CHAPTER 2 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

2.1 Limits and Continuity

Most of the functions we will be studying assume the property of continuity. The continuity
at a point depends on the function’s behaviour near the point. To study behaviour near a
point, we need the idea of a limit of the function. The definition of the limit of a function of
two or three variables is similar to the definition of the limit of a function of a single variable
but with some significant differences. We will not go into great detail in discussing the
concepts of limits and continuity. We shall only introduce these concepts intuitively for
functions of two variables but the ideas can be extended to functions of three or more
variables.

Focus of Attention
 What does it mean for the function f (x, y) to have a limit?
 How do you find a limit?
 How do you determine continuity?

2.1.1 Limits

Briefly recall how limits of functions of one variable work. We say that,
lim f (x ) L
x a

provided
lim f (x ) lim f (x ) L
x a x a

In this case there are only two paths that we can take as we move in towards x a . We can
either move in from the left or we can move in from the right.
Consider the function f (x, y) . What does it mean for f (x, y) to have a limit L as (x, y )
approaches (a,b) ?
With functions of two variables we will be doing something similar as for a single variable
function, except there are infinitely many paths involved in moving towards the point (a, b).
In taking a limit of a function of two variables, we want to determine the value of f (x, y ) as
we move the point (x, y ) closer and closer to the point (a,b) without actually letting it be
(a,b) . The problem that we will face is that there are an infinite number of paths that we can
take as we move in towards (a,b) . Of course it is impossible to check an infinite number of
paths to verify that the function is approaching the same value regardless of the path we are
using to approach the point. Instead we shall use the main ideas from Basic Calculus to help
us in finding the limits.

Definition 2.1 Limit

The function f (x, y ) has a limit L at the point (a,b) , written as

66
 lim f (x, y ) L
(x ,y ) (a,b )

if f (x, y ) is close to a fixed real number L for all points (x, y ) that are sufficiently close
to the point (a,b) but not equal to (a,b) .

The definition does not indicate any specific path for (x, y ) to approach (a,b) and thus it is
reasonable to assume that f (x, y ) will have the limit L as (x, y ) approaches (a,b) along any
smooth curve. The following theorem is given without proof.

Theorem 2.1
If lim f (x, y ) L , then lim f (x, y ) L along any smooth curve.
(x ,y ) (a,b ) (x ,y ) (a,b )

The above theorem says that if the limit exists then f (x, y ) must approach the same limit no
matter how (x, y ) approaches the point (a,b) . So, if we can find two different paths of
approach along which the function f (x, y ) has different limits, then it follows that
lim f (x, y) does not exist. This result is summarised by the following theorem.
(x ,y ) (a,b )

Theorem 2.2 The Two-Path Test

If lim f (x, y ) L1 , along a path C 1 and lim f (x, y) L2 , along a path C 2
(x ,y ) (a,b ) (x ,y ) (a,b )
with L1 L2 , then
lim f (x, y) does not exist.
(x ,y ) (a,b )

For the calculation of limits that do exist, we shall use the properties of limits. The limit laws
of one variable can be extended to function of two variables, including the Squeeze Theorem
which is given below.

Theorem 2.3 Squeeze Theorem

Assume g(x, y) f (x, y) h(x, y) for all (x, y ) near (a,b) . Assume
lim g(x, y) L lim h(x, y)
(x ,y ) (a,b ) (x ,y ) (a,b )

Then, lim f (x, y ) L

(x ,y ) (a,b )

To use the Squeeze Theorem, we must be able to find the end functions, g(x, y ) and h(x, y ) ,
with known limits and have properties similar to f (x, y ) .

Illustration
 Determining limits of a function of two variables – Two-Path Test and Squeeze
Theorem
 Determining the continuity of a function of two variables

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Example 2.1 Prompts/Questions
3x 2  How do you find limits?
Show that the lim does not exist. o Can you identify two smooth
(x ,y ) (0,0) x2 3y 2 curves?
o Can you evaluate the limits?

Solution
We need to find two different smooth curves along which this limit had different values.
Let’s choose C 1 as y 0 . That is, we take the limit by approaching (0, 0) along the x-axis.
Then,
3x 2 3x 2
lim 2 lim 2 3
(x ,0) (0,0) x 3(0) (x ,0) (0,0) x

Let us now choose the curve C 2 as x 0 . That is, we take the limit by approaching (0, 0)
along the y-axis. Then,
3(0) 0
lim 2 lim 2 0
(0,y ) (0,0) (0) 3y (x ,0) (0,0) 3y

Therefore, by Theorem 2.2, the limit of f (x, y ) does not exist.

Thinking Tips
How was the paths C chosen? Can you think of other suitable paths that can be used to
approach (0, 0)?

Example 2.2 Prompts/Questions

 Can you find the limit directly?
Find the limit if it exists. o Can you simplify the function?
x2 y2  What properties of limits do you
lim
(x ,y ) (1,1) x y know?

Solution
We can simplify f (x, y ) as
x2 y2 (x y )(x y )
f (x, y ) x y , for x y
x y x y
x2 y2
Thus, lim lim x y 2
(x ,y ) (1,1) x y (x ,y ) (1,1)

Example 2.3 Prompts/Questions

 How do you find the limit?
Find the limit if it exists.
o What theorem can you use?
x 2y  When can you use the Squeeze
lim
(x ,y ) (0,0) x 2 y2 Theorem?
o How do you determine the end

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 functions?

Solution
Let us try to prove that the limit does not exist.
Suppose f (x, y) L along any arbitrary lines y mx with m a constant. Then,
x 2 (mx ) mx
lim lim 0 for all m
(x ,mx ) (0,0) x 2 (mx )2 (x ,mx ) (0,0) 1 m2
Therefore, we cannot conclude that the limit does not exist. The argument also does not prove
that the limit actually exists. But, we can do this using the Squeeze Theorem.
Notice that
x2 2
1 , (x, y) ,(x, y) (0,0)
x2 y2
Therefore, we have the inequality
x 2y 2
y y , (x, y) ,(x, y) (0,0)
x 2 y2
We know that lim y 0 , therefore the Squeeze Theorem says that
y 0

x 2y
lim 0
(x ,y ) (0,0) x 2 y2

Important Facts
For functions of two variables there are an infinite number of curves along which the point
may approach the point. Once we choose a particular path we may evaluate the limit using
single variable methods.
Limit laws for functions of a single variable also holds for functions of two variables.

2.1.2 Continuity
A function of two variables is continuous if it represents a surface without any holes, tears or
gaps. Small changes in the independent variable will result in small changes in the dependent
variable.

Definition 2.2 Continuity

A function f (x, y ) is continuous at the point (a,b) if
lim f (x, y ) f (a,b)
(x ,y ) (a,b )

The following are some common examples of continuous functions:

 Polynomial functions are continuous in 2
, for example
f (x, y) x 2xy 5y 2

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  Rational functions are continuous on their domain, for example
x y
f (x, y ) , (x, y) (0,0)
x 2 y2
 Composition of continuous functions are continuous, example
f (x, y) sin(x 2 y2)

Example 2.4 Prompts/Questions

 How do you find the limit?
Evaluate lim (x 2 y) . o What properties of the function
(x ,y ) (2,1)
do you know?
o Can you use direct substitution?

Solution
Notice that f (x, y) x 2 y is a polynomial function, so it is continuous everywhere.
Therefore we can find the limit by direct substitution. We obtain
lim (x 2 y) (2)2 1 5
(x ,y ) (2,1)

Example 2.5 Prompts/Questions

1  How do you determine continuity?
Is the function z continuous at every o Is the function defined at every
x2 y2 point?
point on its domain?

Solution

The function is defined if x 2 y 2 0 . Since x 2 y 2 0 for all (x, y ) on the 2 plane

except the origin (0, 0), the function is discontinuous at (x, y) (0,0) . Thus, the function is
not continuous on its domain.

This result is depicted by the graph of the surface shown below.

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Example 2.6 Prompts/Questions
 How do you determine continuity?
Find the set of points at which the function is o Is the function defined at every
continuous. point?
xy 1
f (x, y )
x2 y

Solution
The function is undefined when the denominator is zero. Thus the function is discontinuous
on the parabola y x 2 .
Since f is a rational function, it is continuous on its domain, which is the set {(x, y) y x 2} .

Making Sense

 How can you show that lim f (x, y) does not exist?
(x ,y ) (a,b )

………………………………………………………………………………………………

 What does it mean to say that the function f (x, y ) is continuous at (a,b) ?
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Thinking Tips Extending

Being aware when mathematical ideas and concepts are being extended helps you to take
charge of the development of your mathematical knowledge. The concepts here are extension
of the ideas of limits and continuity for a single variable function.
Reviewing those ideas for the single variable functions can increase your understanding.

Structured Examples
 Determining limits of a function of two variables – two-path test and Squeeze
Theorem
 Determining the continuity of a function of two variables

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
x  How do you determine the limits?
If f (x, y ) , determine lim f (x, y ) along o What properties of limits do you
x y (x ,y ) (0,0)
know?
the following curves C: o How was the paths C chosen?
 How do you decide whether the limit
(a) C : x 0 (b) C : y 0 exists?
(c) C : y x (d) C : y x2
Does lim f (x, y ) exist?
(x ,y ) (0,0)

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Question 2 Prompts/Questions
2xy  How do you find limits?
Show that the lim 4 does not exist. o Can you identify two different
(x ,y ) (0,0) x y4 paths of approach?
 Can you evaluate the limits?

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Find the limit if it exists.  What properties of limits do you
x y know?
(a) lim 2 Compare (a) and (b).
(x ,y ) (1,1) x y2  What is the same?
x y  What is different?
(b) lim 2
(x ,y ) (0,0) x y2

Question 4 Prompts/Questions
 How do you determine continuity?
x 3 y3
Consider the function f (x, y ) x y . o Is the function defined at every
point in the domain?
(a) Find the domain of f (x, y ) . o Does the limit exist?
(b) Is the function f (x, y ) continuous on this
domain?

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
xy  How do you determine continuity?
Consider the function f (x, y ) . o Is the function defined at every
x2 y2
point?
Is the function f (x, y ) continuous on its domain? o Does the limit exist?

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Question 6 Prompts/Questions
Consider the function  Compare Q5 and Q6
o What is the same?
xy
2 , x, y 0,0 o What is different?
f (x , y ) x y2
0 , x, y 0,0
Is the function f (x, y ) continuous on its domain?

Question 7 Prompts/Questions
 How do you determine continuity?
x 2y
, x, y 0,0 o Is the function defined at every
Let f (x , y ) x 2 y2 . point?
o Does the limit exist?
0 , x, y 0,0
Is the function f (x, y ) continuous on its domain?

Question 8 Prompts/Questions
Suppose that lim f (x, y ) 5 . Can you determine  How do you determine continuity?
(x ,y ) (1,1) o Is the information given enough?
the value of f (1,1) ? What if f is continuous?

Question 9 Prompts/Questions
Find points of discontinuity of the function  How do you determine continuity?
o Is the function defined at every
1
f (x, y ) . point?
1 x 2 y2 o Does the limit exist?

Answers
2
4 (a) entire plane except y x ; (b) continuous 5. not continuous
6. not continuous 7. Continous 9. All points on x 2 y2 1

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Reflection
 What was the most important thing that you learnt from this topic?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 What remains unclear?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 How often do you think you will use the information in this topic again?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

REVIEW EXERCISE 2.1

1. Find the limits of the functions.

x y
(i) lim (xy 2 x 2y 5) (ii) lim
(x ,y ) (1,1) (x ,y ) (1,3) x y

(iii) lim e xy (iv) lim ln 1 x 2y 2

(x ,y ) (1,0) (x ,y ) (1,1)

2. Does knowing that

x 2y 2 tan 1 xy
1 1
3 xy
tan 1 xy
Tell you anything about lim . Give reason for your answer.
(x ,y ) (0,0) xy

3. Evaluate the limits, if it exists.

x2 y2 sin xy
(i) lim (ii) lim
(x ,y ) (0,0) x2 y2 (x ,y ) (0,2) x

4. Find points of discontinuity of the functions.

1
(i) f (x, y) ln x 2 y2 (ii) f (x, y )
(y x )2
1
(iii) z sin
xy

5. Show that the function

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 2xy
, x 2 y2 0
f (x , y ) x2 y2
0 , (x, y ) (0,0)

is not continuous at the point (0, 0).

x2 y2
, x 2 y2 0
6. Let f (x , y ) x2 y2 . Is the function f (x, y ) continuous on its domain?
0 , (x, y ) (0,0)

Answers
1(i) 5 (ii) -2 (iii) 1 (iv) ln 2 2. 1 3(i) does not exist (ii) 2
4. (x, y) (0,0) ; (ii) all points on y x ; (iii) the coordinate axes 6. continuous

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FURTHER EXERCISE 2.1

1. Find the limits of the function.

xy y 2x 2 x y 1
(i) lim (ii) lim
(x ,y ) (1,1) x 1 (x ,y ) (4,3) x y 1

(x 2 1)(y 2 4) e x tan 1y
(iii) lim (iv) lim
(x ,y ) (1,2) (x 1)(x 2) (x ,y ) (0,0) y

2. Evaluate the indicated limits, if it exists.

x y sin(x 2 y 2 )
(i) lim (ii) lim 1
(x ,y ) (0,0) x 2 y2 (x ,y ) (0,0) x 2 y2

x y2 x2 2xy y 2
(iii) lim (iv) lim
(x ,y ) (0,0) x 2 y2 (x ,y ) (1,1) x y

3. At what points (x, y) in the plane are the following functions continuous?
x y 1
(i) g(x, y ) (ii) g(x, y )
2 cos x x2 y
x2 y2 y
(iii) f (x, y ) (iv) f (x, y )
x2 3x 2 x2 y2

4. Given that the function

x3 y3
, (x, y ) (0,0)
f (x , y ) x2 y2
A , (x, y ) (0,0)

is continuous at the origin, what is A?

