Lecture 4

CONICAL SECTIONS
 Trajectory Equation

1. All possible orbital motions are represented by family of curves called

“Conic Section” that include : a) Circle b) Ellipse c) Parabola d)
Hyperbola
2. The focus of the conic section is located at the centre of central body
3. The specific mechanical energy along the conic orbit remains
unchanged
4. The specific angular momentum along conic orbit remains unchanged
5. The orbital plane is inertially fixed in space
Angular Momentum of Earth Orbit
 Consider the orbit of earth around the sun – Sun’s
Ecliptic (in celestial reference frame). A satellite orbits
around the earth during the period
 In half a year earth moved from one side of the sun to
the other
 The angular momentum of satellite remained pointing
towards same inertial direction in space
 h2 = μa (1 – e2) = μP --------------------------------------- (9B)
 Rotation of Earth
beneath satellite
orbit does not
change “h” but
changes satellite
ground tracks
3 6/4/2024
Conic Section

A conic is a circle or the locus of a point which moves so that the ratio
of its absolute distance from a given point ( a focus) to its absolute
distance from a given line (a directrix) is a positive constant “e”
(called eccentricity)
Conic Section Geometries
1. All conic sections have two foci F anf F’
2. The prime focus F marks centre of central body
ELLIPTICAL ORBIT PARAMETERS
Defining Orbit Trajectories
 Different trajectories are defined by their
eccentricity (e) values, so when
 e = 0 : Circle :- Orbit of GEO Comm/ Nav Satellites
 0 < e < 1 : Ellipse :- Common orbit for LEO satellites
 e = 1 : Parabola :- Fly-by trajectories of comets/ asteroids
 e > 1 : Hyperbola :- Inter-planetary trajectory e.g Voyager
 The trajectories represent the family of curves
called Conic Sections – the only possible paths for an
orbiting object in two-body problem

7 6/4/2024
Elliptical Orbital Parameters
 Kepler’s 1st Law talked about elliptical orbits … so
what is an elliptical orbit ?

8 6/4/2024
Elliptical Orbital Parameters
 Some Maths about elliptical orbits
 ra + rp = 2a implies a = (ra + rp)/2 ---------------- (1)
 Where “a” is the semi-major axis of an ellipse
 We introduce eccentricity (e) that describes the
shape of ellipse
 e = c /a = √(1-b2/a2) -------------------------------- (2)
 where “b” is the semi-minor axis of an ellipse
 In terms of the apses eccentricity is
 e = (ra – rp) / (ra + rp) ------------------------------- (3)
 The parameters “a” and “e” together define the
shape of an orbit
9 6/4/2024
Single-Point Elliptical Orbits
 Trajectories describe the kinematics of a satellite in
orbit – the path that spacecrafts follow in
maintaining a specific orbit
 Trajectories of spacecraft are described by their
radius vector (r) drawn from the central body such
as earth
 ν is the polar angle
 P is semi-latus rectum
 r is the trajectory vector
 P = a(1-e2)

10 6/4/2024
Single-Point Elliptical Orbits
 Mathematically trajectories of spacecraft are
defined by the Polar Equation of Conic Section
 r = P / (1 + eCosν) ------------------------------------- (4)
 r = a(1-e2) / (1 + eCosν) ------------------------------- (5)
 Since a = rp / (1-e) = ra / (1+e) ---------------------- (6)
 r = rp (1+e) / (1 + ecosν) = ra (1-e) / (1 + ecosν) -- (7)
 Given a defined orbit , the true anomaly can be
determined from radius as :
 Cosν = [rp(1+e) / re] – 1/e ---------------------------- (8)
 Cosν = [a(1-e2) / re] – 1/e ---------------------------- (9)
11 6/4/2024
Single-Point Elliptical Orbits
 Using polar equations (5) we can determine the
periapsis and apoapsis of any orbit
 So for a fixed value of eccentricity (e) and major
axis (a) the orbital radius (r) is a function of its true
anomaly (ν) – the exact point of location of an
orbiting body along the conic section
 At Periapsis ν = 00 → r = rp = a (1 – e) ------------ (6)
 At Apoapsis ν = 1800 → r = ra = a (1 + e) --------- (7)

