THE WORKSHEET:
a. A Worksheet is a tool that is used for maintaining numeric data in a tabular form, simplifying
numerous calculations and presenting numerical data graphically. A Worksheet consists of cells that are
organized into columns & rows in which data entries are made.
o Columns: A Column is a vertical arrangement of cells. columns are named by letters (A, B, C, etc.)
o Rows: –A Row is usually a horizontal arrangement of cells. rows are named by numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.)
Cell: A box formed when a row & a column intersect in a worksheet or a table, where the data is entered.
A cell is referred to or identified by use of the column letter heading & the row number heading (e.g., A1
refers to the first cell).
TYPES OF DATA IN SPREADSHHETS.
 Labels (Text). Labels are texts consisting of alphanumeric characters that can be entered into a cell.
E.g., Item codes such as Salary, Names such as John.
 Values (Numbers).Values consist of numerals & mathematical formulas entered into a cell.
In Excel, a number can contain only the following characters: digits 0 to 9 + - ( ) / $ %.
 Formulas.A Formula is a sequence of values, cell references, functions & arithmetic operators whose calculation
results to a numeric value. It is an equation that performs operations on worksheet data.
 Functions.It is a special command, which you can type into your formula to perform arithmetic operations.
 dates and times: for record-keeping purposes
CELL REFERENCES (Cell Addresses).
 A Cell reference is the identity of a cell or a range of cells in a worksheet.
Examples of Cell references.
(i). Single cell reference.
(ii). Mixed cell reference.
(iii). Label cell reference.
(iv). Relative cell reference.
(v). Absolute cell reference.

Examples of cell references.

To refer to Type
The cell in column A & row 10 A10
The range of cells in column A & rows 10 to 20 A10:A20
The range of cells in row 15 & columns B to E B15:E15
All cells in row 5 5:5
All cells in rows 5 to 10 5:10
All cells in column H H:H
All cells in columns H to J H:J
The range of cells in columns A to E & rows 10 to 20 A10:E20

A Relative reference is a cell reference, which changes automatically when the formula is copied to another
cell or range. When you copy a formula containing relative references down or across from one cell to another,
39
Ms-Excel adjusts the references in the pasted formula automatically to refer to a different cell that is the same
no. of rows & columns away from the formula.
Example 1:
If the formula in cell B6 (i.e., =A5) (which is one cell above & one cell to the left of B6) is copied to cell B7.
Ms-Excel will adjust the formula in cell B7 to =A6, which refers to the cell that is one cell above and one cell to
the left of cell B7.
Example 2:
If cell A3 contains the formula =A1+A2, and you copy cell A3 to cell B3, the formula in cell B3 becomes
=B1+B2.
ABSOLUTE REFERENCES.
In a formula, an Absolute cell reference is the exact address of a cell, regardless of the position of the cell that
contains the formula. An absolute cell reference takes the form $A$1, $B$1, etc.
The table below shows the different types of references.
Reference: Effect on a cell reference
A1 Relative reference.
$A$1 Both rows and column references are absolute
A$1, B$1 Absolute row reference, i.e., only the row reference is absolute.
$A1, $B1 Absolute column reference, i.e., only the column reference is absolute.
Unlike relative references, Absolute references don’t automatically adjust when you copy formulas across rows
and down columns. For example, if you copy an absolute reference in cell B2 to cell B3, it stays the same in
both cells.
For example,
If your formula multiplies cell A5 with cell C1 (=A5*C1), you can create an absolute reference to cell C1 by
placing a dollar sign ($) before the parts of the reference that you don’t want them to change.
Worked Example:
A B C D E F G H
1 ABC Company Sales Performance Report
2
3 Salesman Target Qtr1 Qtr2 Qtr3 Qtr4 Total Commission
4 Albert 750 148 156 171 140 615 =G4*$A$13
5 Carl 650 122 131 153 118 524 =G5*$A$13
6 Cornell 800 211 243 246 250 950 =G6*$A$13
7 Edwin 700 129 150 92 218 589 =G7*$A$13
8 Francis 1,000 311 270 247 322 1,150 =G8*$A$13
9
10 Totals 3,900 921 950 909 1,048 7,728 =G10*$A$13
11
12 Commission Rate
13 15% (or 0.15)
To get the commission for each salesperson, the formula =G4*$A$13 is entered in cell H4. The dollar sign ($)
indicates an absolute reference to the cell A13. This means that, whenever the commission rate formula is
copied, it always refers to cell A13.When the formula =G4*$A$13 is copied down to H10, the results will be as
shown.
1. Determine which cell reference is to be absolute, e.g., in the example above cell A13.
2. Type the dollar sign ($) just before the part of the cell reference that you want to remain exactly the same
when you copy the formula to another cell.
3. Copy the formula to the rest of the cells.
FORMULAS AND ERROR VALUES.
If a formula cannot properly evaluate a result, Ms-Excel will display an error value.

40
For example, error values can be as a result of using text where a formula expects a numeric value, deleting a
cell that is referenced by a formula, or using a cell that is not wide enough to display the result.
1. #####
Causes. This error value occurs when the cell contains a number, date or time that is wider than the cell.
-OR- It occurs when the cell contains a date or a time formula that produces a negative result.
Suggested action.
(i). Increase the width of the column by dragging the boundary between the column headings.
(ii). Apply a different number format in the cell to make the number fit within the existing cell width.
E.g., decrease the no. of decimal places after the decimal point.
(iii). Ensure that the data and time formulas are correct. When you subtract dates and times, make sure
you build the formula correctly.
2. #N/A. The #NA error value occurs when a value is not available to a function or formula.
Possible cause Suggested action
(i). Omitting 1 or more arguments in a function Enter all arguments in the function.
3. #DIV/0!. This error value occurs when you enter a formula that contains a division by zero (0).
E.g., =5/0. It may also occur when you divide a cell by another cell that is blank.
Suggested action.
(i). Change the divisor to a number other than zero.
4. #NULL!.The #NULL! error value occurs when you specify an intersection of two areas that do not
intersect. i.e., using an incorrect range operator or using an incorrect cell reference.
Suggested action.
(i). Use the correct range operator. For instance, to refer to two areas that don’t intersect, use the Comma.
E.g. if the formula sums two ranges, separate the two ranges with a comma.
=SUM(A1:A9,C1:C6).
(ii). Check for typing errors in the reference to the ranges.
5. #NAME?.The #NAME? error value occurs when Ms-Excel doesn’t recognize text in a formula.
Possible cause Suggested action
(i). Deleting a name used in the formula, or Make sure the name exists.
using a name that does not exist
(ii). Misspelling the name of a function Correct the spelling.
(iii). Omitting a colon (:) in a range reference Make sure all range references in the
formula use a colon.
E.g. =SUM(A1:A5)
(iv). Entering text in a formula without Enclose text in the formula in double
enclosing the text in double quotation marks (“). quotation marks.
Ms-Excel tries to interpret your entry as a name E.g. the following formula joins a
even though you intended it to be used as text. piece of text “The total amount is”
with the value in cell B5:
=”The total amount is” & B5
6. #NUM! This occurs when a problem occurs with a number in a formula or function. E.g., Entering a
formula that produces a number to a number that is too large or too small to be represented in Ms-Excel.
Suggested action
(i). Change the formula so that its result is between – 1*10307 and 1*10307.
7. #VALUE!.The #VALUE error value occurs when the wrong type of argument or operand is used.
8. #REF!.The #REF error value occurs when a cell reference is not valid. For instance, deleting cells referred
to by other formulas, or pasting moved cells over cells referred to by other formulas.
Suggested action
(i). Change the formulas, or restore the cells on the worksheet by clicking Undo immediately after you
delete or paste the cells.
DATA SORTING.