1 x2 y2 , x2 y2 1
5. Determine whether f (x , y ) is continuous on its domain.
0 , x2 y2 1

Answers
1(i) -1 (ii) 1/4 (iii) 8 (iv) 1 2.(i) does not exists (ii) 0 (iii) does not exists (iv) 0
2
3(i) all (x, y); (ii) all (x, y) so that y x 3(iii) all (x, y) so that x 1, x 2 ; (iv) all (x, y) so that
y 0, x y
4. 0 5. continuous

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2.2 Partial Derivatives
The process of differentiating a function of several variables with respect to one of its
variables while keeping the other variables fixed is called partial differentiation. The
resulting derivative is a partial derivative of the function.

Focus of Attention
 What is a partial derivative?
 How do you find partial derivatives?
 What rules or techniques of differentiation could you use?

2.2.1 The Definition of a Partial Derivative

Briefly recall that the derivative of a one variable function f (x ) gives the instantaneous
rate of change of the function. Here we extend the concept to a function of several variables.
Suppose f is a function of x and y. If we let only x vary while keeping y fixed at a value, say
b; we have a function of a single variable g(x ) f (x,b) . If the derivative of g exists at x a
we call it the partial derivative of f with respect to x at (a, b) and we write it as fx (a,b) . We
therefore can view the partial derivative to mean the instantaneous rate of change of the
dependent variable with respect to one of the independent variables, when the other variables
are held constant. Partial derivative follows the same rules as for ordinary differentiation, but
treats all the other independent variables as constants.

As an illustration, consider the surface area of a right-circular cylinder with radius r and
height h:

We know that the surface area is given by S 2pr 2 2prh . This is a function of two
variables r and h.
Suppose r is held fixed while h is allowed to vary. Then,
dS
2pr
dh r const.

This is the “partial derivative of S with respect to h”. It describes the rate with which a
cylinder‟s surface changes if its height is increased and its radius is kept constant.

Likewise, suppose h is held fixed while r is allowed to vary. Then,

dS
4pr 2ph
dr h const.

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This is the “partial derivative of S with respect to r”. It represents the rate with which the
surface area changes if its radius is increased and its height is kept constant.

In standard notation, these expressions are indicated by

Sh 2pr , Sr 4pr 2ph

Thus in general, the partial derivative of z f (x, y) with respect to x, is the rate at which z
changes in response to changes in x, holding y constant. Similarly, we can view the partial
derivative of z with respect to y in the same way.

Note
Just as the ordinary derivative has different interpretations in different contexts, so does a
partial derivative. We can interpret derivative as a rate of change and the slope of a tangent
line.

A more precise definition of partial derivatives follows.

Recall: Derivative of a single variable f is defined formally as,

f (x x) f (x )
f (x ) lim
x 0 x

The definition of the partial derivatives with respect to x and y are defined similarly.

Definition 2.3 Partial Derivative of a Function of Two Variables

If z f (x , y ) , then the (first) partial derivatives of f with respect to x and y are the
functions fx and fy respectively defined by

f (x x, y) f (x , y )
fx lim
x 0 x

f (x , y y) f (x , y )
fy lim
y 0 y

provided the limits exist.

2.2.2 Notation
d
In computing ordinary derivatives, we used the operator to denote the ordinary
dx
derivative with respect to x. For the computation of partial derivatives, we define the
operator

to denote the partial derivative with respect to x

x
Other notations for the partial derivative of f (x, y ) with respect to x are:
z 
, f (x , y ) , fx (x , y ) or z x
x x

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The values of the partial derivatives at the point (a, b) are denoted by:
f
or fx (a,b)
x (a ,b )

The partial derivative of f (x, y ) with respect to y can be written in an analogous way. We use
the same notations for partial derivatives of functions of three or more variables.

Note
 The stylized “d” symbol in the notation is called round back d, curly d or del d.
 It is not the usual derivative d (dee) or  (delta d).

2.2.3 Calculations
f f
The definitions of and give us two ways of differentiating f : with respect to x
x y
while treating y as a constant and with respect to y while treating x as a constant. A function
of two variables has therefore two first-order partial derivatives.

For a function f (x , y, z ) of three variables, there are three partial derivatives:

fx , fy and fz
The partial derivative fx is calculated by holding y and z constant. The partial derivatives fy
and fz are calculated in a similar manner.
In general, for a function of n independent variables u f (x1, x 2, xn ) , there are n first-order
partial derivatives. The function can be partially differentiated for each variable x1, x 2, xn .
For each variable changing, all the other variables are then kept constant.

Remarks
Sometimes we do need to estimate derivatives of a function. The following ways are

commonly used to estimate partial derivatives of a function of two variables:

 Using table of values. To estimate first derivatives at points that are between those in a
table, we use average rates of change with nearby points that are in the table.
 Using level curves. To estimate first-order partial derivatives of a function from a
drawing of its level curves, we use average rates of change with values at points on the
level curves.

Illustration
 Finding and evaluating partial derivative of a function of two variables
 Finding partial derivative of a function of three variables
 Finding partial derivative of an implicitly defined function

Example 2.7 Prompts/Questions

If f (x , y ) x 3y 2 2
x y 4x , find  What do the notations stand for?
o Which variable is changing?

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 f f o Which variable is held constant?
i. ii. iii. fy (1,  2)  Which variables give the value of a
x y
derivative?

Solution
(a) To find fx , hold y constant and find the derivative with respect to x:
f
x 3y x 2y 2 3x 2y 2xy 2 4
x x
(b) For fy , hold x constant and find the derivative with respect to y:

f
x 3y x 2y 2 x3 2x 2y
y y
(c) fy (1, 2) (1)3 2(1)2 ( 2) 3

Example 2.8 Prompts/Questions

2 2 3
Suppose f (x , y, z ) x 2xy yz , find Compare 2.8 and 2.9.
 What is the same?
i. fx ii. fy iii. fz  What is different?
o Which variable is changing?
o Which variable is held constant?

Solution
(a) fx (x , y, z )  2x  2y 2

(b) fy (x , y, z )  4xy  z 3

(c) fz (x , y, z )  3yz 2

Note
The rules and techniques for differentiating functions of a single variable hold in finding the

partial derivative of a function of two and three variables.

Example 2.9 Prompts/Questions

 Notice that f is a composite function.
f
Find if f (x , y ) ln(x y) . Can you identify the inner and the
y outer function?
 What rule do you use to find the
derivative?

Solution
We treat x as a constant and since f is a composite function, we use the chain rule.
f  1  1 1
 [ln(x  y )]  (x  y )  (0  1)
y y x  y y x y x y

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Example 2.10 Prompts/Questions
f  What have you noticed about the
(a) Find if f (x , y ) x sin xy .
x properties of the function?
o Which derivative rule do you
2y
(b) Find fx and fy if f (x , y ) . use?
y cos x

Solution
(a) We treat y as a constant. Using the product and chain rules, we have
f 
 (x sin xy )  sin xy(1)  x (cos xy )(y )  sin xy  xy cos xy
x x

(b) f is a rational function. Holding y constant and using the quotient rule, we obtain
 2y 
fx (x , y )   y  cos x 
x
 
(y  cos x )(0)  2y( sin x ) 2y sin x
 2

(y  cos x ) (y  cos x )2

Likewise, holding x constant and using the quotient rule, we obtain

2y (y cos x )(2) 2y(1) 2 cos x
fy (x , y )
y y cos x (y cos x )2 (y cos x )2

The way we differentiate an implicit function of two variables is similar to implicit function

of one variable.

Example 2.11 Prompts/Questions

 Noticed that z is implicitly defined.
z o Recall how you differentiate
Find if the equation yz ln z x y defines z
x implicit functions of one
as a function of two independent variables x and y. variable.
 What are the independent
variables? The dependent variable?

Solution
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, holding y constant and treating z as
a differentiable function of x:

(yz ) (ln z ) (x ) (y )
x x x x
z 1 z
y 1 0, y constant
x z x
 y  1  z  1
 
 z  x
z
Solving for , we obtain
x
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 z z

x yz  1

Important Facts
The derivative of a function that has more than one independent variable is known as a partial
derivative. The partial derivative is found by treating one independent variable as a variable
and the rest as constants.
In practice, we use our knowledge of single-variable calculus to compute partial derivatives.
We just need to remember which variable we are differentiating with respect to.

Making Sense
 What are the partial derivatives of f (x, y) ? How do find them?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

 What are the partial derivatives of f (x, y, z ) ? How do you find them?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

 What rules/techniques do you know for calculating derivatives?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

 How do you find the partial derivatives of an implicitly defined function of two variables?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Thinking Tips Mathematical Powers and Themes

Powers: Sorting and Characterising
How you sort, characterise and what you distinguish as being different about, or what you
treat as „the same‟ is highly informative about the scope and range of the richness of what
you comprehend, understand and appreciate about a topic or concept.
Powers: Freedom and Constraints
Mathematics is a field in which the effects of constraints are analysed and codified as
techniques. Taking a problem „to find‟ and viewing it as a construction problem starting with
a very general situation and then imposing constraints will make you aware of the features,
characteristics and conditions of the various techniques.
Themes: Doing and Undoing
When you do a question and get the answer, it is useful to ask yourself, if someone gave you
an answer they got, could you re-construct the question. Reversing question and answer;
inserting parameters and asking for conditions in which a certain problem is solvable is
essential in problem solving. „Undoing‟ questions are closely aligned with the fundamental
mathematical theme of invariance in the midst of change, and they are also classic examples
of characterising.

82
These powers and themes are found in the following Structured Examples. Do experience
these powers and themes yourself by getting involved in solving the examples.

Structured Examples 2.2

 Finding and evaluating partial derivative of a function of two variables
 Finding partial derivative of a function of three variables
 Finding partial derivative of an implicitly defined function

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Compute fx and fy for the following functions.  What do the notations fx and
fy denote?
(a) f (x , y ) x 2 3xy y 1
o Which variable is changing?
(b) f (x , y )  x 2e 3y o Which variable is held constant?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Find fx and fy at the given points.  What do the notations fx and
p p fy denote?
(a) f (x , y ) xy sin y ; ,
2 2 o Which variable is changing?
2x o Which variable is held constant?
(b) f (x , y ) ; (1, 0)  Which variables give the value of a
1 y derivative?

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
(a) Determine the partial derivatives of the following  What have you noticed about the
functions with respect to each of the independent properties of each of the function?
variables:
 What are the independent variables
(i) f (x, y) x 2 y 2 of the function?
(ii) f (x, y) cos(x 2 y 2 )  What do you do to find the partial
(iii) f (x, y) x cos(x 2 y 2 ) derivatives?
o Which variable is changing?
cos(x 2 y 2 ) o Which variable is held constant?
(iv) f (x, y )
x 2 y2  What rules or techniques of
2 2 differentiation do you know?
(v) f (x, y ) ln cos(x y )
(b) Characterise those functions for which the Product
and Quotient Rules are needed in finding the
derivatives.

83
Question 4 Prompts/Questions
 What do the notations represent?
Let f (x, y, z ) ze 3x 7y
. Find o Which variable is changing?
o Which variables are held
(a) fx (b) fy (c) fz (1, 0,1) . constant?
 Which variables give the value of a
derivative?

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
(a) Determine the partial derivatives of the following  What are the independent variables?
functions with respect to each of the independent  What are partial derivatives?
variables: o Which variable is changing?
o Which variables are held
(i) f (x, y, z ) xyz constant?
(ii) f (x, y, z ) (xy z )ez  Do you recognise the properties of
xyz each function?
(iii) f (x, y, z ) o What rules or techniques of
xy z
differentiation do you know?
(iv) f (x, y, z ) sin(xyz )
(v) f (x, y, z ) sin2(xyz )
(b) Characterise those functions for which the Chain
Rule is needed in finding the derivatives.

Question 6 Prompts/Questions
(a) Construct an example of a function that you can  How do you construct your
find the partial derivatives readily. examples?
o What are the features of a
(b) Construct an example of a function that would function that can be partially
require the technique of the Product Rule to find differentiated?
the partial derivatives. o What are the features of a
(c) Construct an example of a function that would function that require the Product
require the technique of the Product Rule and the Rule? The Chain Rule?
Chain Rule to find the partial derivatives.

84
Question 7 Prompts/Questions
 Noticed that z is implicitly defined.
(a) Let cos(x 2z ) 3y 2 2xyz 0 defines z as a o Recall how you differentiate
function of two independent variables x and y. implicit functions of one variable.
z z  What are the independent variables?
Determine expressions for and in terms of The dependent variable?
x y  How do you find the partial
x, y and z. derivatives?
o Which variable is changing?
o Which variable is held constant?

x x Prompts/Questions
(b) Find the value of and at the point Compare 7(b) and 7(a).
z y  What is the same?
(1, 1, 3) if the equation  What has changed?
 What are the independent variables?
xz y ln x x 2 4 0 and the partial The dependent variable?
derivative exists.  Which variables give the value of a
derivative?

Question 8 Prompts/Questions
1 3  What is an implicit differentiation?
Given the equation x 2 y z z 4 0 . Suppose  How do you find the partial
2
derivatives?
that z f (x, y) and f (3,1) 2 . Use implicit o Which variable is changing?
z o Which variable is held constant?
differentiation to compute .
 x (3,1)

85
Question 9 Prompts/Questions
Determine the function z whose partial derivatives are  Can you undo the process of partial
given as follows. differentiation?
o Which variable is changing?
zx 2x and zy 3y 2 1. o Which variables are held
constant?