12 6/4/2024
Single-Point Elliptical Orbits &
Trajectories
 Problem 1-2 : Given an elliptical Earth orbit with a
perigee radius of 6500 km and apogee radius of
60,000 km. Find the true anomaly of the
spacecraft position as it enters the Van Allen belt
at an altitude of 500km.
 Determine ν = f(rp, r, e)
 Eccentricity (e) = (ra – rp) / (ra + rp)
 e = (60000-6500) / (60000+6500) = 0.8045
 Radius (r) = Re + r = 6378+500 = 6878 km
 Cosν = [6500(1+0.8045) / (6878*0.8045)]-(1/0.8045)
 True anomaly = 28.755 deg or 331.245 deg
13 6/4/2024
Two-Point Elliptical Orbit
 Elliptical orbits can be designed to pass through
two given points
 Two points are sufficient to design orbit
 Intercept & Interplanetary are designed this way
 r1 = rp(1+e) / (1+ecosν1) ---------------------------- (10)
 r2 = rp(1+e) / (1+ecosν2) ---------------------------- (11)

14 6/4/2024
Two-Point Elliptical Orbit
 r1 = rp(1+e) / (1+ecosν1) ---------------------------- (10)
 r2 = rp(1+e) / (1+ecosν2) ---------------------------- (11)
 Eccentricity and periapsis radius can be obtained
 e = (r2-r1) / (r1cosν1 – r2cosν2) ------------------ (12)
 rp = r1 [(1+ecosν1) / (1+e)] ------------------------- (13)

15 6/4/2024
Two-Point Elliptical Orbits &
Trajectories
 Problem 1-3 : Design a transfer ellipse from Earth
at a heliocentric position of r = 1.00 AU and a
longitude of 41.26 deg to Pluto at r = 39.5574 AU
and a longitude of 194.66 deg when the line of
apsides is placed at longitude of 25 deg
 Solution :-
 Step 1 understand canonical units
 Step 2 solve for two-point radii
 Step 3 solve for orbit eccentricity
 Step 4 solve for radius at periapsis
16 6/4/2024
Two-Point Elliptical Orbits &
Trajectories
 Problem 1-3 :
 Canonical units are non-dimensional parameters of distance,
speed, time, mass etc.
 Measured for an object w.r.t a reference orbit
System Canon Units Metric Units English Units
Geocentric system
Mean equatorial radius (r) 1.0 DU 6378.145 km 3963.195 miles
Speed unit (SU) 1.0 SU = 1 DU/1 TU 7.905368 km/s 25936.247 ft/s
Time unit (TU) 1.0 TU 806.81187 sec 13.4468 min
Gravitational Parameter (µ) 1 DU3 / 1 TU2 398600 km3/s2 1.40764x1011 ft3/s2
Angular rotation (ω) 0.05883367 rad / TU 7.29211x10-8 rad/s 0.250684 deg/min

17 6/4/2024
Two-Point Elliptical Orbits &
Trajectories
 Problem 1-3 :
 Canonical units are non-dimensional parameters of distance,
speed, time, mass etc.
 Measured for an object w.r.t a reference orbit
System Canon Units Metric Units English Units
Heliocentric system
Mean dist Earth to Sun 1.0 AU 1.49599x108 km 4.90812x1011 miles
Speed unit (SU) 1 SU = 1 AU/ 1 TU 29.7848 km/s 9.77193x104 ft/s
Time unit (TU) 1.0 TU 5.02267x106 sec 58.1328 days
Gravitational Parameter (µ) 1 AU3 / 1 TU2 1.32715x1011 km3/s2 4.6868x1021 ft3/s2

18 6/4/2024
Two-Point Elliptical Orbits &
Trajectories
 Problem 1-3 :
 Transfer ellipse from Earth to Pluto
 Heliocentric
 r1 = 1.00 AU and λ1 = 41.26 deg
 r2 = 39.5574 AU and λ2 = 194.66 deg
 λ of apsides = 25 deg λ2
 ν1 = 41.26 – 25 = 16.26 deg
λ
 ν2 = 194.66 – 25 = 169.66 deg λ1
 r1 = 1.49598 x 108 km
 r2 = 39.5574 (1.49598 x 108 km) = 5.9177 x 109 km
 Eqn 12 : e = (5.9177 x 109 - 1.49598 x 108 ) / [(1.49598 x 108 cos
16.25) – (5.9177 x 109 cos 169.66)]
 e = 0.9670
 Eqn 13 : rp = (1.49598 x 108 )(1+0.9670cos16.25) / (1+0.9670)
 rp = 1.4666 x 108km
km19 6/4/2024
Elliptical Orbit Trajectories
 The orbital velocities of spacecrafts & celestial
bodies change with their radius from central body
(Kepler’s 2nd Law)
 Spacecrafts orbiting closer to earth move faster and
those orbiting in deep space move slower around the
earth.( rAVA = rpVp )
 The Orbital Period (T) of a spacecraft is related to
the semi major axis (a) of its orbit (Kepler’s 3rd Law)
 T2 = (4π2/μ) a3 ----------------------------------------- (8)
 For geocentric orbit μ = 3.986*105 km3/s2

20 6/4/2024
THANKS