Introduction
The word ‘ceramic’ is originated from greek word
keromikos, which means ‘burnt stuff’.
Ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-
metallic elements.
Characteristics of ceramics are:
- high temperature stability –
high hardness –
brittleness
- high mechanical strength –
low elongation under application of stress –
low thermal and electrical conductivities
1.Whitewares
China, earthenware,pottery,porcelain etc
2. structured clay products
Building brick, terra-cotta, sewer pipe …
3. Refractories
Fire bricks,silica,SiC,aluminum silicates etc
4. Specialized ceramic products
5. Enamels and enameled metal
(1) clay- Clay gives the main body to the ceramics.
The advantage of using clay are it is plastic when mixed with water becomes
hard after drying and finally it becomes irreversibly solid after firing
Clays are more or less impure hydrated aluminum silicates that have resulted
from the weathering of igneous rocks.
Important clay minerals are kaolinite, montmoriilonite, and hailoysite
(2) feldspar, called spar in the industry-Feldspar is of great importance
as a fluxing constituent in ceramic formulas.
(3) Silica or quartz: It is incorporated in ceramic formulation to reduce shrinkage
and cracking which is occurs during drying and firing.
.
1. Dehydration or "chemical water smoking"
at 150 to 650°C.
2. Calcination, e.g., of CaCO3 at 600 to
900°C.
3. Oxidation of ferrous iron and organic
matter at 350 to 900°C.
4. Silicate formation at 900°C and higher.
Ceramic products are all more or less
refractory,i.e., resistant to heat
The degree of refractoriness of a given
product is determined by the relative
quantities of refractory oxides and fluxing
oxides.
The principal refractory oxides are Si02,
Al2O3, CaO.
fluxing oxides are Na2O, K20, B2O3, and
Sn02.
The common ingradients of all ceramic products is clay(
kaolinite),therefore the chemical reaction which occur
on heating clay are quite important.
The first effect of the heat is to drive off the water of
hydration which occurs at around 600 to 650°C.
As heating is continued, the amorphous alumina changes quite
sharply at 940°C. to a crystalline form of alumina, gamma
alumina, with the evolution of considerable heat.
At a slightly higher temperature, beginning at about lOOO°C.,
the alumina and silica combine to form mullite,
3AI2O3·2SiO2•
At a still higher temperature, the remaining silica is converted
into crystalline cristobalite.
All ceramic bodies undergo a certain amount
of vitrification or glass formation during
heating
Degree of vitrification depends on
◦ (1) the relative amounts of refractory and fluxing
oxides in the composition.
◦ (2) the temperature.
◦ (3) the time of heating.
some vitrification is desirable to act as a bond
but extensive vitrification would destroy the
refractory property.
This is a generic term of ceramic products
These are based on selected grades of clay
bonded together with varying amounts of
fluxes and heated to a moderately high
temperature in a kiln (1200 to 1500°C).
Chinaware
Earthenware
Pottery
porcelain
Stoneware
Vitreous ware
Whitewares find application in spark plugs,
electrical insulators, laboratory equipment,
crucibles, dishes, and high-class potteries.
Including products as diverse as fine china
dinnerware, lavatory sinks and toilets, dental
implants, and spark-plug insulators
(1) the wet process porcelain used for production
of fine-grained highly glazed insulators, for
high-voltage service
(2) the dry process porcelain employed for rapid
production of more open-textured low-voltage
pieces
(3) the cast porcelain necessary for the making of
pieces too large or too intricate for the other two
methods
These 3 processes are based on the same raw
materials ,the differences in manufacturing
being in the drying and shaping steps
The raw materials of proper proportions and-
properties to furnish porcelain of desired quality are
weighed from overhead hoppers into the weighing
car
The feldspar, clays, and flint are mixed with water in
the blunger (clay-water mixer) and then passed over
a magnetic separator, screened, and stored
Most of the water is removed (and wasted) in the
filter press
All the air is taken out in the pug mill assisted by
vacuum and slicing knives. This results in a denser
and stronger porcelain
The prepared clay is formed into blanks in a hydraulic
press or by hot pressing in suitable molds
The blanks are preliminarily dried, trimmed, and
finally completely dried all under carefully controlled
conditions
A high surface luster is secured by glazing with
selected materials
The vitrification of the body and the glaze is carried
out in tunnel kilns with exact controls of temperature
and movement
The porcelain articles are protected by being placed
in saggers fitted one on top of the other in the cars.
This represents a one-fire process wherein body and
glaze are fired simultaneously. T
he porcelain pieces are rigidly tested electrically and
inspected before storage for sale
Low cost durable products which are
manufactured from the cheapest common
clay with or without glazing. Clays usually
carry sufficient impurities to provide the
needed fluxes for binding. it includes;
◦ Building brick
◦ Face brick
◦ Terra – cotta
◦ Sewer pipe
◦ Drain tile
Raw materials
◦ (1) red burning clay
◦ (2) white burning clay
◦ (3) buff burning clay
Bricks are manufactured by one of three
processes:
1. The soft-mud
2. The stiff-mud
3. The dry-press
SOFT-MUD PROCESS
The soft-mud procedure consists in molding the clay mixture
containing 20 to 30 % water in molds coated with a thin layer of
either sand or water to prevent sticking.