Answers
1(a) fx 2x 3y, fy 3x 1 (b) fx 2x e 3y , fy 3x 2e 3y
p p
2(a) ; 2(c) 2; 2 3(i) fx 2x, fy 2y ;
2 2
2 2 2 2
3(ii) fx 2x sin(x y ), fy 2y sin(x y ) (iii) fx 2x sin(x 2
2
y2 ) cos(x 2 y2 ) ,
2x (x 2 y 2 )sin(x 2 y2 ) 2x cos(x 2 y2)
fy 2xy sin(x 2 y2 ) ; (iv) fx ;
(x 2 y 2 )2
2y(x 2 y 2 )sin(x 2 y2 ) 2y cos(x 2 y2)
fy 2 2 2
(v) fx 2x tan(x 2 y 2 ), fx 2y tan(x 2 y2 )
(x y )
4(a) fx 3ze 3x 7y
; (b) fy 7ze 3x 7y
; (c) fz e3 5(i) fx yz, fy xz, fz xy ;
2 2
yz xz
5(ii) fx yez , fy xez , fz ez (1 xy z ) ; (iii) fx , fy
(xy z )2 (xy z )2
(xy z )xy xyz
fz 2
; (iv) fx yz cos(xyz ), fy xz cos(xyz ), fz xy cos(xyz ) ;
(xy z )
(v) fx 2yz sin(xyz )cos(xyz ) , fy 2xz sin(xyz )cos(xyz ) , fz 2xy sin(xyz )cos(xyz )
z sin(x 2z ) 2yz z 6y 2xz x 1 x
7(a) , ; (b) , 0
x 2 sin(x 2z ) 2xy y 2 sin(x 2z ) 2xy z 6 y
4
8.
31

86
REVIEW EXERCISE 2.2

1. What is a partial derivative?

2. Can you describe the algebraic process for finding the partial derivative of a function of
two variables? Three variables?

3. Suppose that f (x, y) x2 xy 2y . Find fx (1,1) , fy (0,0) and fy (x 0, y0 ) .

4. Suppose that f (x, y, z ) x yz sin(x 2z ) . Find fx .

5. If g(x, y ) x2 y 2 , find gx (0,0) .

6. Determine the partial derivatives of the following functions with respect to each of the
independent variables.
(a) f (x, y) 5xy 7x 2 y2 3x 6y 2
(b) z  (x 2  3y )5 Prompts/Questions
 What do you noticed
(c) f (x, y)  x 2  3y about the properties of f ?
 Which rules of
x 2  3y
(d) f (x, y )  differentiation could you
x y used to find the partial
2 derivatives?
(e) f (x, y) ex 3y
ln y
(f) f (x, y)  cos2(x 2  3y)
1 y
(g) f (x, y ) tan
x
(h) z  x sin(x 2  3y )
(i) f (x, y, z )  2x 2  y  z 3

(j) f (x, y, z )  ln(2x 2  y  z 3 )

x 2y 3
(k) f (x, y, z )
z
(l) f (x, y, z )  z sin 1(xyz )

(m) h(r, f, q) r2 sin f cos q

7. Compute z x and z y for each of the following functions using implicit differentiation.

(i) y 2  z 2  sin(xz )  4

(ii) ln(2x 2  y  z 3 )  x

8. If w  f (x , y, z ) , determine the partial derivatives with respect to each of the independent

variables using implicit differentiation.
(i) w 2  w sin xyz  1
87
 (ii) ln(2x 2  y  z 3  3w)  z

Answers
3. fx (1,1) 3, fy (0,0) 2, fy (x 0, y0 ) x0 2 4. fx 1 2xz cos(x 2z )
6(a) fx 5y 14x 3, fy 5x 2y 6(b) zx 10x (x 2 3y)4 , zy 15(x 2 3y)4
x 3
6(c) fx , fy
2 2
x 3y 2 x 3y
2 y x
2 2 ex 3y
(g) fx , fy
(e) fx 2xe x 3y
ln y , fy 3e x 3y
ln y y x 2
y 2
x 2
y2
(i) fx 4x , fy 1, fz 3z 2 2xy 3 3x 2y 2 x 2y 3
(k) fx z , fy z , fx z2
(m) hr 2r sin f cos q , hf r2 cos f cos q , hq r2 sin f sin q
wyz cos xyz wxz cos(xyz ) wyz cos(xyz )
8(i) wx ,w ,w
(2w sin xyz ) y (2w sin xyz ) z (2w sin xyz )
4x 1 1
(ii) wx ,w ,w (2x 2 y z 3 3w ) z2
3 y 3 z 3

FURTHER EXERCISE 2.2

1. Determine the partial derivatives of the following functions with respect to each of the
independent variables:
a. f (t, a) cos(2pt a)
b. f (x, y) xy
c. f (x, y) xe2y tan 1
x
2u
d. g(u, v) v 2e v

2 5
e. z ex y
tan(3y 4x )

f. f (x, y, z ) z ln(x 2y cos z )

g. g(r, q, z ) r(1 cos q) z
1 1 1 1
h.
R R1 R2 R3

2. Given that w ln x 2 y2 z 2 , find the partial derivatives at the point (2, 2, 2).

3. Determine the function z whose partial derivatives are given:

88
 i. zx xy 2 y and zy x 2y x

ii. zx ex y 1 and zy ex x

iii. zr 2rs t 2 , zs 2st r 2 and zt 2tr s2

4. Find x12 x 22 x 32 x n2 for i  1, 2, 3, ,n .

xi

z z 2
5. Find and by differentiating implicitly xey 2z
1.
x y

z
6. If z f (x, y) is defined implicitly by the equation xyz cos(x y z ) , find at the
x
p p
point 0, , .
4 4

7. Suppose
x 2 y2
, if (x, y ) (0,0)
f (x , y ) x 2 y2
1 , if (x, y ) (0,0)

(a) Compute fx (x, y ) when (x, y) (0,0) .

(b) Does fx (0,0) exist? If it does, compute it. If it doesn‟t, explain why.

Answers
1(a) ft 2p sin(2pt a), fa a sin(2pt a) xe 2y
1(c) fx e 2y tan 1
x , fy 2xe 2y tan 1
x
1 x2
2 2 2 2
(e) fx 5(ex y
tan(3y 4x )4 (2xex y
4 sec2 (3y 4x )), fy 5(ex y
tan(3y 4x )4 (x 2e x y
3sec2 (3y 4x ))
(g) gr 1 cos q , gq r sin q , gz 1 1
2. all three partial derivatives are equal to
6
x 2y 2 5. zx 0, zy y
3(i) xy ; (ii) impossible
2
p2
6. 1
16

89
2.2.4 Partial Derivative as a Slope
2.2.4.1 Derivative as a slope of a single variable function

Let us briefly review the interpretation of the derivative as a slope in the one-variable
case:
Curve C
Secant
f(x0 + x)
Tangent line

f(x0) P

x0 x0 + x

At P, the tangent line to the curve C has slope f (x ) .

2.2.4.2 Partial Derivative as a Slope of a two variables function

Analogously, a partial derivative can be interpreted as a slope of the tangent lines to the
intersecting curves between the vertical planes y b and x a , where a and b are constants,
to the graph of a two variables function.

Focus of Attention
 How do you interpret partial derivative as a slope?
 How do you find the slope of a surface?
 How do you find the slope of a level curve?

Suppose (x 0 , y0 ) is a point in the domain of a function z  f (x , y ) , the vertical plane y  y0

will intersect the surface z  f (x , y ) in a curve C parallel to the xz-plane. That is, C is the
trace of the surface z  f (x , y0 ) in the plane y  y0 . Thus, we can compute the slope of the

90
tangent line to C at the point P (x 0 , y0 , z 0 ) by differentiating f (x , y0 ) with respect to x.
The tangent line to the curve C in the plane y  y0 has slope fx (x , y0 ) at the point P. In a
similar manner, the tangent line to the curve D at the point P (x 0 , y0 , z 0 ) in the plane x  x 0
will have fy (x 0 , y ) as a slope.

In summary, the partial derivatives fx and fy can be interpreted as slopes of the tangent lines
to traces of the graph of f through the vertical planes y b and x a respectively, where a
and b are constants.

Illustration
 Partial derivative as the slope of tangent lines to vertical traces of a surface
 Ordinary derivative as the slope of tangent lines to a level curve

Example 2.12 Prompts/Questions

 Where is the tangent line located?
Find the slope of the line that is parallel to the xz-  What is the slope of a tangent line?
plane and tangent to the surface z x x y at o How are fx and fy related to the slope
the point P (1, 3,2) . of lines tangent to f (x, y) ?

Solution
KNOW: Given f (x, y) x x y.
Slope of a tangent line is a partial derivative.
Parallel to xz-plane implies y is fixed, thus only x changes.

WANT: fx (1, 3)

12 1 12
fx (x , y ) (x y) x (x y) (1 0)
2
x
 x y 
2 x y
Thus the required slope,
1 9
fx (1, 3) 1 3
2 1 3 4

Example 2.13 Prompts/Questions

Consider the level curve of the surface  What is a level curve?
o Where is this curve located?
z x 2 3xy y 2 through the point P (1,1) .
 What is the slope of the tangent lines to a 2D
Find the slope of the tangent line to this curve at curve?
P. o Why ordinary derivative and not partial?

Solution

91
KNOW: Level curve has the form f (x , y )  c . It is a 2-D curve on the xy-plane.
dy
WANT:
dx
Equation of level curve, x 2 3xy y2 c . Since it passes through (1, 1), c 5.
Differentiating both sides of the equation implicitly, we obtain
d 2 d
x 3xy y2 (5)
dx dx
dy dy
2x 3y 3x 2y 0
dx dx
dy (2x 3y )
dx 3x 2y
Thus the slope at P is
dy [2(1) 3(1)] 5
1
dx (1,1) 3(1) 2(1) 5

Remarks
The slope of the level curve involves an ordinary derivative. Why?

Important Facts
Algebraically we can think of the partial derivative of the function f (x, y ) with respect to x as
the derivative of the function with y held constant. Likewise, we can think of the partial
derivative with respect to y in a similar way. Geometrically, the partial derivatives fx and fy
tell us the slope of the tangent lines to vertical cross-sections of the surface through y b and
x a . In general, we say the partial derivatives fx and fy is the slope of the surface in the x
and y directions respectively.

Making Sense

 How do you interpret partial derivatives as a slope? How are they calculated?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

 What is the slope of the tangent lines to a level curve? How is it calculated?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Thinking Tips Problem Solving Strategies

The rubrics KNOW and WANT are key words that can help you get started on a problem and
organise the information in the problem explicitly.

92
Structured Examples 2.3
 Partial derivative as the slope of tangent lines to vertical traces of a surface
 Ordinary derivative as the slope of tangent lines to a level curve

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Given f (x, y) x 3 2
3xy .  What is a partial derivative?
 What is a trace?
(i) Find fx at (2, 1).  How do you interpret partial derivatives as a
(ii) Determine the trace of f (x, y ) with the plane slope?
y 1.
How are the results of parts (i) and (ii) related?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Consider the function f (x, y) 4 x 2 y 2 .  How do you interpret partial derivatives as a
slope?
(i) Find fx (1,1) and fy (1,1) . o What is the curve of intersection?
(ii) Interpret the results in (i) as slopes and o What is the slope of the curve?
illustrate with sketches.

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Compute the slope of the tangent line to the  Where are the tangent lines located?
following surfaces at the given point P in the
direction parallel to  What is the slope of a tangent line?
(a) the xz-plane (b) the yz-plane o How are fx and fy related to slope of
i. f (x, y) 16 4x 2 y 2 ; P(1,2, 8) lines tangent to f (x, y) ?

x
ii. f (x, y ) ; P(1, 0,1)
x y2
iii. f (x, y) x ln(x y 2 ); P(e, 0,e)

93
Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Find the slope of the tangent line at (1, 1, 5) to  What is the curve of intersection?
the curve of intersection of the surface  How is the slope of the tangent line related
to partial derivatives of f ?
z  x 2  4y 2 and o Which variable is held fixed?
(a) the plane x   1 o Which variable varies?
(b) the plane y  1 .

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Show that (3, 2) is a point on the level curve  What is a level curve?
o Where is this curve located?
g(x, y) 15 where g(x, y) x 2 xy . Then find
 What is the slope of a line tangent to a
the slope of the tangent line to this curve at the curve?
given point. o Why ordinary derivative and not
partial?

Answers
1. The derivative is slope of the trace. 3(i) -8, -4
4(a) 8; (ii) -2. 8
5.
3

94
2.2.5 Partial Derivative as a Rate of Change

Focus of Attention
 How do you interpret partial derivative as a rate of change?
 What do you do to find rates of change?

The derivative of a function of one variable can be interpreted as a rate of change. Likewise,
we can obtain the analogous interpretation for partial derivative.
 A partial derivative is the rate of change of a multivariable function when we allow
only one of the variables to change.
f
 Specifically, the partial derivative at (x 0 , y0 ) gives the rate of change of f with
x
respect to x when y is held fixed at the value y 0 .

Illustration
 Partial derivative as a rate of change

Example 2.14 Prompts/Questions

The volume of a gas is related to its temperature T  How is rate of change related with partial
and its pressure P by the gas law PV  10T , derivatives?
 What do the calculated values tells you
where V is measured in cubic inches, P in pounds
about the behaviour of the function?
per square inch, and T in degrees Celsius.
(a) If T is kept constant at 200, what is the rate of
change of pressure with respect to volume at
V  50 ?
(b) If P is kept constant, what is the rate of change
of volume with respect to temperature at
V  50 and T  200 ?