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Sorting is the process of arranging data within a range in a particular order.
Purpose.
√ Sorting helps in arranging data in some order of priority, i.e., from lowest to highest or from highest
to lowest.
√ It also helps to quickly locate the highest or lowest value in a list.
When you sort, Ms-Excel rearranges rows, columns, or individual cells by using the sort order that you
specify. You can sort a list in Ascending (1-9, A-Z) or Descending order (9-1, Z-A). You can perform a sort
based on the contents of one or more columns.
Note. The data is sorted in reference to columns.
LIST OF SOME FUNCTIONS USED IN A SPREADSHEET
PRODUCT: multiplies all the nos. given as arguments and returns the product.
SUM adds all the numbers in a range of cells. E.g =SUM(F6,D7,-E7), =SUM(A2:A4)
SQRT gives a positive square root of a specific number.e.g =SQRT(B2)
POWER gives the result of a no. raised to a power. E.g=POWER(5,2)
ROUND function rounds a given number to a specified no. of digits. E.g =ROUND(2.149,1)
LOG - Gives the logarithm of a number to the base you specify. E.g =LOG(8, 2)
MOD - Gives the remainder after a number is divided by a divisor. E.g =MOD(3, 2)
AVERAGE gives the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments provided.e.g =AVERAGE(A2:A6)
MAX- Gives the largest value in a set of values.
MIN - Gives the smallest number in a set of values.
MEDIAN gives the number in the middle of a set of numbers.
MODE - Gives the most frequently occurring, or repetitive, value in a range of data.
COUNT - Counts the no. of cells that contain numbers within the list of arguments.
IF is used to conduct conditional tests on values and formulas. E.g =IF(A2<=100,"Within budget","Over
budget")
SUMIF - Adds all the values in a range that meet specific critera
SUMIFS (2007+) - Adds values in a range based on multiple criteria
SUMPRODUCT - Sum a range of cells that meet multiple criteria
ROUNDUP - Round a number up to a specified number of digits
ROUNDDOWN - Round a number down to a specified number of digits
COUNT - Counts all the values in a range
COUNTA - Counts all non-empty cells in a range
COUNTBLANK - Counts all blank cells in a range
COUNTIF - Counts all the cells in a range that meet specific critera
RANK - Returns the rank or position of a number within a range of numbers
NOW - Returns the current date and time
DATE - Returns the sequential serial number for the specified date and formats the result as a date
CREATING CHARTS.
Purpose.
√ Charts are used to present data effectively. They make relationships among numbers easy for users
to see because they turn numbers into shapes that can be compared to one another.
Different Types of Charts and their uses.
(i). Line Chart: A Line graph is used to show trends.
(ii). Bar Chart: - It can be used to show comparison of Sales and Target.
(iii). A Stacked Bar Chart: - It can be used to show the distribution of sales by month and compare the
performance of salesmen.
(iv). A Pie Chart: shows the distribution of sales.
(v). Scatter Charts.
(vi). Column Charts.

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DATABASES.
What is a Database?
 It is a collection of information related to a particular subject or purpose.
 A collection of related data or information grouped together under one logical structure.
 A logical collection of related files grouped together by a series of tables as one entity.
Examples of databases.
You can create a database for;
- Customers’ details. - Library records.
- Personal records. - Flight schedules.
- Employees’ records. - A music collection.
- An Address book (or Telephone directory), where each person has the Name, Address, City & Telephone no.

DATABASE CONCEPTS.
Definition & Background.
A Database is a common data pool, maintained to support the various activities taking place within an organization.
The manipulation of database contents to yield information is by the user programs.
The database is an organized set of data items that reduces duplications of the stored files.

INTEGRATED FILE SYSTEMS.

These refer to the traditional methods of storing files, i.e., the use of paper files. E.g., Manual & Flat files.
- In Integrated file systems, several inter-independent files are maintained for the different users’ requirements.
- The Integrated file systems have the problems of data duplication.
- In order to carry out any file processing task(s), all the related files have to be processed.
- Some information resulting from several files may not be available, giving the overall state of affairs of the system.

DATABASE MAINTENANCE.
A Database cannot be created fully at once. Its creation and maintenance is a gradual and continuous procedure. The creation & the
maintenance of databases is under the influence of a set of user programs known as the Database Management Systems (DBMS).
Through the DBMS, users communicate their requirements to the database using Data Description Languages (DDL’s) & Data
Manipulation Languages (DML’s).
In fact, the DBMS provide an interface between the user’s programs and the contents of the database.
During the creation & subsequent maintenance of the database, the DDL’s & DML’s are used to:
(i). Add new files to the database.
(ii). Incorporate fields onto the existing records in the database.
(iii). Delete the obsolete (outdated) records.
(iv). Carry out adjustments on (or amend) the existing records.
(v). Expand the database capacity, for it to cater for the growth in the volume for enhanced application requirements.
(vi). Link up all the data items in the database logically.

Data Dictionary.
43
All definitions of elements in the system are described in detail in a Data dictionary.
The elements of the system that are defined are: Dataflow, Processes, and Data stores.
If a database administrator wants to know the definition of a data item name or the content of a particular dataflow, the information
should be available in the dictionary.
Notes.
 Databases are used for several purposes, e.g., in Accounting – used for maintenance of the customer files within the base.
 Database systems are installed & coordinated by a Database Administrator, who has the overall authority to establish and control
data definitions and standards.
 Database storage requires a large Direct Access storage (e.g., the disk) maintained on-line.
 The database contents should be backed up, after every update or maintenance run, to supplement the database contents in case of
loss. The backup media to be used is chosen by the organization.