The molded brick is burned. Such bricks are of a uniform and
excellent quality with good edges.
This soft-mud process is much employed for firebrick and is the
ancient method for making building bricks.
STIFF MUD PROCESS
Clay mixture contains 12-15% water, which is just enough to
stick together.
The clay is forced out through a die in a screw or auger
machine.
The extruded clay bar passes long or short belt conveyor on
to a cutting table on which a frame with number of wires
which automatically cuts the bar into appropriate lengths.
These bricks may be repressed to make face bricks.
DRY PROCESS
The water content of the clay is reduced to 4-7% which make
the clay non-plastic. The brick unit is moulded at high
temperature.
(A) Ceramic composites :
structure of metallic honeycombs or webbings ,impregnated
with ceramic phase. Temperature limits of these materials
are very high.
Reaction bonded ceramic metal composite are formed by a
chemical reaction that bonds the two materials below
melting point of either.
Strongest bonding is formed between noble metals such as
platinum , gold , silver.
Uses :
1) Heat shields in aerospace hardware, rocket nozzle , ram-
jet chambers.
2) Lining for breaks.
3) Lining for clutches.
4) Non lubricating bearings.
5) Gold plated ceramic wafers for semi-conductors.
6) Zirconia lined steel for corrosion resistant uses.
(B) Ferroelectric and Ferromagnetic ceramics:
BaTiO3 is the most common type in this
class.
It has high capacity at various frequencies.
Ferromagnetic ceramic materials have been
responsible for important advances in
electronic equipments.
Uses :
1) television sets , computers.
2) magnetic switches.
3) recorders and memory devices.
(C) High alumina ceramics:
Mechanically strong , dense materials and are
porous.
These are highly wear resistant , corrosion
resistant and dimensionally stable.
Uses
1) lining for mining chutes and slides
2) insulators for electrostatic precipitators
3) respirator valves and precision machine
components
4.Ceramic biomaterials
They are light weight, more wear resistant
and not attacked by enzymes and
biochemical in the human body.
Ceramics are used in making artificial teeth,
bone joints.
It is also used in filling the gaps in damaged
bones which is facilitated by the similarity
between natural bone and calcium phosphate
ceramics.
It is a ceramic mixture containing a large proportion
of fluxes applied cold and fused to the metal at
moderate red heat.
Raw materials
Kaolin lends plasticity
Fluxes: boric acid, borax
Flux as well as oxidation agents: Red lead and lead
carbonate
Opacifiers: TiO2 SnO2, ZrO2, fluorspar, cryolite
Floating agent: Clay and gums
Colouring agents: Oxides, elements
Electrolytes: borax, Na2CO3, MgSO4 and MgCO3
The manufacture of enamel glass (frit) is similar to the first stage of
manufacture of ordinary glass.
The finely powdered raw materials are mixed in proper proportioned and
charged into a melting furnace.
After the batch has been uniformly melted, the melt is poured into a
quenching tank to granulate it.
The cold water shatters the melt to innumerable pieces, which are called
frit.
The frit is then ground into ball mill with porcelain balls where plastic
clay is added to prevent the separation of water from the powdered
material.
Then colouring agents and opacifiers are used for milling. After milling
the product is discharged and in the form of thick enamel slip.
Articles of high carbon steels and of cast iron can be enameled.
But before the application surface of these objects should be cleaned
thoroughly of all foreign matters so that the coating of enamel may
adhere well.
Enamel may be applied to the metal by slushing, brushing or spraying.
e.g. Iron sheet, or iron pieces are coated by dipping or slushing. In
slushing enamel slips is poured over the metal surface to allow the
excess run off.
PROPERTIES
Vitreous enamel is opaque seldom
transparent, coloured or colourless flux. It is
easily fusible material
USES
It is used as protective or decorative agent to
coat the surface of glass, porcelain and
metals particularly iron sheets.
Synthesis of powder involves crushing,
grinding, separating impurities, blending
different powders.
The vitrification of ceramic products and the prior chemical
conversions dehydration,oxidation and calcinations are carried
out in kilns that may be operated in a periodic or continuous
manner
Continuous Kilns
1.Tunnel kilns : used for the firing of brick, tile ,porcelain,
tableware and refractories
2 types
Direct fired types: combustion gases burn directly among the
wares
Indirect fired types, where products of combustion are not
allowed to contact the wares
2.Roller hearth kilns : The conveyer system consists of a continuos
belt of SiC rolls
for the production of electronic parts that must meet exact
specifications
3.Chamber kilns : consists of series of connected chambers
Used to burn brick and tile
Periodic Kilns
These are not fuel efficient as continuous kilns
Downdraft kilns: round or rectangular in shape
Used in burning facebrick, sewer pipe stoneware,
tile and common brick
Heat is raised from room temp. to the finishing
temp for each burning operation
Updraft kilns: commonly used in burning
potteryware but is rapidly being replaced by
tunnel kilns