Solution
P
(a) WANT:
V T  200,V  50

Given PV  10T . Differentiating with respect to V, we obtain

P  10T

V V2
P ( 10)(200) 4
    lb/in5
V T  200, V 50 (50) 2
5

V
(b) WANT:
T T  200,V  50

Given PV  10T . Differentiating with respect to T, we obtain

95
  V 10

T P
10(200)
If V  50 and T  200 then P   40 .
50
V 10 1 3 0
   in / C
T T  200, V 50 40 4

Making Sense
 What is meant by rates of change?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
 How do you represent and calculate rates of change?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Structured Examples 2.4

 Partial derivative as a rate of change

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Let z  sin(y 2  4x ) .  How do you interpret partial derivative
as rates of change?
i. Find the rate of change of z with respect to x  How are they calculated?
at the point (2, 1) when y is held fixed.  What can you say about the calculated
ii. Find the rate of change of z with respect to y values?
at the point (2, 1) when x is held fixed.

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
The temperature at a point (x , y ) on a metal plate in  What do you WANT?
3 2
the xy-plane is T (x , y )  x  2xy  y degrees  What role does the derivative play in
Celsius. If the distance is measured in centimetres, defining rates of change?
find the rate at which the temperature changes with o What does Tx describe?
distance if we start at (2, 1) and move o What can you say about Ty ?
(a) to the right and parallel to the x-axis.
(b) upward and parallel to the y-axis.

96
Question 3 Prompts/Questions
The length, width and height of a rectangular box
are l 5, w 2, and h 3 , respectively.  What is the function that describes the
volume of the box?
i. Find the rate of change of the volume of the
 How do you represent and interpret the
box with respect to the length if w and h are rate of change?
held constant.
 What do the calculated values tells you
ii. Find the rate of change of the volume of the
about the behaviour of the function?
box with respect to the width if l and h are
held constant.
iii. Find the rate of change of the volume of the
box with respect to the height if l and w are
held constant.

Question 4 Prompts/Questions
The gas law for a fixed mass m of an ideal gas at
absolute temperature T, pressure P, and volume V  How do you interpret the rates of change?
is given as PV mRT , where R is the gas o Which variable was changing?
constant. o Which variable was kept fixed?
P V
(i) Find and
T T
P V
(ii) Hence, show that T mR .
T T

Answers
2(a) 14; (b) 9 3(i) 6; (ii) 15; (iii) 10
P mR V mR
4(i) ;
T V T P

97
2.2.6 Higher Order Partial Derivatives
Focus of Attention
 What is a second order derivative of a two variables function?
 How do you find partial derivatives of the second and higher order?
 When do you need to use the rules of differentiation?

The partial derivative of a function is a function, so it is possible to take the partial derivative
of a partial derivative. If z is a function of two independent variables, x and y, the possible
partial derivatives of the second order are:
 second partial derivative – taking two consecutive partial derivatives with respect to
the same variable
 mixed partial derivative - taking partial derivatives with respect to one variable, and
then take another partial derivative with respect to a different variable

Standard Notations
There are four second-order partial derivatives for the function f (x, y ) .

Second partial derivatives

2 f   f 
    ( fx )x  fxx
x 2 x  x 

2 f   f 
  ( fy )y  fyy
y 2 y  y 

Mixed partial derivatives

2 f   f 
  ( fy )x  fyx
x y x  y 

2 f   f 
    ( fx )y  fxy
y x y  x 

Remark
 The mixed partial derivatives can give the same result whenever f, fx, fy, fxy and fyx
are all continuous.
 Partial derivatives of the third and higher orders are defined analogously, and the
notation for them is similar.
3
f f
fyyx
x y2 x y y
4
f f
fyyxx
x y2
2 x x y y

The order of differentiation is immaterial as long as the derivatives through the order
in question are continuous.

98
Note
Notice that the two notations for the mixed second partials have opposite conventions for the
order of differentiation.
 In the “” notation the derivatives are taken right to left:
2
f f
y x y x
 In the “subscript” notation the derivatives are taken left to right:
fxy ( fx )y

Illustration
Finding higher partial derivatives
 Second and higher order derivatives of a function of two variables
 Second and higher order derivatives of a function of three variables

Example 2.15 Prompts/Questions

Let z  7x 3  5x 2y  6y 3 . Find the indicated partial  What do the notations represent?
derivatives.  What is the order of differentiation?
2
z 2
z o With respect to which variable
i. ii. do you differentiate first?
x y y x
2
z
iii. iv. fxy (2,1)
x2

Solution
z
Keeping y fixed and differentiating w.r.t. x, we obtain 21x 2 10xy .
x
z
Keeping x fixed and differentiating w.r.t. y, we obtain 5x 2 18y 2 .
y
2
z z
(i) ( 5x 2 18y 2 ) 10x
x y x y x
2
z z
(ii) (21x 2 10xy ) 10x
y x y x y
2
z z
(iii) (21x 2 10xy ) 42x 10y
x2 x z x
2
z
(iv) fxy (2,1) 10(2) 20
y x
(2,1)

Note
Notice that the mixed second partials in the above example are equal since polynomials are
continuous for all x and y.
99
Example 2.16 Prompts/Questions
Determine all first and second order partial derivatives  What are the first partial derivatives
of the following functions: of f ?
o Which derivative rules or
i. z y sin x x cos y techniques do you need?
ii. z exy (2x y )  How many second-order derivatives
are there?

Solution
z z
i.  y cos x  cos y ,  sin x  x sin y
x y

2z 2z
 y sin x ,  cos x  sin y
x 2 yx

2z 2z
 x cos y ,  cos x  sin y
y2 x y

z
ii.  e xy [y(2x  y )  2]  e xy [2xy  y 2  2]
x
2 z
 e xy [y(2xy  y 2  2)  2y ]  e xy [2xy 2  y 3  4y ]
x 2
2 z
 e xy [x (2xy  y 2  2)  2x  2y ]  e xy [2x 2y  xy 2  4x  2y ]
yx
z
 e xy [x (2x  y )  1]  e xy [2x 2  xy  1]
y

2 z
2
 e xy [x (2x 2  xy  1)  x ]  e xy [2x 3  x 2y  2x ]
y

2 z
 e xy [y(2x 2  xy  1)  4x  y ]  e xy [2x 2y  xy 2  4x  2y ]
x y

Example 2.17 Prompts/Questions

 What does the notation denote?
Let f (x , y )  (2x  y )5 . Find fyxy .  How do you find the derivative?
o What is the order of
differentiation?
o Which derivative rules do you
need?

Solution
3 2 2
f f
fyxy [ 5(2x y )4 ] [ 40(2x y )3 ]
y x y y x y y x y
120(2x y )2

100
Example 2.18 Prompts/Questions
 What do the notations represent?
Let f (x , y, z )  ln(x  y  z 2 ) . Find fxx , fyyz and  What do you noticed about the
fxxyzz . properties of f ?
 What derivative rules do you know?

Solution
2
f f 1 1
fxx .
x 2 x x x x y z2 2 2
x y z

3 2 2
f f 1 1
fyyz
z y2 z y y z y x y z2 z 2
x y z2
4z
3
x y z2

Likewise, COMPLETE THE SOLUTION…

fxxyzz

Making Sense
 What are the possible second-order partial derivatives for a two variables function?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
 What are the possible second-order partial derivatives for a three variables function?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Describe the procedure to find partial derivatives of second and higher order?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
 What rules do you know for calculating derivatives?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

101
Structured Examples 2.5
Finding higher partial derivatives
 Second and higher order derivatives of a function of two variables
 Second and higher order derivatives of a function of three variables

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Find all second-order partial derivatives of the  What is a second order partial derivative?
functions. o Which rule or techniques do you need?
 How many second-order derivatives are
i. f (x , y )  xy
there?
ii. f (x , y )  y ln(xy ) o Are the derivatives continuous?
iii. f (x , y, z )  xy 2z 3

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Verify that wxy wyx .  How do you calculate the partial
i. w x 2y 3 xy 2 x 3y 4 derivatives?

ii. w ex x ln y y ln x  What can you say about the order of

differentiation?
iii. w ln(2x 3y) o What does this imply?
iv. w x sin y y sin x xy

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Which order of differentiation will calculate the mixed
second partial faster: x first or y first? Try to answer
without calculating the derivatives. State the reasons for
your choice.  How do you decide the order?
i. f (x, y) x sin y ey
x
ii. f (x, y ) y
y
iii. f (x, y) y x 2y 4y 3 ln(y 2 1)
iv. f (x, y) x 2 5xy sin x 7e x

102
Question 4 Prompts/Questions
5
f
The fifth-order partial derivative is zero for  What do you look at in making your
x y3 2
choice?
each of the following functions. To show this as quickly
as possible, which variable would you differentiate with
respect to first: x or y? Try to answer without
calculating the derivatives.
i. f (x, y) y 2x 4ex 2
ii. f (x, y) y2 y sin x x4
iii. f (x, y) x2 5xy sin x 7e x
y2 2
iv. f (x , y ) xe

Answers
1(i) fxx 0, fyy 0, fxy 1 y 1 1
1(ii) fxx ,f
2 yy y , fxy x
x
(iii) fxx 0, fyy 2xz 3 , fzz 6xy 2z , fxy 2yz 3 , fyx 2yz 3 , fzx 3y 2z 2 , fxz 3y 2z 2 , fyz 6xyz 2 , fzy 6xyz 2

Reflection
 What are some of the factors that contribute to your success in learning the topic?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 When you face difficulty, do you still persevere towards your goal?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 How successful were you in doing what is necessary?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 What action have you taken to get to where you want to be?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

103
REVIEW EXERCISE 2.2

1. How do you interpret partial derivatives of f (x, y ) geometrically?

2. How do you interpret partial derivatives as rates of change?

3. What is a second order derivative? Third order derivative? Write down some of the
different notations for these derivatives?

4. Let f (x , y ) xy 3 x 3y . Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at

P(1, 1, 2) in the direction of
(i) the x-axis (ii) the y-axis

5. Find the slope of the tangent line at the point P(1, 1, 2) on the graph of
x2 y2
f (x , y ) in the direction
xy
(i) parallel to the xz-plane (ii) parallel to the yz-plane

6. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve of intersection of the surface
4z  5 16  x 2 and the plane y = 3 at the point (2, 3, 5 3 2) .

7. Find the slope of the level curve of x 2  y 2  2 at (1, 1).

8. Find the slope of the level curve of xey  2 at x = 2.

p p p
9. Find the slope of the tangent line to the level curve at the point P , , on
2 2 4
the surface z  xy  cos(x 2  y 2 ) .

10. The temperature at a point (x , y ) on a flat metal plate is given by

80
T (x , y )  degrees Celsius. If the distance is measured in metres, find
1  x 2  y2
the rate at which the temperature changes with respect to distance at the point (2, 1)
in
(a) the x-direction (ii) the y-direction

11. In an electrical circuit with electromotive force (EMF) of E volts and resistance R
E
ohms, the current is I  amperes. Find the rate of change of the current with
R
respect to:
(i) the voltage (ii) the resistance

when E  120 and R  15 .

104
12. Let w (4x 3y 2z )5 . Find
2 3 4
w w w
(i) (ii) (iii) 2
x z x y z z x y

x
13. Verify that zxy zyx for z y .
y

14. Show that z ln(1 x2 y 2 ) satisfies the equation zxy z x zy 0.

15. Suppose G(x , y ) f (x 2 y 2 ) where f is a function of one variable. Find

Gxx (1,2) Gyy (1,2) given that f (5) 3 and f (5) 6 .

Answers
4(i) -4; (ii) 4 5(i) 0; (ii) 2 5 7. -1
6.
4 3
8. -1/2 9. -1 10.(a) -80/9 (b)-40/9 11(i) 1/15 (ii) -8/15
3 2 15. 132
12(i) 160(4x 3y 2z ) (ii) - 1440(4x 3y 2z ) (iii) 5760(4x 3y 2z )

FURTHER EXERCISE 2.2

1
1. The area of a triangle is A ab sin q , where q is the angle between sides of length
2
a and b.
A A A
(i) Find , and .
a b q
a
(ii) Suppose a is given as a function of b, A and q . What is ?
b

2. When two resistors having resistances R1 ohms and R2 ohms are connected in
R1R2
parallel, their combined resistance R in ohms is R  . Show that
R1  R2

2R 2R 4R2


 R12  R22 (R1  R2 )4

3. The volume V of a right circular cone is given by

p 2
V d 4s 2 d 2
24
where s is the slant height and d is the diameter of the base.
(i) Suppose that d has a constant value of 16 cm, but s varies. Find the rate of
change of V with respect to s when s = 10 cm.

105
 (ii) Suppose that s has a constant value of 10 cm, but d varies. Find the rate of
change of V with respect to d when d = 16 cm.

4. The flow (in cm3 s ) of blood from an artery into a small capillary can be modelled by

c x 2
F (x, y, z )  y z
4
for constant c  0 , where x is the diameter of the capillary, y is the pressure in the artery,
and z is the pressure in the capillary. Compute the rate of change of the flow of blood
with respect to
(a) the diameter of the capillary
(b) the arterial pressure
(c) the capillary pressure.

5. Let u(w, x , y, z )  xeyw sin2 z . Find

 4u  4u
(i) (ii)
x y w z w z y 2

2
2
2 z 2 z z 2 z
6. The wave equation is given as c and the heat equation is c .
t 2 x 2 t x 2

In each of the following cases, determine whether z satisfies the wave equation, the heat
equation, or neither.
t x x
(a) z e sin cos (b) z  sin 3ct sin 3x
c c
(c) z  sin 5ct cos 5x

Answers
1 1 1 2A 320p 16p
1(i) b sin q ; a sin q ; ab cos q ; (ii) 3(i)
9
; (ii)
9
2 2 2 b 2 sin q
cpx c px 2 cpx 2 6(a) satisfies; (b) satisfies; (c) satisfies
4(a) y z ; (b) ; (c)
2 8 y z 8 y z

106
2.3 Increments and Differential
Focus of Attention
 What is the increment of a function of two variables?
 What is the differential of a function of two variables?
 How are the increment of f (x , y ) and the total differential related?
 How can you use linear approximation and total differential to estimate change and
errors?
 What is an exact differential?

