Semiconductor Physics and

Devices

Lecture 2

ETE-301

1 Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET 4/2/2024

Classification Solid State Physics

..

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

Descendants of Semiconductor Physics

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 The nature of the atom

 In studying solid state electronics we are interested primarily in

the electrical behavior of solids.
 First understand the mechanism of electron flow - in case of ac
and dc

Fig: Alternating Current (AC) Fig: Direct

Current (DC)

 The transport of charge through metal, semiconductor depends -

not only on the properties of electron
 - but also on the arrangement of atoms in the solid.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 The nature of the atom

 Rutherford in 1911 , shows

 atom as like a planet having (+) nucleus contains nearly all
mass and negatively electrons round the nucleus.

 But an accelerated charge must radiate energy in accordance

with the classical laws of electromagnetism.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 The nature of the atom
Bohr atomic model:
―the difficulty was resolved by this model
―atom can possess only certain discrete energies/state.
―while in states electron dose not radiate energy.

 𝒇=(𝒘𝟐−𝒘𝟏)/𝒉
 𝑬𝟐−𝑬𝟏=𝒉𝝑
 ―stationary state is determined by
 the condition

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

The nature of the atom

Fig: Atomic Energy Level (Spectra)

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET
 Quantum Concepts

 Electrons can exhibit wave-like properties which is shown by

interference and diffraction experiment like Young’s double slit
experiment.

Then Heisenberg uncertainty principle― it states that the more precisely the position of some
particle is determined, the less precisely its momentum can be known, and vice versa
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝𝑥≳ђ /2
Δ𝐸 Δ𝑡≳ђ /2

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

Quantum Concept

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Compound State

 Solid: The particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are packed closely

together. Distance between neighboring atoms is the order of few
Angstrom. The forces between particles are strong enough so that the
particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid
has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only
change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.

 Liquid: Intermolecular forces are week here than solid, so the

molecules have enough energy to move relative to each other and the
structure is mobile.

 Gas: In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the
effect of intermolecular forces is small, and the typical distance
between neighboring molecules is much greater (about 30𝐴) than the
molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies
the entire container in which it is confined.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Interatomic forces and Bonding in Solids

 Many solids are aggregates of atoms. Some forces tend to hold

the adjacent atoms at a particular spacing, and the process of
holding them together is known as bonding.

 Electrical forces are mainly responsible in binding the atoms

and molecules giving different solid structures.

 Magnetic forces have only a week effect in cohesion.

 The forces between atoms can be of two kinds:

1.Attractive forces which keep the atoms together.
2.Repulsive forces which come into play when the solid is
compressed.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Interatomic forces and Bonding in Solids

 Two atoms A and B exert attractive and repulsive

forces on each other such that the bonding force F,
between the atoms may be represented as-

Where,
r=center to center spacing between atoms
A, B, M, N are constants characteristics of the
molecule.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Solids and Its Bond

 According to the strength and directionality chemical

bonds are grouped into primary and secondary.
 Primary bonds: by virtue of their nature of
interatomic bonds.
 Secondary bonds: these are intermolecular bonds.
 ―Attractive forces in primary bonds are directly
associated with the valance electrons.
 ―Try to keep eight electrons by taking or giving or
sharing I the other shell (high energy state).

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Classification of Bond

There are three strong principle types of primary bonds:

1.Ionic
2.Covalent
3.Metallic.

Van-der Waals and hydrogen bonds are typical examples of

secondary bonding.
Therefore, Solids may divide into four major groups:
1.Ionic solid Example: NaCl, KF
2.Valance solid Example: Diamond
3.Metals Example: Cu, Ag, Mo
4.Van-der walls solid Example: Ar, many organic crystals

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Ionic Solid

 Simplest type of chemical bonding.

Ionic bond is fairly strong

Fig: formation of ionic bond between Na

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET
 Properties of Ionic Solid

 Ionic compounds/solids are rigid and crystalline in nature.

 high melting points and boiling points .
 Pure and dry ionic compounds are insulators .
 Easily soluble in polar solvent and in-soluble in non-polar
solvents.
 Reaction is always fast.
 High hardness and tend to cleave (break) rather than to
deform.
 NaCl, 𝑀𝑔𝑂2, CsCl, KI, 𝐿𝑖𝐻2 etc.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Covalent Solid

 By sharing of pairs of valance electrons.

 Simplest one is 𝐻2.
 Mostly gaseous and liquids

Fig: formation of covalent bond between two H

atoms
Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET
 Properties of Covalent Solid

 Covalent solids are very hard and brittles incapable of

applicable bending.
 Melting points and boiling points are usually low as
compared to those of ionic compounds.
 Poor electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Insoluble in polar solvent (𝐻2𝑂) , however soluble in non-
polar solvent (𝐶6𝐻6).

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Metallic Bond
 The valence electrons of metal atoms are not bound to
individual atoms or pair of atoms but freely move
throughout the whole metal.
 It makes a electron cloud in the metal piece.
 It seems like that the positively nucleus are sink in the
electron sea.
 There is a force between positively charged nucleus and
free electron that is the key ingredients to form a metallic
bond.