Data Bank.
A Data Bank can be defined as a collection of data, usually for several users, and available to several organizations.
A Data Bank is therefore, a collection of databases.
Notes.
 The Database is organizational, while a Data Bank is multi-organizational in use.
 The Database & the Data Bank have similar construction and purpose. The only difference is that, the term Data Bank is used to
describe a larger capacity base, whose contents are mostly of historical references (i.e., the Data Bank forms the basis for data or
information that is usually generated periodically). On the other hand, the contents of the Database are used frequently to generate
information that influences the decisions of the concerned organization.

TYPES OF DATABASE MODELS.

(1). Relational database model.
A Relational database is a set of data where all the items are related.
The data elements in a Relational database are stored or organized in tables. A Table consists of rows & columns. Each column
represents a Field, while a row represents a Record. The records are grouped under fields.
~ A Relational database is flexible and easy to understand.
~ A Relational database system, has the ability to quickly find & bring information stored in separate tables
together using queries, forms, & reports. This means that, a data element in any one table can be related to
any piece of data in another table as long as both tables share common data elements.
Examples of Relational database systems;
(i). Microsoft Access.
(ii). FileMaker Pro.
(iii). Approach.
(2). Hierarchical database model.
It is a data structure where the data is organized like a family tree or an organization chart.
In a Hierarchical database, the records are stored in multiple levels. Units further down the system are subordinate to the ones
above.
In other words, the database has branches made up of parent and child records. Each parent record can have multiple child
records, but each child can have only one parent.

Components of Data hierarchy.

Databases (logical collection of related files).

Files (collection of related records).

Records (collection of related fields).

Fields (Facts, attributes – a set of related characters).

Characters (Alphabets, numbers & special characters or symbols).

(3). Network database model.
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 A Network database model represents many-to-many relationships between data. It allows a data element or record to be related
to more than one other data element or record. For example, an employee can be associated with more than one department.

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS).

 These are programs used to store & manage files or records containing related information.
 A collection of programs required to store & retrieve data from a database.
 A DBMS is a tool that allows one to create, maintain, update and store the data within a database.
A DBMS is a complex software, which creates, expands & maintains the database, and it also provides the interface between the user
and the data in the database.
A DBMS enables the user to create lists of information in a computer, analyse them, add new information, delete old information, and
so on. It allows users to efficiently store information in an orderly manner for quick retrieval.
A DBMS can also be used as a programming tool to write custom-made programs.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATABASE SOFTWARE.

Database software is generally classified into 2:
1. PC-based database software (or Personal Information Managers – PIMs).
2. Corporate-based database software.
PC-based database software.
The PC-based database programs are usually designed for individual users or small businesses.
They provide many general features for organizing & analyzing data. For example, they allow users to create database files, enter
data, organize that data in various ways, and also create reports.
They do not have strict security features, complicated backup & recovery procedures.
Examples of PC-based systems;
* Microsoft Access. * FoxPro.
* Dbase III Plus * Paradox.
Corporate database software.
They are designed for big corporations that handle large amounts of data.
Issues such as security, data integrity (reliability), backup and recovery are taken seriously to prevent loss of information.
Examples of Corporate-based systems;
* Oracle. * Informix * Ingress.
* Progress. * Sybase. * SQL Server.

Common features of a database packages.

(i). Have facilities for Creating databases.
(ii). Have facilities for Updating records or databases.
Using a DBMS, you can define relationships between records & files maintained in a database. In this case, a transaction in
one file of the database can also cause a series of updates in parts of other tables. Thus, the data is input only once to the
database and is made available to the many files composing it.
(iii). Have facilities for generating Reports.
(iv). Have a Find or Search facility that enables the user to scan through the records in the database so as to find information he/she
needs.
(v). Allow Sorting that enables the user to organize & arrange the records within the database.
(vi). Contain Query & Filter facilities that specify the information you want the database to search or sort.
(vii). Have a data Validating facility.

FUNCTIONS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

The DBMS is a set of software, which have several functions in relation to the database as listed below:
1. Creates or constructs the database contents through the Data Manipulation Languages.
2. Interfaces (links) the user to the database contents through Data Manipulation Languages.
3. Ensures the growth of the database contents through addition of new fields & records onto the database.

45
4. Maintains the contents of the database. This involves adding new records or files into the database, modifying the already
existing records & deleting of the outdated records.
5. It helps the user to sort through the records & compile lists based on any criteria he/she would like to establish.
6. Manages the storage space for the data within the database & keeps track of all the data in the database.
7. It provides flexible processing methods for the contents of the database.
8. Protects the contents of the database against all sorts of damage or misuse, e.g. illegal access.
9. Monitors the usage of the database contents to determine the rarely used data and those that are frequently used, so that they can
be made readily available, whenever need arises.
10. It maintains a dictionary of the data within the database & manages the data descriptions in the dictionary.

Note. Database Management System (DBMS) is used for database;

√ Creation.
√ Manipulation.
√ Control, and
√ Report generation.
ADVANTAGES OF USING A DBMS.
1. Database systems can be used to store data, retrieve and generate reports.
2. It is easy to maintain the data stored within a database.
3. A DBMS is able to handle large amounts of data.
4. Data is stored in an organized format, i.e. under different fieldnames.
5. With modern equipment, data can easily be recorded.
6. Data is quickly & easily accessed or retrieved, as it is properly organized.
7. It helps in linking many database tables and sourcing of data from these tables.
8. It is quite easy to update the data stored within a database.
A database is a collection of files grouped together by a series of tables as one entity. These tables serve as an index for defining
relationships between records and files maintained in the database. This makes updating of the data in the related tables very
easy.
9. Use of a database tool reduces duplication of the stored files, and the reprocessing of the same data items. In addition, several
independent files are maintained for the different user requirements.
10. It is used to query & display records satisfying a given condition.
11. It is easy to analyse information stored in a database & to prepare summary reports & charts.
12. It cost saving. This results from the sharing of records, reduced processing times, reduced use of software and hardware, more
efficient use of data processing personnel, and an overall improvement in the flow of data.
13. Use of Integrated systems is greatly facilitated.
An Integrated system – A total system approach that unifies all the aspects of the organization. Facilities are shared across the
complete organization.
14. A lot of programming time is saved because the DBMS can be used to construct & process files as well as retrieve data.
15. Information supplied to managers is more valuable, because it is based on a widespread collection of data (instead of files, which
contain only the data needed for one application).
16. The database also maintains an extensive Inventory Control file. This file gives an account of all the parts & equipment
throughout the maintenance system. It also defines the status of each part and its location.
17. It enables timely & accurate reporting of data to all the maintenance centres. The same data is available and distributed to
everyone.
18. The database maintains files related to any work assigned to outside service centres.
Many parts are repaired by the vendors from whom they are purchased. A database is used to maintain data on the parts that have
been shipped to vendors and those that are outstanding from the inventory. Data relating to the guarantees and warranties of
individual vendors are also stored in the database.

DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASES.
1. A Database system requires a big size, very high cost & a lot of time to implement.
2. A Database requires the use of a large-scale computer system.
3. The time involved. A project of this type requires a minimum of 1 – 2 years.
4. A large full-time staff is also required to design, program, & support the implementation of a database.
5. The cost of the database project is a limiting factor for many organizations.
Database-oriented computer systems are not luxuries, and are undertaken when proven economically reasonable.

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Exercise (a).
1. (a). What is a database?
(b). What are Database management system software?
2. Name and explain the THREE types of database models. (6 marks).
3. Explain THREE major concerns in a database system. (6 marks).
4. How are database software generally classified? Give examples of range of products in each type of classification.
5. State 5 features of an electronic database management system.
6. Explain the importance of using a Database management system for storage of files in an organization.

Exercise (b).
1. Write short notes on:
(i). Database.
(ii). Database maintenance.
(iii). Data bank.
2. State the components of a data hierarchy.
3. (a). List the TWO classes of database software.
(b). Give FOUR widely used Database management systems today.
4. Identify FIVE functions of a Database management system.
5. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of a database.

Exercise (c).
1. Define the following terms:
(i). Database. (4 marks)
(ii). Database Management System (DBMS). (4 marks).
(iii). Relational database.
(iv). Hierarchical database.
(v). Network database.
2. List and briefly describe THREE advantages of using the electronic database approach in data storage as compared to the file-
based approach.
3. List and briefly describe TWO features found in a typical Database Management System.
4. Identify and describe three major shortcomings of the conventional file structures that are being addressed by the database
approach. (6 marks).
5. Describe the functions of the following tools found in a database management system (DBMS).
(a). Data Definition Language (DDL) (2 marks).
(b). Data Manipulation Languages (DML) (2 marks).
Data Dictionary (DD)

47
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS
COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is a system of interconnected computers and peripheral devices.
COMMUNICATIONS
Communications is about the transfer of information from a sender, across a distance, to a receiver.
PURPOSE OF NETWORKING
Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include:
1). Resource sharing
A Network resource refers to any component that can be attached to the network for access by users.
Some of the shared resources include:
i). Application programs. vii). Network Printers
ii). Data and information. viii). Fax machines
iii). Messages. ix). Modems
iv). Graphics. x). Storage devices (optical drives).
v). Files. xi). Communication ports.
vi). Computer processing power. xii). Disk space
2). Remote communications
Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication devices
located at different geographical locations.
A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a remote client,
while the computer being accessed is called a remote host.
3). Distributed processing facilities
Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different computers,
which are on the same network but placed in separate locations.
Each computer has its own local peripherals, e.g., disks, printers, terminals, etc.
Advantages of distributed processing.
1. Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally; hence, no time wastage.
3. There is faster access of data as each machine can process & store its data.
4. It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
5. It can accommodate users with variety of needs.
Disadvantages of distributed processing.
1. It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected file and spread it throughout the
network.
2. Developing an effective back up plan is more difficult when users store data in their individual systems.
3. File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in different locations.
4). Cost effectiveness
The initial cost of purchasing and laying down of networks components may be expensive. However, the
savings experienced and the value added to service delivery make networks cost effective.
5). Reliability
A computer network is reliable especially when communicating or accessing information:
i). Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to destination.
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 ii). Incase one computer breaks down; the user can still access data & information from the other
computers using another computer on the network.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A NETWORK
(a) A resource to share (resource)
(b) A pathway to transfer data (transmission medium)
(c) A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols).
Components of a Network
A computer network comprises the following components:
 A minimum of at least 2 computers
 Cables that connect the computers to each other, although wireless communication is becoming more
common (see Advice Sheet 20 for more information)
 A network interface device on each computer (this is called a network interface card or NIC)
 A ‘Switch’ used to switch the data from one point to another. Hubs are outdated and are little used for
new installations.
 Network operating system software
Functions of network operating systems
A network operating system performs the following network related functions:
1. Provides access to network resources, e.g., printers and folders.
2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate efficiently with each other.
3. Enables the various processes on the network to communicate with one another.
4. Responds to requests from application programs running on the network.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Networks are often classified as Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN), Personal Area Network (PAN), Virtual Private Network (VPN), Campus Area Network
(CAN), Storage Area Network (SAN), etc. depending on their scale, scope and purpose.
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close
to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs
and scanners.
A local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or
small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on
Ethernet technology
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that connects two or more local area networks or campus area
networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town/city. Routers, switches and
hubs are connected to create a metropolitan area network.
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e. any network whose
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries [1]). Less formally, a WAN is a
network that uses routers and public communications
CONNECTIONS FOR NETWORKING
Wired Technologies
Twisted-Pair Wire - This is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are
ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for both
voice and data transmission.
Unshielded Twisted Pair - Twisted pair wiring, carries signal 100 meters. Is susceptible to crosstalk.
Shielded Twisted Pair - Twisted pair wiring, carries signal 100 meters. Has foil or braided jacket around wiring
to help reduce crosstalk and to prevent electromagnetic interference.
Coaxial Cable – These cables are widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other worksites
for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically
of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer.