2.3.1 Linear Approximation

2.3.1.1 Tangent Line Approximation of a Function of One Variable

Recall that a function y f (x ) is differentiable at x 0 if f (x 0 ) exists. Consequently, f is

continuous at x 0 , the graph of f has a nonvertical tangent line at that point and f can be
closely approximated by a linear function near the point.

y = f(x)
(x1,f (x1 ))
f(x1)
y f (x 0 ) f (x 0 )(x x0 )

y T
y1

P(x 0,f (x 0 ))
y0 f (x 0 )

x0 x1
x

The tangent line to the curve y  f (x ) at the point P (x 0 , y0 ) is the line that best “fits” the
shape of the curve near P. If f is differentiable at x x 0 , the tangent line at P has slope
m f (x 0 ) and has equation y y0 m(x x 0 ) . That is,
y f (x 0 ) f (x 0 )(x x0 ) .
If x1 is near x0, then f(x1) must be close to the point on the tangent line:
f (x1 ) f (x 0 ) f (x 0 )(x1 x0 )

This expression is called the linear approximation formula.

We use the notation x for the difference x1 x 0 and the corresponding notation y (or
f ) for f (x1 ) f (x 0 ) . Taking x1   x  x 0 , the linear approximation formula can be
written as,

107
 f (x 0 x) f (x 0 ) f (x 0 ) x
so that f (x 0 x) f (x 0 ) f (x 0 ) x
That is, we can approximate the function of one variable by a linear function.

Note
This version of approximation is sometimes called the incremental approximation formula
and is used to study propagation of error.

 Thus, for a function of one variable y f (x ) if x changes from x 0 to x 0 x , then the

corresponding increment of f is
f f (x 0 x) f (x 0 ) .

 If f (x ) is differentiable at x x 0 and x is a small change then

f f (x 0 ) x .

y = f(x)
(x 0 x,f (x 0 x ))
f (x 0 x)

f
T
y1 f (x 0 x)
P(x 0,f (x 0 )) f (x 0 ) x
y0 f (x 0 )
f (x 0 )

x0 x0 x
x

2.3.1.2 Tangent Plane Approximation of a Two Variables Function

Just as in one variable where we used the tangent line to approximate the graph of a function,
we develop similar ideas for functions of two variables. We shall use the tangent plane to
approximate the surface defined by a function of two variables. The tangent plane at a point P
is the plane that best fits the shape of the surface z f (x , y ) near P.
If f has continuous partial derivatives, the tangent plane to the surface z f (x , y ) at the
point P (x 0 , y0 , z 0 ) has equation
z z0 fx (x 0, y0 )(x x0) fy (x 0,y0 )(y y0 )

Near the point (x 0 , y0 , z 0 ) the graph of the tangent plane will be a good approximation to the
graph of the function z f (x , y ) . Therefore if the point (x1, y1 ) is close to (x 0, y0 ) ,
f (x1, y1) f (x 0, y0 ) fx (x 0, y0 )(x1 x0) fy (x 0, y0 )(y1 y0 )

108
or f (x1, y1) f (x 0, y0 ) fx (x 0, y0 )(x1 x0) fy (x 0, y0 )(y1 y0 )

If we let x x1 x0 , y y1 y0 , and f f (x1, y1) f (x 0, y0 ) , then

f fx (x 0, y0 )(x1 x0) fy (x 0, y0 )(y1 y0 )

so that f (x 0 x, y0 y) f (x 0, y0 ) fx (x 0, y0 ) x fy (x 0, y0 ) y .
That is, we can approximate the function by a linear function of two variables.

A graphical interpretation of the linear approximation formula is shown in the figure below:

Definition 2.4 Linear Approximation Formula

If f (x , y ) and its partial derivatives fx and fy are defined in an open region R containing the
point P (x 0 , y0 ) and fx and fy are continuous at P, then

f fx (x 0, y0 ) x fy (x 0, y0 ) y

or equivalently f (x 0 x, y0 y) f (x 0, y0 ) fx (x 0, y0 ) x fy (x 0, y0 ) y

The definition says that, if f (x , y ) is differentiable at the point (x 0, y0 ) , the tangent plane to
the surface z f (x , y ) at (x 0, y0 ) provides a good approximation to f (x , y ) near (x 0, y0 ) ,
the point of tangency. We can use the formula to see how a function changes when its
independent variables are subjected to small changes.
Thus for a function of two variables z f (x , y ) , if x changes from x 0 to x 0 x and y
changes from y 0 to y0 y , then the corresponding increment of z is
z f (x 0 x, y0 y) f (x 0, y0 )
The increment z represents the change in the value of f when (x , y ) changes from
(x 0, y0 ) to (x 0 x, y0 y) . Therefore we can define differentiability of a function of
two variables as follows:

109
Definition 2.5 Differentiability
If z f (x , y ) , then f is differentiable at (a, b) if z can be expressed in the form
z fx (x 0, y0 ) x fy (x 0, y0 ) y e1 x e2 y

where e1 and e2 0 as x, y (0, 0) .

In practice it is sometimes hard to use the above definition directly to check the
differentiability of a function. The following theorem provides a convenient sufficient
condition for differentiability

Theorem 2.4 Differentiability

If the partial derivatives fx and fy exist near (a,b) and are continuous at (a,b) , then f
is differentiable at (a,b) .

Note
Every differentiable function is continuous, but there are continuous functions that are not
differentiable.

2.3.2 Differentials

2.3..2.1 Differentials of a Function of One Variable

The underlying ideas of linear approximation can be re-written in terms of differentials.

dx is called the differential of x and we define dx to be x, an arbitrary increment of x. Then,
if f is differentiable at x, we define the corresponding differential of y, dy as
dy f (x )dx

The figure below illustrate the geometric interpretation of differentials.

y = f(x)
(x 0 x,f (x 0 x ))
f (x 0 x)

T
y
dy
P(x 0,f (x 0 ))
f(x0)

x0 x0 x
x dx

That is, we have

 x dx
110
  y is the rise of f (the change in y) that occurs relative to x dx
 dy is the rise of tangent line relative to x dx
The actual change of f : f f (x 0 x) f (x 0 )
The differential of f : df f (x )dx
Linear (incremental) approximation formula : f (x 0 x) f (x 0 ) f (x 0 ) x

Thus, we can estimate the actual change f, in f by the value of the differential df provided dx
is the change in x.
f df

2.3.2.2 Differentials of a Function of Two and More Variables

The approximation formula for the function of two variables z f (x , y ) was based on the
assumption that the tangent plane is a good approximation to the surface at the point
P (x 0 , y0 , z 0 ) . The figure below illustrate the relationship between the increment z and the
differential dz .

To generalise the idea to functions of three or more variables, we have to reconstruct the
approximation formula which does not use tangent planes since we cannot draw the graphs of
these functions.
We use the one-variable approximation formula for a differentiable function of one variable,
y  f (x ) where we defined the differential dy to be dy f (x )dx . For small change in x,

f f (x )dx

Extending these notions to z f (x , y ) , where x and y are independent variables and x and
y are increments of x and y respectively, we can make the following analogous definition:

111
 Definition 2.6 Total Differential
Let z f (x , y ) and if dx   x and dy   y are differentials for x and y,
respectively, then the total differential of z is defined as
dz df (x , y ) fx (x , y )dx fy (x , y )dy

Similarly, for a function of three variables w f (x , y, z ) , with dx   x , dy   y

dz   z , the total differential is
dw df (x , y, z ) fx (x , y, z )dx fy (x , y, z )dy fz (x , y, z )dz

Note
Observe the relation between increments and the total differential. We can estimate the actual
change z in z by the value of the differential dz.

2.3.3 Error Estimation

For z f (x , y ) , if x is subject to a small increment (or a small error) of x, while y remains
constant, then the corresponding increment of z in z will be
z
z  x
x
Similarly, if y is subject to a small increment of y, while x remains constant, then the
corresponding increment of z in z will be
z
z  y
y
It can be shown that, for increments (or errors) in both x and y,
z z
z  x  y
x y
Thus, we can write the linear approximation formula in terms of increments and differentials
as follows.
If x is the increment in x and y is the increment in y, then the increment in z f (x , y )
is given by
f f (x 0 x, y0 y) f (x 0, y 0 )
df fx (x 0, y 0 ) x fy (x 0, y 0 ) y

Likewise, the linear approximations, differentiability and differentials can be extended and
defined in a similar manner for functions three and more independent variables. For example,
if w f (x , y, z ) , a differentiable function is expressed as in Theorem 2.4. The linear
approximation is
f (x 0 x,y0 y,z 0 z ) f (x 0,y0,z 0 ) fx (x 0,y0,z 0 ) x fy (x 0,y0,z 0 ) y fz (x 0,y 0,z 0 ) z
The increment or actual change of w is
w f (x 0 x, y0 y, z 0 z) f (x 0, y0, z 0 )

112
The differential dw is defined as
w w w
dw x y z.
x y z
If x is the increment in x, y is the increment in y, z is the increment in z then
w dw fx x fy y fz z

Thus, for functions of several variables f (x1 , x 2 , , xn ) ,

n
f
f xk .
k 1 xk

Each partial derivative represents the change in the function relative to the change in that
variable.

Illustration
Using increments and differentials
 to estimate change of a function
 to estimate errors in measurement

Example 2.19 Increment and Differential Prompts/Questions

 What is an increment?
Let z 2x 3 xy y 3 . o What are the increments of x and y?
i. Compute z and dz as (x, y) changes from Increment of z?
(2, 1) to (2.03, 0.98).  What is a differential?
o What are the differentials of x and y?
ii. Compare the change in the function with the Differential of z?
approximation of this change.  What do the calculated values mean?

Solution
WANT: z and dz
KNOW: z f (x 0 x , y0 y) f (x 0, y0 ) , dz fx (x 0, y0 ) x fy (x 0, y0 ) y

Taking (x 0 , y0 ) (2,1) , we have the increment of f

z f (2.03, 0.98) f (2,1)
2(2.03)3 (2.03)(0.98) (0.98)3 [2(2)2 2(1) 13 ] 0.779062
z = 0.779062

The differential of f is given by

dz fx (x , y )dx fy (x , y )dy

(6x 2 y) x (x 3y 2 ) y
At (2, 1) with x 0.03 and y 0.02 , we have

dz (25)(0.03) ( 1)( 0.02) 0.77

113
(ii) On comparison, we observed that z dz but dz is easier to compute.

Example 2.20 Prompts/Questions

 What is the function to be estimated?
A cylindrical tank is 4 ft high and has a diameter o Name the variables.
of 2 ft. The walls of the tank are 0.2 in. thick. o Identify the equation that relates the
Approximate the volume of the interior of the tank variables.
assuming that the tank has a top and a bottom that  How do you use the approx. formula to
are both also 0.2 in. thick. estimate change?
o What is the relation between the
increments and the differentials?

Solution
WANT: Interior volume of tank, f (r r, h h)

KNOW: f (r r, h h) f (r , h ) Vrdr Vhdh

r 0.2 , h 2( 0.2) , (r, h) (12,48)
Volume of tank, V pr 2h
Vr 2prh and Vh pr 2

Since r = 12 in., h = 48 in., and r 0.2, h 0.4 we have,

f (12 r , 48 h) f (12, 48) (2prh ) r (pr 2 ) h

p(12)2(48) 2p(12)(48)( 0.2) p(12)2( 0.4)
Thus the interior volume of the tank is approximately
p(12)2 (48) (( 12)(24)p) 6624 p in 3 .

Example 2.21 Prompts/Questions

Suppose that a cylindrical can is designed to have a  What is the quantity to be estimated?
radius of 1 in. and a height of 5 in. but that the radius o Can you identify a function that
describes the quantity?
and height are off by the amounts dr = 0.03 and
 What information do you know?
dh = 0.1. Estimate the resulting, relative and  How do you use differentials to estimate
percentage changes in the volume of the can. change?

Solution
WANT: Change in volume, V dV
V dV
Relative change,
V V
V dV
Percentage change, 100 100
V V
KNOW: Volume of cylinder, V pr 2h
dV Vr dr Vhdh , dr 0.03, dh 0.1
radius, r = 1 in., height, h = 5 in.
114
INTRODUCE: notations and formula

Resulting change in volume,

dV Vr dr Vhdh 2prhdr pr 2dh
2p(1)(5)(0.03) p(1)2 ( 0.1) 0.2p
Thus, the resulting change in volume of the can is approximately 0.2p .

Relative change,
dV 0.2p 0.2p
0.04
V pr 2h p(1)2 (5)
V
0.04
V

Percentage change,
dV
100 0.04 100 4%
V
V
100 4%
V

Example 2.22 Prompts/Questions

The radius and height of a right circular cone are  What do you WANT to calculate?
measured with errors of at most 3% and 2%  What do you KNOW?
respectively. Use differentials to estimate the  What formula can you use to estimate the
error?
maximum percentage error in computing the volume.

Solution
dV
WANT:
V
1 2
KNOW: Volume of cone = pr h
3
2 1 2
dV Vr dr Vhdh prh pr
3 3
r h
Given 0.03 and 0.02 .
r h
The change in V approximated by the total differential is,
2 1 2
dV prh dr pr dh
3 3

dV 2 prhdr 1 pr 2dh dr dh
3 3 2
V 1 pr 2h r h
3

115
 dr dh
2 2(0.03) (0.02) 0.08
r h
Thus the maximum percentage error in computing the volume V is approximately 8%.