Fig: formation
Md. Ahasan metallic
Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET
 Properties of Metallic Bond

 Due to symmetrical arrangements of the positive ions in a space

lattice, metals are crystalline.
 Metals have a melting point moderate to high.
 Since a large number of free electrons are available, metallic
crystals have high electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Metals are opaque to light since light is absorbed by free
electrons.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Van Der Waals Bond
 The atoms of the rare gases such as argon have little or no
tendency to give up electrons or share them with others. In the
liquid and solid state the forces of attraction are the so called
dispersion forces, which arise in the following way:

 The combination of the moving negative electrons and the

nucleus of an atom may be considered a system of fluctuating
dipoles. The interaction between these dipoles associated with
neighboring atoms then gives rise to a relatively weak binding.

 In organic crystals the cohesive energy is provided by dispersion

forces as well as by the interaction between permanent dipoles of
neighboring molecules; the totality of such forces is referred to
as van der Waals forces.
Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET
 Properties of Van Der Waals Bond

 Low boiling and meting points

 Low conductivity

Fig: formation Van Der Walls bond.

(a) Permanently polarized molecule
(dipole)
(b) Dipole can attract or repel each other
(c) Suitably oriented dipole forms van der
Walls bonds
Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET
 The crystalline state

 In crystalline solids the atoms are stacked in an orderly

repetitive manner based on the size of ordered regions within
the materials, the solids are classified into:

1.Amorphous: Order in amorphous solids is limited to a few

molecular distances.

2.Polycrystalline: Polycrystalline materials, the solid is made

up of grains which are highly ordered crystalline regions of
irregular size and orientation.

3.Single crystal: Single crystals have long range order; extends

throughout a certain piece of material.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 The crystalline state

 The atomic arrangement in a crystal is called crystal structure.

All crystals can be described in terms of a lattice and a basis.
 A lattice is an infinite periodic array of geometric points in space,
without any atoms. (I.e. imaginary)
 When we place an identical group atoms (or molecules), called
basis, at each lattice point, we obtain the octal crystal structure.
 Lattice+Basis = Crystal structure

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Unit cell

 Unit cell: small groups of atoms form a repetitive pattern

and the crystal properties can be described through this
small unit.

Md.Fig: UnitKabir,
Ahasan Cell Dept. of ETE, CUET
 Seven basic crystal systems
 Based on the length of axes and the angle between them.

Cubic:

Fig: cubic structure Fig: Pyrite

𝑭𝒆𝑺𝟐 Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET
 Seven basic crystal systems

 Tetragonal:

Fig:Tetragonal structure Fig: 𝑺𝒏𝑶𝟐

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Seven basic crystal systems

 Orthogonal:

Fig: Orthogonal structure Fig: 𝑷𝒃𝑪𝑶𝟑

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Seven basic crystal systems

 Monoclinic:

Fig: Monoclinic structure Fig: Calcium Sulfate

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Seven basic crystal systems
 Triclinic:

Fig:Triclinic structure Fig: Copper Sulfate

𝑪𝒖𝑺𝑶𝟒

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Seven basic crystal systems

 Trigonal (Rhombohedral):

Fig:Trigonal structure Fig:

Dolomite

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Seven basic crystal systems

 Hexagonal:

Fig: Hexagonal structure Fig: Beryl

𝑩𝒆𝟑𝑨𝒍𝟐(𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟑)𝟔

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Liquid crystals
 Another class of crystals, there is two or one dimensional
regularity.
 can flow and will rise in capillary tube (ammonium oleate
𝐶17𝐻33𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝐻4)
 In liquids, the atoms or molecules are in continual motion, and
a crystalline structure is therefore absent.
 Liquid crystals
1.Liquid crystals find wide use in liquid crystal displays
Liquid crystal in fluid form is used to detect electrically
2. generated hot spots for failure analysis in the
semiconductor industry.
3.Used in Liquid crystal laser.

Fig: Crystal alignment

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

 Although one usually thinks of a solid as an arrangement
of atom in which the atoms occupy fixed position relative
to each other, this is not necessarily the case.
 Of course, in any crystal the atoms carry out a vibrational
motion about their equilibrium position; this topic will be
taken up in the next term.

Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET

Lattice: a regular geometrical arrangement of points or objects over an area or in space as
the geometrical arrangement of atoms in a crystal — called also space lattice

The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise
the temperature by one degree Celsius. The relationship between heat
and temperature change is usually expressed in the form shown below
where c is the specific heat.
The term insulator is generally used to indicate electrical obstruction while the
term dielectric is used to indicate the energy storing capacity of the material (by means
of polarization). A common example of a dielectric is the electrically insulating material
between the metallic plates of a capacitor.
Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in
response to applied mechanical stress.
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as
atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure,
forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.
35
Md. Ahasan Kabir, Dept. of ETE, CUET