49
Fiber Optics – These cables consist of one or more thin filaments of glass fiber wrapped in a protective layer. It
transmits light which can travel over long distance and higher bandwidths. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by
electromagnetic radiation.
Wireless Technologies
Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The equipment look
similar to satellite dishes
Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications medium which are
not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere
Cellular and PCS Systems – Use several radio communications technologies.
Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular
and a low-frequency radio technology.
Bluetooth – A short range wireless technology. Operate at approx. 1Mbps with range from 10 to 100 meters.
Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for data exchange over short distances.
The Wireless Web – The wireless web refers to the use of the World Wide Web through equipments like cellular
phones, pagers, PDAs, and other portable communications devices.
NETWORK DESIGN/TOPOLOGY
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer
Physical topology refers to the placement of the network's various components, including device location and
cable installation, while logical topology shows how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical
design. The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the network.
TYPES OF PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES
 -BUS TOPOLOGY A single cable (trunk) that connects all computers in a single line.
 Star - Computers connect to a centralized hub via cable segments. In local area networks with a
star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point connection
 Ring - Connects all computers on a single cable. Ends are not terminated, but form a full loop
connecting the last computer to the first computer. A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion
in which data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to
keep the signal strong as it travels
 Mesh - Commonly used in WAN configurations. Routers are connected to multiple links for
redundancy and to give the ability to determine the quickest route to a destination
INTERNET.
What is the Internet?
 Internet refers to a global inter-connection of computers and computer networks to facilitate global information transfer. It is an
interconnection of computers throughout the world, using ordinary telecommunication lines and modems.The Internet uses
VSATS (Very Small Aperture Telecommunication Systems) such as Telephone lines, Satellite.
The other names for the Internet are:
- The Net.
- Information Superhighway.
- Cyber space.
Features of the Internet.
(i). The Internet is a collection of networks; it is not owned or controlled by any single organization, and it has
no formal management organization. However, there is an Internet Society that co-ordinates and sets
standards for its use.
In addition, Networks have no political boundaries on the exchange of information.
(ii). Networks are connected by Gateways that effectively remove barriers so that one type of network can
“talk” to a different type of network.
(iii). To join the Internet, an existing network will only be required to pay a small registration fee and agree to
certain standards based on TCP/IP.
CONNECTING (LOGGING ON) TO THE INTERNET.
Log On -To identify yourself & gain access to a computer. To log on, type a user name & a password.
Facilities Needed.
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To use the Internet, you must have access to it. In order to get connected to the Internet and access the World
wide Web, you will require the following facilities:
1). A Computer.
2). Web Browsers.
Web browsers are application programs that are used to retrieve Web pages from the Internet onto your
Personal Computer.
One of the most popular Web browsers is Internet Explorer from Microsoft.
3). Telephone lines.
4). Modem (Modulator/Demodulator).
A Modem is a device that enables you to connect to the Internet, and access information.
5). Internet Service Provider (ISP).
 Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a commercial organization (or a company) that provides Internet
connections, along with a set of support services usually for a fee. It maintains a Server that is directly
connected to the Internet.
Examples of the local ISPs include;
 Africa Online, Kenya Web, ISP Kenya, Swift Kenya, and Inter-Connect.
Note. ISPs charge for the services rendered.
6). Website.
This is an area in the Internet where information of a particular organization is kept. The Website must be
updated on daily basis.
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNET.
The services offered by the Internet can be used as important tools in various ways:
1). As a research tool:
To learn about new developments or products, competitors, market news and customer opinions.
2). As an advertising / trading tool:
To help in selling goods or delivering information through the Web pages to customers on a 24-hour basis.
3As a communication tool:
To support communication with customers, suppliers or staff through Electronic mail (e-mail).
3). As an Entertainment channel:
Most of the Games, Movies, and Television theme songs are available for free on the Internet.
In addition, you can have live, interactive conversations with people around the world including celebrities.
Advantages of the Internet.
One can download (copy) information from a Website.
(i). The Internet has enabled the interlinking of people worldwide / globally.
(ii). It is convenient in the sense that you can access data 24 Hrs.
(iii). It is cheap, i.e., the operational cost that one may incur is low.
(iv). It has brought in the technology of doing the following; E-learning, E-Agriculture, E-commerce, E-
governance, etc.
(v). Provides up-to-date information.
(vi). It doesn’t require a lot of training to browse.
(vii). It provides entertainment facilities.
Disadvantages of Internet.
(i). It’s a technology, which is fetched for (imposed/forced on) the Third world countries.
(ii). The cost of the Internet Service Provider is high.
(iii). It is leading to exposure of morally harmful shows such as Pornography.
(iv). It leads to spread of viruses.
(v). Has proved to be unreliable especially accessing information.
No copyright rules meant to protect the property of an organization
INTERNET SERVICES.summary
The following are some of the services offered by Internet:
(i). Electronic mail (e-mail).
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(ii). Fax services.
(iii). Conference services.
(iv). Online chatting.
(v). Downloading of programs.
(vi). Online shopping.
(vii). File transfer.
(viii). Entertainment (Games, Music and Movies).
(ix). Free information retrieval (e.g., Educational information).
(x). Formation of Discussion groups, e.g. Usenet Newsgroups.
(xi). Video Conferencing.
(xii). Access & Use of other computers.
Electronic Mail (E-mail).
 E-Mail (Electronic mail) refers to electronic messages sent over the Internet or a network. E-mail can
contain both text & files.
E-mail program.
Your computer must be installed with an e-mail program that lets you send, receive and manage your e-mail
messages.
Examples of E-mail programs;
 Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express, & Microsoft Exchange from Microsoft.
 Communicator from Netscape.
 Lotus Notes.
 Eudora.
Components of an E-mail address.
An e-mail address consists of two parts separated by the @ symbol. For example, if your e-mail address is
[email protected]:
(i). The 1st part of the address to the left side of the @ symbol refers to the person’s identity or login name. It
is the name or identifier of the specific individual or organization, e.g., “drg”.
(ii). The 2nd part following the “@” symbol is the computer address. It is usually made up of 2 to 3 sub-parts
to further identify the individual, organization, ISP or a country. In this case:
 “tropicalheat” identifies the business.
 “.com” is the extension, which identifies the type of the organization.
The table below shows some extensions and what they represent: -
Extension Represents
.org A non-profit making organization
.edu An educational institution or organization
.com A commercial organization
.net Network
.mil Military
.gov government
Sometimes, the name of the country is included in the e-mail address. E.g., [email protected] or
[email protected].
Advantages of E-mail.
Electronic mail has several advantages over regular mail.
(i). It is cheap & economical.
It costs almost nothing to transmit an e-mail message over the network, i.e., there is no need for stamps,
envelopes, etc.
(ii). It is secure, i.e., access to a user’s mailbox can be restricted by use of a password.
(iii). It is faster, i.e., mails can be sent instantly.
The delivery of an e-mail message normally takes seconds or minutes, depending on the distance to the
receiver.
(iv). It is efficient, i.e., a message prepared only once can be sent to several people.
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(v). It is convenient.
With E-mail, you can send your messages when it is convenient for you and your recipients respond at
their convenient times.
(vi). E-mail is cheaper in terms of the time invested in preparing the message.
Disadvantages of E-mail.
(i). The initial installation cost is higher.
(ii). Messages may be lost before they are read due to virus infections.
(iii). Messages may not be kept for future reference due to the high cost of storage, i.e., it requires regular deletion of messages from
the hard disk.

USING MICROSOFT WORD 2003

10/18/07

EXERCISE 1

PURPOSE

In this exercise you will learn to use the Microsoft Word program to do typing on the computer. Typing on
the computer is called word processing.

STARTING YOUR COMPUTER

Turn on the monitor by firmly but briefly pressing the button on the front below the screen.
Then turn on the computer by firmly but briefly pressing the power button about half way down on the front
panel of the console.
Wait while the computer comes up it may take quite awhile. You should then see the desktop screen.

THE UBIQUITOUS ENTER KEY

YOU WILL ALSO LEARN the dual purpose of the Enter Key on the keyboard
Pecking the Enter key can be used to make the computer start your next operation and it ALSO can be used
to make a new paragraph in you text.
IMPORTANT! THE PROPER WAY TO HOLD A MOUSE
THE MOUSE SHOULD BE HELD WITH THE WIRE POINTING AWAY FROM YOU AND
WITH THE HEAL OF YOUR HAND USED AS A PIVOT.
THE INDEX FINDER SHOULD BE OVER THE LEFT BUTTON AND THE MIDDLE FINGER
OVER THE RIGHT BUTTON. THE THUMB SHOULD BE HOLDING THE LEFT SIDE, AND
THE RING AND PINKY HOLDING THE RIGHT SIDE.