Important Facts
Each partial derivative represents the change in the function f relative to the change in that
variable. To estimate change in a function, we start with the function value at the known
point and adds in the approximate changes corresponding to each independent variable.
A function has a total differential if its partial derivatives are continuous. If a function has a
total differential, then it is called differentiable.

Making Sense
 If z f (x , y ) , what are the increments x , y and z?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 If z f (x , y ) , what are the differentials dx ,dy and dz ?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 What is the same and different about the increments and the differentials of z f (x , y ) ?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 If z f (x , y ) , what is the linear approximation of f? The total differential?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 Can you describe how differentials are used to estimate change and error?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Thinking Tips Problem Solving Strategies

In problem solving, we will be involved in getting started on the problem, how to deal with it
effectively and how to learn from the experience. Here, you are exposed to the strategies on
how to get started in a particular problem. We called this phase as the Entry Phase. In this
phase, we will be doing the following:
 Formulate the question precisely by absorbing the information given and finding out what
the question is really asking.
 Make some technical preparations such as making clear notations and means of recording
results of specialising.
 Structure your work by using the Prompts and Questions such as „What do I KNOW?,
What do I WANT? and What can I INTRODUCE?‟.

Structured Examples 2.6

116
Using increments and differentials
 to estimate change in a function
 to estimate errors in measurement

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Consider the function f (x, y)  3x 4  2y 4 .  How do you use the linear approximation
to estimate the values?
i. Find the partial derivatives of f. o State the formula.
ii. Find the equation for the tangent plane to the  What is the initial point from which the
graph of f (x, y ) at the point (1, 2, 35). change will occur?
iii. Use the answer in part (ii) to give an estimate o What are the increments of x and y?
value of f (1.01,2.03) .

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
 How do you use the linear approximation
Use an incremental approximation to estimate the formula to estimate the values?
functions at the given values. o State the formula.
 Compare Q 1a and 1b.
f p2 0.01, p2 0.01 , where f (x, y)  sin(x  y) o What is the same and different?

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
The volume of a right circular cone of radius r and  What is meant by actual change in V?
1 o What is the initial value of the
height h is given by V   r 2h . Suppose that the function? The terminal value?
3
 How do you use linear approximation to
height decreases from 20 in. to 19.95 in. and the estimate change?
radius increases from 4 in. to 4.05 in. o State the formula.
(i) Calculate the change in volume of the cone. o What are the partial derivatives of V?
(ii) Approximate the change in volume of the cone o What are the increments of r and h?
using differentials.
Compare (i) and (ii). What can you conclude about
the calculated values?

117
Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Suppose that the function f (x , y ) is differentiable at  Is the information given sufficient?
 Can you use linear approximation
the point (1, 2) with fx ( 1, 2)  1 and formula to estimate the value?
fy ( 1, 2)  3 . If f ( 1, 2)  2 , estimate the value of o What are the increments of x and y?
f ( 0.99, 2.02) .

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Find the total differential of the functions.  What is the total differential of f?
o State the formula
i. f (x, y)  5x 2y 3
ii. f (x, y, z )  2x 3  5y 4  6z

Question 6 Prompts/Questions
The temperature T of a gas is given in terms of its  What is the total differential of T?
pressure P and volume V by the equation o State the formula.
o What are the partial derivatives and
16 1
T P 11PV . differentials of V and P?
V V2  How are the increment and the differential
(i) Find the temperature T and the differential dT if of T related?
V 1 and P 15 .  What can you say about the calculated
(ii) Suppose the pressure increases to P 15.1 . Use values?
the answer in part (i) to estimate how much the
volume would have to change for the
temperature to remain constant.
(iii) Does the volume have to increase or decrease?

118
Question 7 Prompts/Questions
A right circular cone is measured and is found to have  What is the quantity to be estimated?
base radius 40 cm and height 20 cm. If it is known that o Can you identify some relation
between the variables?
each measurement is accurate to within 2%, what is
 What information do you KNOW?
the maximum percentage error in the measurement of o Can you write them in symbolic
the volume? form?
 How would you use differentials to
estimate the desired quantity?

Question 8 Prompts/Questions
The dimensions of a rectangular block of wood were  What does the question WANT?
found to be 100 mm, 120 mm and 200 mm, with a
possible error of 5 mm in each measurement. Find  What information do you KNOW?
approximately  What can you INTRODUCE?
i. the greatest error in the surface area of the block. o What formula could you use to
ii. the percentage error in the area caused by the estimate maximum error?
errors in the individual measurements. Percentage error?

Answers
1(i) fx 12x 3 , fy 8y (ii) 12x 16y z 9 1(iii) 35.6 2. 0

3(i) 7.57 (ii) 7.54 4. 2.07

5(i) df 10xy 3dx 2 2
15x y dy 5(ii) df 6x 2dx 20y 3dy 6dz
1 1
6(i) T = 165; dT 151dV 10dP ; (ii) V (iii) decrease by approximately units
151 96
7. 6% 8. (i) 8400; (ii) 7.5%

119
2.3.4 Exact Differential
In general, an expression of the form,
M (x , y )dx N (x , y )dy
is known as an exact differential if it is a total differential of a function f(x, y).

Definition 2.7 Exact Differential

The expression
M (x , y )dx N (x , y )dy
is an exact differential if
f f
Mdx Ndy dx dy df
x y

Note
The function f is found by partial integration.

Test for Exactness

The differential form Mdx Ndy is exact if and only if

M N
y x
By similar reasoning, it may be shown that
M (x, y, z )dx N (x, y, z )dy P(x, y, z )dz
is an exact differential when
P N M P N M
, ,
y z z x x y

Illustration
 Determining exact differential

Example 2.23 Prompts/Questions

Determine whether the following differential  What is an exact differential?
expressions are exact. If it is find the function f of
which it is the total differential.  State the test for exactness.
 How do you find the function f ?
i. xdx  ydy ii. ydx  xdy  d[xy ]

iii. ydx  xdy iv. 2 ln ydx  (x  z )dy  z 2dz

120
Solution

(i) We apply the test to M (x , y )  x , N (x , y )  y and calculate

M N
0
y x
Therefore the expression is exact. To find f:
f x2
M (x , y )   x   x dx   g (y )
x 2
f y2
N (x , y )   y   y dy   h (x )
y 2

y2 x2
Comparing these two equations we obtain g (y )  and h (x ) 
2 2
1 2
 f (x , y )  (x  y 2 )  C
2
1
Hence xdx  ydy  d  (x 2  y 2 )
 2 

(ii) ydx  xdy  d[xy ]

 f (x , y )  xy  C

(iii) ydx  xdy is not an exact differential, since

y (x )
 1 and  1
y x

iv. 2 ln ydx  (x  z )dy  z 2dz is not an exact differential, since

(2 ln y ) 2 (x  z )
 and 1
y y x

Structured Examples 2.7

 Determining exact differential

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Show that the following expression is an exact  What is an exact differential?
differential and obtain the function f of which it is the
total differential.  How do you test for exactness?
(a) (x  y )dx  (x  y )dy  What do you do to find the function
f?
(b) y dx  x dy  4 dz

121
REVIEW EXERCISE 2.3

1. What do f and df represent and how are they related?

2. Use linear approximation to estimate the functions at the values given:

(i) f (1.01, 0.98), where f (x, y)  e xy
2
(ii) f (1.01, 0.98), where f (x, y )  e x y 2

(iii) f  
2  0.01, 
2 
 0.01 , where f (x, y)  sin(xy)

3. Find the total differential of the functions.

(i) f (x , y )  sin(2x  3y )

(ii) f (x , y, z )  z 2 sin(2x  3y )
2
(iii) f x, y   e x  y

4. Compute the total differentials

 x   y 
(i) d   (ii) d  
x y  x y 
Compare (i) and (ii). Why are they alike?

5. Find the differential of f (x , y ) x 2y 3y at the point (5, 7). Use it to estimate

f (5.12,6.85) .

6. A rectangle has sides of length x cm. and y cm. Calculate, approximately, in terms of x
and y, the increment in the area, A, of the rectangle when x and y are subject to
increments of Δx and Δy respectively.

7. A rectangular box of sides x, y, and z has lengths measured to be respectively 10, 20, and
30 cm. To which of these measurements is the volume V most sensitive?

8. A juice can is 12 cm tall and has a radius of 3 cm. A manufacturer is planning to reduce
the height of the can by 0.2 cm and the radius by 0.3 cm. Use a total differential to
estimate how much less the volume will be in each can after the new cans are introduced.

9. The period T of a simple pendulum with small oscillations is given by

L
T 2p
g
where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the acceleration due to gravity. For a
certain pendulum, it is known that L = 4.03 ft. and g = 32.2 ft/s2. What is the approximate
error in calculating T by using L = 4 and g = 32?

10. The pressure P of a confined gas of volume V and temperature T is given by the formula
T
P k where k is a constant. Find approximately, the maximum percentage error in
V

122
 P introduced by an error of 0.4% in measuring the temperature and an error of
0.9% in measuring the volume.

11. A closed rectangular box with outer dimensions 10cm, 8cm and 6cm is made of 2mm
thick of wood. Approximate the volume of material used in making the box.

12. Verify that the expression,

(i) (x  y cos x )dx  (1  sin x )dy

(ii) (yz  2)dx  (xz  6y )dy  (xy  3z 2 )dz

is an exact differential and obtain the function of which it is the total differential.

Answers
2(i) 2.69 (ii) 2.66 (iii) 1 3(i)
df 2cos(2x 3y)dx 3cos(2x 3y)dy
2
3(ii) df 2z 2 cos(2x 3y)dx 3z 2 cos(2x 3y)dy sin(2x 3y )6dz (iii) df 2xex dx dy
5. 159.1 ; 6. A dA ydx xdy 7. side x
8. -73.5 9. 1.735 10 4
10. 1.3% 11. 75 cm3

FURTHER EXERCISE 2.3

1. Consider the following values of f (x, y ) :

f (1,2) 3, f (1.1,2) 2.8, f (1,2.1) 3.2

(a) Use these values to estimate fx (1,2) and fy (1,2) .

(b) Use the values obtained in part (a) to estimate the value of f (1.5,2.5) .

2. In the formula

x3
w
y

x is subjected to an increase of 2%. Calculate, approximately, the percentage change

needed in y to ensure that w remains unchanged.

3. An elastic cylindrical container is filled with air so that the radius of the base is 2.02 cm
and the height is 6.04 cm. If the container is deflated so that the radius of the base reduces
to 2 cm and the height to 6 cm, approximately how much air has been removed?

4. Ammonia (NH3) is a gas used for manufacturing fertilizers as well as urethane foams and
coatings. A particular gas cylinder contains 17.03 grams of ammonia. The pressure P (in
atmospheres (atm)), volume V (in liters (L)), and temperature T (in Kelvin (K)) of the
sample are related by the equation

123
 Pe 64.9/VT V 0.0400 0.08206T .

For the function P V , T  , compute P  2.1,320  .

5. If an electrical circuit with two resistors connected in parallel has a total resistance of R
ohms, then
1 1 1
 
R P Q
where P and Q are the resistances (in ohms) of the resistors. Suppose P and Q are
measured at 6 and 10 ohms, respectively, and that each measurement is accurate to within
0.01 ohms. What is the maximum percentage error involved in the computation?

6. Let A be the area of a triangle with sides a and b separated by an angle θ. Suppose
p
q and a is increased by 4% while b is decreased by 3%. Use differentials to
6
estimate the percentage change in A.

7. An open box has length 3 ft, width 1 ft, and height 2 ft, and is constructed from material
that costs RM2/ft2 for the sides and RM3/ft2 for the bottom. Compute the cost of
constructing the box and then use increments to estimate the change in cost if the length
and width are each increased by 3 in. and the height is decreased by 4 in.

y
8. Consider the function f (x , y ) e (1 4x ) . Suppose that the values of x and y are
within the ranges x 2 0.3, y 0 0.2 . Estimate the corresponding range of
possible values of z f (x , y ) .

9. Find the constants a, b, and c if the following differential expression is exact.

(ay 2 2czx )dx y(bx cz )dy (ay 3 cx 2 )dz

Answers
1(a) -2; 2; (b) 2.5 2. 6% 3. 2.05 cm3 4. 11.57 atm
5. 0.14% 6. 1% 7. RM1.67/ft2 8. 6 z 12

124
2.4 Chain Rule

2.4.1 Partial Derivatives of Composite Functions

Focus of Attention
 What is the Chain Rule?
 What form does it take for functions of two independent variables? Three
independent variables?
 How do you diagram these different forms?
 When do you need to use the Chain Rule?

Recall the Chain Rule for composite functions of one variable. If y is a differentiable
function of x and x is a differentiable function of a parameter t, then the Chain Rule states
that
dy dy dx
 
dt dx dt
The corresponding rule for two variables function is essentially the same except that it
involves both variables.
Let z  f (x , y ) is a function of x and y and suppose that x and y are in turn functions of a
single variable t, x  x (t ) , y  y(t ) . Then z  f (x (t ), y(t )) is a composite function of a
dz
parameter t. Thus we can calculate the derivative and its relationship to the derivatives
dt
 z  z dx dy
, , and is given by the following theorem.
 x  y dt dt

Theorem 2.5 Two Intermediate Variables, One Parameter

If z  f (x , y ) is differentiable and x and y are differentiable functions of t, then z is a
differentiable function of t and
dz  z dx  z dy
   
dt  x dt  y dt

Note
 This rule is referred to as the Chain Rule.
 The chain rule contains three types of variables, the independent (parameter),
intermediate and the dependent variables.
 The rule is used to calculate the rate of increase (positive or negative) of composite
functions with respect to t.