HOW TO PROPERLY CLICK THE MOUSE

When the instructions below say click, it means clicking with the left mouse button. Clicking is done in
three steps
· Point the mouse at a what you want to click
· Press the left mouse down firmly
· Quickly let up on the button
53
 DETERMINING THE PURPOSE OF THE CURSOR
The cursor is the little blinking vertical line on your screen. The cursor tells you where the next character
(letter) will be inserted when you type it in from the keyboard. The cursor has other names like: insertion
point and place marker. Actually the cursor marks the insertion point on the text screen.

EXERCISE 1
Type in:
Mary had a little lamb

COMPUTER LOGIC
To a computer, a word in not a word without a space at the end Therefore, what you learned in elementary
school that spaces were between words was WRONG!
FOR A COMPUTER TO WORK FOR YOU LOGICALLY YOU MUST PUT A SPACE AT THE END
OF EACH WORD, AND A PERIOD AND A SPACE AT THE END OF EACH SENTENCE.

SAVING YOUR NEW DOCUMENT FOR THE FIRST TIME

ONE VERY IMPORTANT ASPECT OF COMPUTERS IS THAT TEXT IS JUST A DOCUMENT

RESIDING IN THE MEMORY OF THE COMPUTER, UNTIL IT IS SAVED TO A STORAGE DEVICE.
STORAGE DEVICES CAN BE A FOLDER ON THE HARD DRIVE, USB FLASH DRIVE, OR A
FLOPPY DISK, AND POSSIBLEY A CD. THE PROCESS OF CHANGING A DOCUMENT INTO A
FILE IS CALLED SAVING. IN THE PROCESS OF SAVING YOU MUST GIVE THE DOCUMENT A
PROPER “FILE NAME”. SO ONCE A DOCUMENT IS SAVED IT IS CALLED A FILE.

SAVING YOUR NEW DOCUMENT FOR THE FIRST TIME TO “MY DOCUMENTS” FOLDER
ON THE HARD DRIVE

This is the easiest, because this is the default location where the computer has been set to save.

1. Using your mouse, go up and click on the “File” button in the upper left corner of the Menu bar. This will
give you a new menu.

2. Now click on the “Save” or “Save as” button. It doesn’t matter the first time you save a document This
will give you a dialog box titled “Save As” (PLEASE SEE EXHIBIT ATTACHED BELOW)

Notice what is says in the “Save In” box. It says “My Documents”. So this time to make it easy we will save
in “My Documents” on the hard drive.

54
3. Go down to the “File Name” box. Drag over the words in the File Name box to highlight them. Peck the
Backspace key to clear the box.

4. Type in a new name for the document (I suggest you use Mary as the file name and in addition, the date,
in year, month, day order i.e. 07.05.31. So the file name would be Mary 07.05.31, you would of course use
the date that you saved the document to a file

5. Now click the Save Button.

It is important for you to understand that if you save to the My Documents folder of a computer that is in
public use, that your document is on the hard drive of that computer and could be erased or changed by
anyone using that computer. For the computers at Shell Point and some public computers, the My
Documents folders are automatically erased when the computer is shut down.

EXERCISE 2

SAVING YOUR NEW DOCUMENT FOR THE FIRST TIME TO A FOLDER ON MY

DOCUMENTS

PREPARING YOUR DOCUMENT

1. Single click on the Microsoft Word Icon and Peck the Enter Key)

2. Type in: Mary had a little lamb

3. Start a new paragraph or new sentence by pecking the Enter key. This will put the cursor at the
beginning of a new paragraph and a new sentence. Now type in:

4. Now type in: Its fleece was white as snow.

Note If you make a mistake peck the Backspace key until you have cleared out the mistake and start typing
again. Or move the arrow with the arrow keys to where you want of make the correction.

NOW LETS SAVE WHAT YOU HAVE TYPED

TO A Folder in MY Documents

55
 1. Using your mouse, go up and click on the “File” button in the upper left corner of the Menu bar. This will

give you a new menu.

2. Click on the “Save as” button. This will give you a dialog menu titled “Save As”

Notice what is says in the “Save In” box. It says “My Documents”. So this time we will not save to “My
Documents”. We will save to a folder in My Documents. Notice the little icon on the Save In line. If you put
your mouse arrow on it, It will say Create a New Folder – click on that Icon. You will get a dialog display

Type in a name for the folder I suggest you use your last name and the word STUFF – DO IT ALL IN
CAPS

Now click on the OK button.

Type in the name for your document: Mary PLUS THE DATE In this format 07.05.31

Now click the Save button

It is important for you to understand if you save to a this folder and is available to any one that uses
the lab – so we will delete the folder at the end of class.

EXERCISE 3

SAVING YOUR NEW DOCUMENT FOR THE FIRST TIME TO YOUR FLASH DRIVE (Insert
FLASH drive into the USB cable)

FIRST YOU MUST CHECK TO SEE IF THE COMPUTER RECOGNIZES THE FLASH DRIVE (You

should have plugged the flash drive into the USB port)

1. click on the Start button - that will give you the main computer menu

2. click on My Computer – you will see icons for all the storage devices

3. look for one that says TDK Trans It and a E or F or G or H at the end

56
 PREPARING YOUR DOCUMENT

4. Single click on the Microsoft Word Icon and Peck the Enter Key)

5. Type in: Mary had a little lamb

6. Start a new paragraph or new sentence by pecking the Enter key. This will put the cursor at the
beginning of a new paragraph and a new sentence. Now type in:

Its fleece was white as snow.

Note If you make a mistake peck the Backspace key until you have cleared out the mistake and start typing
again. Or move the arrow with the arrow keys to where you want of make the correction.

NOW LETS SAVE WHAT YOU HAVE TYPED

TO A FLASH DRIVE (Remember you have already plugged in your flash drive)

1. Using your mouse, go up and click on the “File” button in the upper left corner of the Menu bar. This will

give you a new menu.

2. Click on the “Save as” button. This will give you a dialog menu titled “Save As”

Notice what is says in the “Save In” box. It says “My Documents”. So this time we will not save into that
Folder on the hard drive called “My Documents”. We will save to the Flash drive Notice the little down
arrow at the end of the “Save In” box. (This is called the expansion arrow)

1. Click on the little down arrow to expand your options. Notice again in the expanded menu you will
see as one of the choices TDK Trans-It

2. Click on TDK Trans-It - Now in the “Save In” box it should say TDK Trans-It

3. Go down to the “File Name” box. Drag over the words in the File Name box to highlight them.
Peck the Backspace key to clear the box.