The Chain Rule can be easily remembered when represented schematically by a “tree
diagram”, as shown below. We start at the top with the function itself, the dependent variable,
and then branch out from that point. The first set of branches is for the variables in the
function, the intermediate variables. From each of these endpoints we draw a further set of

125
branches to the independent variables (parameters). On each branch we write the
corresponding partial derivative.

Chain Rule – two intermediate variables, one independent variable (one

parameter)
In this case we have, z f (x, y) , x  x (t ) , y  y(t ) . Since z would be a function of t only,
dz dz
we compute . To find the formula , follow the two paths through the tree that start
dt dt
with z and end with t, get the product of the derivatives along each path and then add these
products.
z  f (x , y ) Dependent variable

z z
x y

x y Intermediate variable

dx dy
dt dt

t Independent variable

dz z dx z dy
dt x dt y dt

Chain Rule – three intermediate variables, one independent variable

w  f (x , y, z ) , x  x (t ) , y  y(t ) , z  z (t ) . Since w would be a function of t only, we
dw
compute .
dt
w  f (x , y, z ) Dependent variable

w w
x z
w
y

x y z Intermediate variable

dy
dx dz
dt
dt dt

t Independent variable

126
 dw w dx w dy w dz
dt x dt y dt z dt

Chain Rule – one intermediate variable, two parameters

In this case, y f (x ) , x  x (r , s ) . Since y would be a function of two variables r and s, so
y y
we compute and .
r s
y  f (x )

dy
dx
x

x x
r s

r s

y dy x y dy x
,
r dx r s dx s

The result established for a single variable may easily be adapted to functions f (x , y ) of two
variables in which x, y are each dependent on two variables, r, s.

Theorem 2.6 Two Intermediate Variables, Two Parameters

Let x x (r , s ) and y  y(r , s ) have partial derivatives at r and s and let z  f (x , y ) be
differentiable at (x, y). Then z f (x (r , s ), y(r , s )) has first derivatives given by
z z x z y
   
r x r y r
z z x z y
   
s x s y s

Can you draw the tree diagram that depicts the chain rule?
To get the rule we start at the bottom and for each branch that ends with the variable we want
to take the derivative with respect to, say r, we move up the tree until we reach the top
multiplying the derivatives that we see along that set of branches. Once we’ve done this for
each branch that ends at r, we then add the results up to get the chain rule for that given
situation. Repeat this for s.
Draw the tree diagram. FINISH IT OFF…

127
Note
 There are infinitely many variations of the chain rule, depending on the number of
variables and the choice of independent and dependent variables.

The chain rule extends naturally to functions u f (v1, v2 , , vn ) of n intermediate variables,

which in turn a function of m independent variables.

Theorem 2.7 The General Chain Rule

Suppose that u is a differentiable function of the n variables v1 , v2 , v3 , , vn and each
vi is a differentiable function of the m variables t1 ,t2 ,t3 , ,tm . Then u is a function
of t1 ,t2 ,t3 , ,tm and

u u v1 u v2 u vn
ti v1 t1 v2 t2 vn tm
for each i 1,2, , m .

Important Facts
The Chain Rule gives the rule for differentiating a composite function. A good working
procedure to derive new versions of the Chain Rule is to use tree diagrams.

Illustration
 Chain Rule for functions of one independent variable (one parameter)
 Chain Rule for functions of two and more independent variable (two and more
parameters)
 Rate of change using the chain rule

Example 2.24 Prompts/Questions

Suppose that z xey where x  2t and y  sin t .  What are the intermediate variables?
Independent variables (parameters)?
dz  What is the chain rule formula for the
Find .
dt derivative?
(i) by first expressing z explicitly in terms of t. o How do you diagram the rule?
(ii) by using the chain rule.  Compare (i) and (ii). Which is easier
to compute?

Solution
dz
WANT:
dt
(i) Substituting x and y in the function yield z xey 2te sin t f (t ) . Differentiating w.r.t.
t we obtain
dz
2e sin t 2t cos te sin t 2ey x cos tey
dt

128
(ii) Using the chain rule: z  f (x , y )
 Draw a tree diagram.
z z
 Write down the chain rule: x y
dz z dx z dy x y
dt x dt y dt
dx dy
 Find the derivatives accordingly: dt
dt
z z
z xey ey and xe y t
x y

dx
x 2t 2
dt
dy
y sin t cos t
dt

dz z dx z dy
Hence, (ey )(2) (xey )(cos t )
dt x dt y dt
2ey x cos tey

Example 2.25 Prompts/Questions

 How do you calculate the derivative?
Suppose that z xy
y where x cos q and o Can the chain rule be use?
dz p  Can you draw a diagram expressing
y sin q . Find when q . the relationship between the variables?
dq 2
o What derivates relate the
variables?

Solution

dz
WANT:
d   2

KNOW: From the chain rule with  in place of t,

dz  z dx  z dy
   
d  x d  y d
dz 1 12 1 12
We have (xy y ) (y )( sin q) (xy y) (x 1)(cos q)
dq 2 2
p
When q , we obtain
2
p p
x cos 0 and y sin 1
2 2
p dz
Substituting x = 0, y = 1, q in the formula for yields
2 dt

129
 dz 1 1 1
(1)(1)( 1) (1)(1)(0)
dq q p2 2 2 2

Example 2.26 Prompts/Questions

Compare 2.26 and 2.25.
2 2 z 3  What is the same?
Let z 4x y where x = uv and y = u v. Find
u  What is different?
z  What do you do to get the chain rule
and .
v formula for the derivative?
o Why partial derivatives and not
ordinary derivatives?

Solution
 Draw a tree diagram. COMPLETE THE SOLUTION…

 Write down the chain rule:

z z x z y z z x z y
and
u x u y u v x v y v

 Find the derivatives accordingly:

z
4(v 2 ) ( 2y )(3u 2v ) 4v 2 6u 5v 2
u
z
4(2uv ) ( 2y )(u 3 ) 8uv 2u 6v
v

Example 2.27 Prompts/Questions

 How do you express the relationship
Suppose that w xy yz where y = sin x and between the variables?
z ex . Use an appropriate form of the chain rule to  Write down the chain rule formula for
dw the derivative.
find . o How many terms are there in the
dx expression?

Solution
dw
WANT:
dx
KNOW: w is a function of three variables and in which each is dependent on one variable x.
 Draw a tree diagram. COMPLETE THE SOLUTION…

130
  Write down the chain rule:
dw w dx w dy w dz
dx x dx y dx z dx
Thus we obtain,
dw
y(1) (x z )cos x ye x (1 e x )sin x (x e x )cos x
dx

Example 2.28 Prompts/Questions

Consider F F (u, v ) is a function of two variables.  Notice that z is a composite function.
2  Which derivative rule do you use?
F
Suppose that u x y and v xy . Find . o What are the intermediate
y x variables? Independent variables?
o Can you identify some
relationship between the
variables?

Solution
Draw a tree diagram: write down the Chain Rule
F  F (u, v )
Therefore we have the first partial derivative of F with
respect to x:
Fu Fv
F F u F v F F
y
x u x v x u v u v

ux uy vx vy

x y x y

Differentiating Fx again with respect to y, we obtain the Fu

second partial mixed derivative,
2
F F F F
y
y x y x y u v u v
F F
y
y u y v
F F F
(1) y
y u v y v
Fu u Fu v F Fv u Fv v x y x y
y
u y v y v u y v y

2 2 2
F F F F
xy (x y)
v u2 v2 u v

131
Example 2.29 Prompts/Questions
A rectangle has length 5 ft. and width 2 ft. It is  What do you WANT to calculate?
changing in such a way that the length is increasing at  What do you KNOW?
o Name the variables.
a rate of 3 ft/s and its width is increasing at a rate of 4
o Identify the quantity measured.
ft/s. At what rate is the area of the rectangle changing?  What formula can you use?
o What form does it take?

Solution

dA
WANT:
dt l 5,w 2

KNOW: Area of rectangle, A lw

dl dw
Given 3 ft/s , 4 ft/s
dt dt

INTRODUCE: Notation and formula

Use chain rule to relate the derivatives:

dA  A dl  A dw
   
dt  l dt  w dt
We obtain,
dA
w(3) l (4)
dt
dA
Thus when l = 5 ft, w = 2 ft, (2)(3) (5)(4) 26 ft/s2
dt

Making Sense

 What is the Chain Rule?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

dy dy dx
 When do you get ordinary derivatives: , , , ?
dx dt dt
………………………………………………………………………………………………

z z w
 When do you get partial derivatives: , , , ?
y x t
………………………………………………………………………………………………

 What diagram can help you to generate the various forms of the Chain Rule?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

 When do you need to use the Chain Rule?

132
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Thinking Tips Problem Solving Strategies

Elements that can be introduced on getting started in a problem: Charts, tables, symbols,
diagrams; Notation – what to give a name to, what name to give; Organization – record and
arrange what you KNOW; Representation – choosing elements that are easier to manipulate
and substituting these for the elements in the question.
The Tree Diagram is a way of representing the Chain Rule and to see the relationship
between the independent, dependent and intermediate variables. You can use a similar
representation to find the Chain Rule for higher order derivatives.

Structured Examples 2.8

 Chain Rule for functions of one independent variable (one parameter)
 Chain Rule for functions of two and more independent variable (two and more
parameters)
 Rate of change using the chain rule

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
1  What are the intermediate variables?
Let z x2 y 2 , where x  and y  ln t . Find
t Independent (parameters) variables?
dz  What is the chain rule formula for the
in two ways: derivative?
dt o How do you diagram the rule?
i. by first expressing z explicitly in terms of t.  Compare (i) and (ii). Which is easier to
ii. by using the chain rule. compute?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Let w xyz , where x  cos t and y  sin t  How do you get the chain rule formula?
o Draw a tree diagram.
dw
and z t . Use the chain rule to find and w
dt  Why not ?
evaluate it at t p. t

133
Question 3 Prompts/Questions
(a) Let z x 2 y 2 , where x  u  v and  Do you recognise the type of function
given?
y u v . Find the derivatives with respect o What are the intermediate variables?
to u and v. Independent variables?
2  Can you draw a diagram expressing the
(b) If w 4x y 2 z 3 where x  ers , relationship between the variables?
r s w w o What derivates relate the variables?
y ln and z = rst2, find , , and
t r s Compare (a) and (b).
 What is the same?
w
.  What is different?
t

Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Suppose that z f (u ) .  What are the intermediate variables?
Independent (parameters) variables?
(a) Let u g(x , y ) . Draw a tree diagram and use
 Can you write out the chain rules formula?
z z o How does the tree diagram help you to
it to construct chain rules for and .
x y generate all the terms in the chain?
z z Compare (a) and (b).
(b) Let u x 2y . Find and .  What is the same?
x y
 What is different?

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Let z f (x 2 y 2 ) . Compare Q5 and Q4.
z z  Can you re-write z in a way similar to Q4?
i. Find and
x y
 How do you calculate the partial
z z derivatives?
ii. Hence show that y x 0.
x y

134
Question 6 Prompts/Questions
Confirm the result in Q5 in the case where Compare Q6 and Q5.
 What is the function f ?
z sin(x 2 y 2 ) .
 What are the derivates?

Question 7 Prompts/Questions
 Identify the intermediate variables.
Let z f (x y, y x ) , evaluate o Can you name them?
 Can you identify some relationship between
z z the variables?
x y o Can you use the chain rule?
o Write out the derivative formula.

Question 8 Prompts/Questions
If z f (x , y ) has continuous second order partial  Can you identify some relationship between
the variables?
derivatives and x r cos q and y r sin q , o Write out the first-order derivative
2
z formula.
compute .  How do you find the second-order?
q2 o Do you need to use the chain rule again?
o What other derivative rules do you use?

Question 9 Prompts/Questions
Suppose w x 3y 2z 4 ; x 2
t ,y t 2, z 4
2t .  What is a rate of change?
o When can you use the chain rule?
 How do you formulate the rule?
Find the rate of change of w with respect to t at
o What are the intermediate &
t = 1. independent variables?

135
Question 10 Prompts/Questions
A right circular cylinder is changing in such a way  How is rate of change calculated?
that its radius is increasing at the rate of 3 in./min o Can you generate the chain rule?
and its height is decreasing at the rate of 5 in./min.
At what rate is the volume changing when the
radius is 10 in. and the height is 8 in.?

Question 11 Prompts/Questions
The voltage V in volts across a circuit is given by  What does the question WANT?
Ohm’s law V IR , where I in amps is the  What do you KNOW?
current flowing through the circuit and R in ohms  What can you INTRODUCE?
o Diagram
is the resistance. If two circuits with resistance R1 o Notation
and R2 is place in parallel, then their combined o Formulas/rules
resistance R is given by
1 1 1
.
R R1 R2
Suppose the current is 2 amps and increasing at
10 2 amps/sec and R1 is 3 ohms and increasing at
0.5 ohms/sec, while R2 is 5 ohms and decreasing
at 0.2 ohms/sec. Calculate the rate at which the
voltage is changing.

Answers
2 2lnt 2. π
1(i) & (ii)
t3 t
w 2 2 r s w 2 2 r s
3. 4s 2ers ln 3r 2s 3t 6 ; 8rsers ln 3r 3s 2t 6
r r s t s r s t
w 2 r s 7. 0
ln 6r 3s 3t 5
t t t
2 2 2
f f f f f
8. r cos q r sin q r 2 sin2 q 2r 2 sin q cos q r 2 cos2 q
x y x 2 y x y2
9. 3264 10. -62.8 in3/min.
11. 0.3531volts/sec

136
2.4.2 Implicit Functions Revisited

Focus of Attention Implicit differentiation by formula

 What is the alternative formula for implicit differentiation?
 How do you generate the formula?
 When is the formula used?