4. Type in the name for your document: Mary PLUS THE DATE In this format 07.05.31

5. Now click the Save button

57
It is important for you to understand if you save to a flash drive your document will be on you’re the
flash drive and you can take the flash drive to another computer and use it there including your
computer at home.

MOVING THE CURSOR AROUND

Reminder: wherever the cursor is, is where the next character you type will land, so it is very important to
understand how to move your cursor around so that you can add text to another part of your document.

There are several ways you can move your cursor around in your document:

1. USING THE ARROW KEYS

One way to move your cursor short distances is to use the arrow keys. The right arrow key moves the cursor
to the right and the left arrow key to the left. The up arrow key will move it up if there is room, and the
down arrow key will move it down if there is room. We will now practice moving your cursor both with the
I-beam and the arrow keys.

2. USING THE MOUSE

Another way is using the I-beam. This is the most common way if you are moving the cursor any distance
from where it is.

The rule is wherever you put the I-beam within the text, and click, and move the mouse away, that is where
your cursor will be put. Try it with the document that is on your screen now.

SEEING IF YOU SAVED OK

1. To see if you saved ok, look up on the Title bar of your word document you will see that the word
Document 1 has been replaced by whatever you typed in the “File Name” box

2. Another way to see if you saved ok is to click the “File” button again, and then click the “Open” button.
You should now see your documents name on the screen.

Click on the “Cancel” button to get back to you document

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 EXERCISE 3
OPENING A SAVED FILE
Before you open a saved file you must have your computer on and MICROSOFT WORD started, as above,
and the flash drive containing your file plugged in to the USB port.
Go to the Menu Bar and click on File, then click on Open.
In the “Look In” change it to flash drive by clicking on the little down arrow at the end of the box, and
selecting “flash drive ( E: or F:)” by clicking on it.
Now highlight your file’s name by clicking on it. (This is called “SELECTING”)

Click the Open button. You should see your file on the screen

ADDING MORE TEXT

1. Using the arrow keys put the cursor at the end of the last sentence if it is not already there.

2. Peck the Enter key to start a new paragraph.

3. Now type in: And everywhere that Mary went.

4. Peck the Enter key to start a new paragraph

5. Type in: The lamb was sure to go.

6. Peck the Enter key to start a new paragraph.

7. Type in: your name and the date

8. Now save the additions you made to your document by holding down the CTRL key and at the
same time peck the S key. (Note the S stands for save)

PRINTING YOUR DOCUMENT

1.USING THE KEYBOARD KEYS

ONE WAY TO PRINT A DOCUMENT is to simply

1. Press and hold down the Control key and peck the P key. You will get a dialog screen to make selections
like the number of copies you want or specific pages to print.

2. Now just peck the Enter key or click on the “OK” button

2. USING THE MOUSE

59
1. Click on File on the Menu bar.

2. Click on Print. Again you will get a dialog box to make selections if you want to.

3. Peck the Enter key if you don’t want to make selections.

3. OR

Just click on the printer icon on the tool bar. The printing will start without an intermediate dialog screen

SHUTTING DOWN YOUR COMPUTER

CLOSING YOUR DOCUMENTS FIRST

It is best to close your programs before you shut down your computer, so go up to the Menu bar and click
on File. Now come down and click on Close. If you have not saved your latest changes you will be ask if
you want to. Say yes

USING YOUR MOUSE

First click on the master Start button on the lower left of your screen. Now click on Shut Down. You will
get the Shut Down screen. Be sure that the bullet is in Shut Down. Then click OK. After showing several
messages on the monitor, your computer should now shut down. It may take a few minutes for it to shut
down.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED SO FAR

1. How to start up a computer monitor and console
2. What is the difference between a cursor and a mouse I beam?
3. How to type text into a document
4. The dual purpose of the Enter Key- Remember the Enter key can be used to make the computer perform
your next operation and ALSO to make a new paragraph in you text.
5. How to save a document to the “My Documents” folder for the first time
6. How to save a document to a flash drive for the first time
7. The difference between saving to “My Documents” folder on the computer’s hard drive and saving to a
flash drive
8. How to add text to a document
9. How to save additions to a document
10. How to print a document several ways
11. How to close a document
12. How to shut down a computer
13. How to open an existing saved document
14. How to add more text and save the additions

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 WOW! ISN’T THAT AMAZING

GLOSSARY FOR WORD PROCESSING

ASCII:

It stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. This is a world wide standard. All
computers in the world use this code.

A WORD:

A word to a computer is the characters that make up the word and then a space at the end of the word. A word is
not a complete computer word until you put the space at its end. This is probably different from what you
learned in grade school, where spaces were put between words. Also a word at the end of a sentence is not a
word until you put a period and a space.

BACKUP:

This is when you make a copy of your master disk to a backup disk, so if something happens to your master
disk; you have not lost all the files that are saved on the master disk.

COMMANDS:

Commands are operations the computer will perform for you. Examples are Save, Open and Print. With
Windows you can select a command by clicking an icon with the mouse on the Tool Bar, or click on File on the
menu bar.

 Save: the process of writing the contents of a file or document to a floppy disk or hard drive.
 Save As: Use this command when saving a file for the first time, or changing the name of an exiting
document.
 New: the process of starting a new file or document.
 Print: the process of making a paper copy of your document or file.
 Open: the process of reading a file already saved on your floppy or hard drive to your desktop (screen),
so you can work on it. Open also means to start a program.
 Cut: The process of removing a part of your text from a document.
 Copy: The process of copying a part of your text from a document.
 Paste: The process of pasting a part of a text that you have either cut or copied from a document to
another part of the document.
 Bold: The process of making a word, sentence, or entire document in bold face.
 Underline: The process of making a word, sentence, or entire document underlined.
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  Center: The process of centering text on the computer screen.
 Close: The process of closing a document on the computer screen.
 Exit: The process of removing software from the random access memory of the computer.

CD/ROM DRIVE:

For holding CD/ROM disks (Compact Disk/Read Only Memory) commonly called the “D” drive. Many
computer programs now come on a CD/ROM disk.

COMPUTER STORAGE UNITS:

There are several different kinds of computer storage units such as:

 A 31/2 Floppy disk: This refers to the 31/2 inch floppy diskette. A storage device that is portable. The
sliding metal part goes in first, with the little round wheel of the disk goes down.
 A folder on the hard disk drive, which is sometimes called the local disk.
 A folder on a Flash drive, which is sometimes called a removable disk.
 A Compact Disk CD/W, CD/R-W, A DVD
 And of course some others like a flash card from a digital camera.

CURSOR:

The curser is the little blinking vertical line on your screen. The cursor tells you where the next character (letter)
will be inserted when you type it in from the keyboard. The cursor has other names like: insertion point and
place marker. Actually the cursor marks the insertion point on the text screen.

DESKTOP:

The screen of your monitor that displays some of your applications software icons...and is called the desktop.

DOCUMENT:

A document is typed in text to a computer monitor screen using word processing software. This text is
temporarily residing in the memory (Random Access Memory-RAM) of the computer. To preserve this
document, it must be saved to one of several computer storage units such as:

 A folder on the hard drive (local disk)

 A folder on a flash drive
 A floppy disk: This refers to the 31/2 inch floppy diskette. A storage device that is portable. The sliding
metal part goes in first, with the little round wheel of the disk goes down.
 A CD
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In the process of being saved, the document is given a proper file name that describes the text on the document.
After the document is saved it is referred to as a text file or just file.

FILE:

A file is a text or graphics document that has been saved with a file name to a proper folder in a computer
storage unit. A file can be plain text, plain graphics or a combination of text and graphics. Note that music can
also be saved to a folder on computer storage units.

FLOPPY DISK DRIVE:

The floppy disk drive is where you insert the floppy disk. Commonly called the “A” drive.

FOLDER:

A named space on a computer storage unit used to save files. There is one folder that is created when the
computer is assembled. It is called My Documents. Computer users create many different folders on different
storage units to accommodate their files in an organized manner.

FORMATTING:

Getting a floppy disk ready to have files (documents) saved to it. You can format a disk by right clicking on the
31/2 floppy icon.

HARD DRIVE:

A storage device inside your computer for holding and saving software and the files you create. It is usually
identified as the “C” drive.

I-BEAM:

The I-Beam is the presence of the mouse when it is in the Text area of the word processing screen. Notice when
you move the mouse the I-Beam moves around the screen. However if you move the I-Beam up into the top of
the word processing screen, notice it turns into an arrow. This is so you can select a command from the many
possibilities from the menu or tool bars.

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ICONS:

Icons are the small-labeled pictures you see on your desktop. The technical name for icons is desktop objects.

KEYBOARD

The keyboard is an input device.

Keyboard Keys of Special Importance

 Enter Key: A key that is on the right side of the main keyboard and on the right side of the number pad.
It is used frequently to make the computer go to the next operation. I call it the Go key.
 Backspace Key: A key that is in the upper right corner of the main keyboard that is used to erase the
character to the left of the cursor. It has an arrow on the top like so ←
 Delete Key: A key that is in between the main keyboard and the number pad. It is used to erase the
character to the right of the cursor.
 Ctrl Key (Control Key): A key that is in the lower left corner of the main keyboard that is used to do
special operations.
 Esc Key (Escape Key): A key that is in the upper left corner of the keyboard that is used to do special
operations as follows. Hold the Ctrl key down and without releasing it peck the Esc key. This will
display the Start menu. This key will also clear the screen of any menus.
 Arrow Keys: There are four keys located on the lower right side of the keyboard that is used to move
the cursor.
 The Microsoft flag key: There are two Microsoft flag keys, one on each side to the space key. They
open the main menu.
 Shift Key: Used to capitalize letters and to get the symbols on the number keys and other keys that have
a symbol.
 Caps Lock Key: Used to make all the letters in a capital format.
 Tab Key: Used to jump 5 spaces in your word processing document, or jump to the next field when
filling out a form.
 Alt Key: Used in combination with another key to perform some operation. Not used much anymore.
 Space Bar Key: This is the long key at the bottom of the mail key board. It is used to make a space in
your document between words.
 Insert Key: In some word processors, pecking the Insert Key can put you in “overtype” mode. Pecking
the Insert Key will return you to the “insert” mode. You will normally want the insert mode. When in
overtype mode, what you type will wipe out any existing text that gets in the way.
 The function keys: These keys at the top of the keyboard are used mostly to initiate powerful
commands. Not used much any more.

MOUSE:

The mouse is an input device. It appears on the screen as either an arrow or a beam depending on what part of
the screen it is located. If it is out of a text area it appears as an arrow. If it is in a text area it appears as a beam.
On browser software the mouse may appear as a pointing hand. Also the mouse has two buttons on the top.
When the instructions say click it means click with the left button. Right clicking with the mouse usually brings
up a new menu so you can make a selection. The selection is then made by clicking with the left button.

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MOUSE ACTIVITIES:

 Point: Pointing is sliding the mouse arrow over an icon or other kind of a button on the screen that you
might want to select or choose.
 Point and Click: Placing the mouse arrow over an icon or button and pecking the left mouse button.
 Single Click: One peck on either the left or right mouse button with either your index or middle finger
respectively. Left clicking is usually done to select something like a menu to be used later. However as
you may already know there are exceptions to this.
 Right Clicking: The response to right clicking always produces a menu. The response to right clicking
is sometimes slow.
 Double Click: Two pecks with your index finger on the left mouse button on an Icon on the screen
(desktop). This is usually done to open application software. The response is almost immediate.
 Drag: Means to put the mouse arrow on a scroll bar or icon. Then press and hold the left button down,
and while holding the button down, move the mouse. The scroll or icon on the screen will move to a
new location. You can also drag across text to highlight the text.
 Drag and Drop: Means to put the mouse arrow on a scroll bar or icon. Then press and hold the left
button down, and while holding the button down, move the mouse. The scroll bar or icon on the screen
will move to a new location. When you get to the location desired left up you finger from the mouse
button. That will drop the scroll bar or icon where have you put it.

PARTS OF AN APPLICATION PROGRAM

All applications software have a main screen. On this main screen are normally a Title Bar, a Menu Bar, a Tool
Bar and a Task bar, and a text area where you prepare your document. Each of these are described below.

 Title Bar: Located at the very top of the main screen and contains the title of the software and
document.
 Menu Bar: Located at the top of the main screen. A series of commands that can be started with a click.
 Tool Bar: A series of icons located below the menu bar. The icons can be clicked to start commands.
 Task Bar: A bar at the bottom of your main screen listing the programs that are active on of your
desktop. The Task Bar also contains the Quick Launch Toolbar.
 Text Area: This is where you type in your document.
 Ruler: Shows the right and left margins of the screen
 Vertical Scroll Bar: Makes the screen go up and down when there is more than one screen full.
 Horizontal Scroll Bar: Makes the screen go back and forth if the text is wider than the screen.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

This is temporary storage on a computer. When doing word processing, it stores your file (document). When
you turn off the computer all that is in RAM is lost. RAM also stores your applications software (like Microsoft
Word) until you turn off the computer. The main permanent storage unit for you all your applications software
is on the hard drive.

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READING:

The contents of what you have typed into a computer applications program and/or saved on a storage device
such as a floppy disk or hard drive.

WRITING:

The process of posting a file to a floppy disk or hard disk.

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