The chain rule can be applied to implicit relationships of the form F (x , y ) 0 between two
variables, x and y.
Let x be the single independent variable, then F (x , y ) 0 is a function of x and y in which
both x and y are functions of x. We may determine the derivative of y with respect to x.

Differentiating F (x , y ) 0 with respect to x gives F (x , y )

F dx F dy
0 Fx Fy
x dx y dx
F F dy x y
In other words, 0
x y dx
dx dy
dy F x dx dx
Hence,
dx F y x

In summary, we have the following results.

Theorem 2.8 One-Variable Implicit Function

If the equation F (x , y ) 0 defines y implicitly as a differentiable function of x, then
dy Fx

dx Fy

provided Fy 0.

Theorem 2.8 has a natural extension to functions of the form, F (x , y, z )  0 .

Let x and y be the independent variables, then, F (x , y, z ) is a function of x, y and z, where z is
a function of x and y.

Theorem 2.9 Two-Variable Implicit Function

If F (x , y, z ) 0 defines z implicitly as a differentiable function of x and y, then
z Fx  z Fy
and 
x Fz y Fz
provided Fx 0 , Fy  0 .

137
Illustration
 Differentiating implicit functions of one variable
 Differentiating implicit functions of two variables

Example 2.30 Prompts/Questions

 State the alternative formula.
If y is a differentiable function of x such that  How do you express the function in
dy
x 3 4x 2y 3xy y 2 0 , find . order to use the formula?
dx  Why does the formula involve partial
derivatives?

Solution
dy Fx
KNOW:
dx Fy

Let F (x , y ) x3 4x 2y 3xy y 2 . So F (x , y )  0 . Then

Fx  3x 2  8xy  3y
and Fy 4x 2 3x 2y

dy Fx (3x 2  8xy  3y )

  
dx Fy 4x 2  3x  2y

Alternatively, differentiating the given function implicitly yields

dy   dy  dy
3x 2   8xy  4x 2    3y  3x   2y 0
 dx   dx  dx
2
dy (3x  8xy  3y )
 
dx 4x 2  3x  2y
which agrees with the result obtained by Theorem 2.8.

Example 2.31 Prompts/Questions

 What is the dependent variable?
dy
If sin(x y) cos(x y) y , determine . Independent?
dx  How do you calculate the derivative?
o Can you generate the formula?

Solution
dy Fx
KNOW:
dx Fy

Let F (x, y ) sin(x y) cos(x y) y . So F (x , y )  0 . Then

Fx  cos(x  y )  sin(x  y )
and Fy cos(x y) sin(x y) 1

138
 dy Fx (cos(x  y )  sin(x  y ))  cos(x  y )  sin(x  y )
   
dx Fy cos(x  y )  sin(x  y )  1 cos(x  y )  sin(x  y )  1

Example 2.32 Prompts/Questions

 Can you identify the independent
Let z f (x, y) . If z 2xy  zy 2x  x 2  y 2  5 variables? The dependent variable?
z z  How do you calculate the
determine expressions for and . derivatives?
x y o What formula can you use?

Solution

z Fx  z Fy
KNOW: , 
x Fz y Fz

Let F (x, y, z ) z 2xy zy 2x x2 y2 5 . So F (x , y, z )  0 . Then

Fx  z 2y  zy 2  2x
and Fy z 2x 2zyx 2y

Fz 2zxy y 2x

 z Fx (z 2y  zy 2  2x )
  
x Fz 2zxy  y 2x
and

 z Fy (z 2x  2zyx  2y )

 
y Fz 2zxy  y 2x

Making Sense

 What is the alternative formula for implicit differentiation of one variable function? Two
variables function?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 How do you use the formula?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 When can you use the formula?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

139
Structured Examples 2.9 Alternative Formula for Implicit Function
 Differentiating implicit functions of one variable
 Differentiating implicit functions of two variables

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
In each of the following, y is a differentiable  State the alternative formula.
dy
function of x. Find .  How do you express the function in order to
dx
use the formula?
i. x 3  2y 2  xy  0  Why does the formula involve partial
derivatives?
ii. x 2  y 2  7  xy

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
If F (x , y, z )  0 defines z as a differentiable  What is the dependent variable?
Independent?
function of x and y, show that
 When can you use the chain rule?
 z Fx  z Fy o Can you draw a tree diagram relating the
i.  ii.  variables?
x Fz y Fz

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
z z  Can you identify the independent variables?
Find and for the following functions. The dependent variable?
x y
 How do you calculate the derivatives?
i. x 2 3yz 2 xyz 2 0 o Can you generate the formula?
ii. yex 5 sin 3z 3z

140
Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Suppose exyz z 1 e implicitly defines  How do you find the derivatives?
o Can you use the chain rule?
z f (x, y) as function of x and y.
 How do you use linear approximation?
(i) Find fx and fy . o What is the formula?
(ii) Estimate f (1.01,0.99) using linear o What are the increments of x and y?

approximation.

Answers
dy 3x y dy 2x y z 2x yz z 3z 2 xz
1(i)
dx 4y x
(ii)
dx 2y x 3(i) ,
x 6yz xy y 6yz xy
z ye x z ex yze xyz xze xyz
3(ii) , 4(i) fx xyz ; fx ; (ii) 1
x 15cos 3z 3 y 15cos 3z 3 1 xye 1 xye xyz

Reflection
 How successful were you in learning this topic?
……………………………………………………………………………………………..........
 To what extent do the prompts & questions help in your learning?
……………………………………………………………………………………………..........
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 Can you identify where you need to improve?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 What changes could you make to accomplish this?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

141
REVIEW EXERCISE 2.4

1. Suppose z f (x, y) and that x and y are functions of u and v. Use a tree diagram to write
z z
down the chain rule formula for and .
u v

2. Suppose w f (x, y, z ) and that x, y and z are functions of s and t. Use a tree diagram to
w w
write down the chain rule formula for and .
s t

dz
3. If z  xy 2 , where x  cos 3t and y  tan t , find .
dt

dw
4. Find , where w  sin xyz and x  1  3t , y  e1t , z  4t .
dt

2 z z
5. If z  ln xy , where x  euv , y  euv . Find and .
u v

6. Determine the derivatives of z with respect to r and θ in the case when z  x 2  y 2 ,

where x r cos q and y  r sin 2 .

dw
7. Use a chain rule to find the value of if w  r 2  r tan  , r  s ,    s .
ds s 1 4

z z
8. If z  u  f (uv ) , show that u v u.
u v

9. Determine the partial derivatives of the following functions with respect to each of the
independent variables:
i. z  f (x )  g(y ) ii. z  f (x 2  y 3 )  g(xy 2 )

w w w
10. Let w f (x y, y z, z x ) , show that    0.
x y z

11. Suppose that w x sin yz 2 ; x cos t , y t2 ,z et . Find the rate of change of w with
respect to t at t = 0.

12. Show that the function y x is defined implicitly by the equation x 2  2xy  y 2  0
dy
but Theorem 2.8 cannot be use to find .
dx

dy
13. If y is a differentiable function of x and exy yey 1 , find .
dx

z z
14. Find and if ln(xy  yz  xz )  5 .
x y

142
 p
15. Let f (x , y ) cos(xy ) , where x x (q) and y y(q) . Suppose x (2) y(2) ,
2
df
x (2) 5 2p and y (2) 2p . Find .
dq q 2

16. Suppose f (x , y )  g(x 2  y 2 ) , where g is a function of one variable. Find

fxx (1, 2)  fyy (1, 2) given that g (5)  3 and g (5)  9 .

Answers
dz dw
3. 3y 2 ( sin 3t ) 2xy(sec2 t ) 4. cos xyz(4xy 3yz xze1 t )
dt dt
z v 2 uv2 v uv z 2uv uv 2 u uv z z
2x cos q 2y sin2q , 2xr sin q 4yr cos2q
x e ye , v x e ye
5. 6.
u r q
7. -π 11. 0
dy ye xy z y z z x z
13. 14. ,
dx xe xy yey ey x y x y y z
15. -2π 16. 192

FURTHER EXERCISE 2.4

u u
1. Let u rs 2 ln t , r  x 2 , s  4y  1, t  xy 3 . Find and .
x y

2. Determine the first-order partial derivatives of w with respect to the independent variables
when w x 2 2y 2 2z 2 where x a sin f cos q , y a sin f sin q and z a cos f .

3. Suppose that z  f (x , y ) is differentiable at the point (4, 8) with fx (4, 8)  3 and

dz
fy (4, 8)   1 . If x  t 2 , y  t 3 , find when t = 2.
dt

4. Let f be a function of x and y where x  u 3v , y  u 2v 2 . Suppose fx (1,1)   5 and

fv (1,1)  7 , find fu (1,1) .

5. Determine the derivative of u with respect to t in the case when u  xy  yz  zx where

x  et , y  e t , z  x  y .

z z
6. Find and if exy cos yz  eyz sin xz  2  0 .
x y

7. Suppose f is a twice differentiable function of one variable, and let z  f (x 2  y 2 ) . Find

2z 2z 2z
(a) (b) (c)
x 2 y2 x y

8. Let f and g be twice differentiable functions of one variable, and let

u(x , t )  f (x  ct )  g(x  ct )

143
 2u 2
2  u
for a constant c. Show that  c .
t 2 x 2

9. Suppose that the functions f and g are both twice continuously differentiable and let
u(x, y) f (x 2 3y) g(x 2 3y) .
2 2
u u u
Show that the function u satisfies the equation x 3 k x where k is a
y2 x x2
constant. Find the value of the constant k.

10. Assume that f is a differentiable function of one variable with z  xf (xy ) . Show that
xzx  yzy  z .

w w
11. Find and if w  f (4t 2  3s ) and f (x )  ln x .
t s

12. Let z f (u, v ) be a function whose derivatives of all orders exist. Suppose that
2
f
(3,0) 3
u2
2
f
(3,0) 3
u v
2
f
(3,0) 1
v2
2
f
If u y e 2x and v xy , what is the value of evaluated at the point
y2
(x , y ) (1,2) ?

13. The length, width, and height of a rectangular box are increasing at the rates of 1 in./s, 2
in./s, and 3 in./s respectively.
(a) At what rate is the volume increasing when the length is 2 in., the width is 3 in., and
the height is 6 in.?
(b) At what rate is the surface area of the box increasing at that instant?

14. The production of palm oil, P is a function of rainfall, R, and temperature, T , that is
P  P( R, T ) where R and T are functions of time t. At present, suppose PR  5.5 ,
PT  10 , and the current climate model predicts that Rt  0.2 and Tt  0.1 . Determine
whether there is an increase or decrease in the production?

Answers
u rs 2y 3 u 3xy 2rs 2
1. 2xs 2 ln t , 8rs ln t
x t y t
w w
2. 2a sin2 f cos2 q 4a2 sin2 f sin2 q 4a cos2 f ; 2a2 sin2 f sin q cos q ;
a q
w
2a2 sin f cos f(cos2 q 2sin2 q 2)
f
3. 0 4. -3

144
 du
5. et (y x)
dt
z zeyz cos xz yexy cos yz z exy x cos yz zexy sin yz zeyz sin xz
6. ,
x yexy sin yz xeyz cos xz yeyz cos xz y yexy sin yz eyz cos xz yeyz cos xz
9 w w
9. k 11. 8t ln(4t 2 3s ), 3ln(4t 2 3s )
4 t s
12. 2 13(a) 48 in3/s (b) 80in2/s
14. decrease

145
2.5 Local (Relative) Extremum
There are many practical situations in which it is necessary to know the largest and smallest
values of a function of two variables. For example, what are the hottest and coldest points on
a metal plate, and where do these extreme temperatures occur? Where does a surface attain its
highest or lowest points in their immediate vicinity? We can often answer such questions by
examining the partial derivatives of the appropriate function.
A maximum or minimum value of f is called an extreme value or extremum. The point at
which the extremum occurs is known as the extreme point. There are two types of
extremum, the local (or relative) and the global (or absolute) extremum.
We will only look at local extremum of two variables functions, although the following ideas
can be extended to functions of three and more variables.

Focus of Attention
 What is the relative extremum of a function of two variables?
 What does a saddle point mean?
 What is a critical point of a function of two variables?
 What derivative tests could be used to determine the nature of critical points?

In this section we will see how partial derivatives are use to locate maxima and minima of
functions of two variables. We will start out by formally defining local maximum and
minimum:

Definition 2.8 Local Maximum and Local Minimum

A function of two variables has a local maximum at (a, b) if f (x , y )  f (a,b) when (x, y) is
near (a, b). The number f (a,b ) is called a local maximum value.

If f (x , y )  f (a,b) when (x, y) is near (a, b ) , then f (a,b ) is a local minimum value.

Note
 The point (x, y) is in some disk with centre (a, b).
 Collectively, local maximum and minimum are called local extremum.
 Local extremum is also known as relative extremum.

The process for finding the maxima and minima points is similar to the one variable process,
just set the derivative equal to zero. However, using two variables, we need to use a system of
equations since we must see where both fx and fy equal zero simultaneously. This process is
given below in the following theorem:

Theorem 2.10
If f has a local maximum or minimum at (a, b) and the first-order partial derivatives of f
exist at this point, then fx (a,b)  0 and fy (a,b)  0 .

146
Definition 2.9
A point (a, b) is called a critical point of the function z  f (x , y ) if fx (a,b)  0 and
fy (a,b)  0 or if one or both partial derivatives do not exist at (a, b).

Note
The values of z at the local maxima and local minima of the function z = f(x, y) may also be
called the extreme values of the function, f(x, y).

The next theorem gives a criterion for deciding what is happening at a critical point. This
theorem is analogous to the Second Derivative Test for functions of one variable.

Theorem 2.11 Second-Partials Test

Let f (x , y ) have a critical point at (a, b) and assume that f has continuous second-order
partial derivatives in a disk centred at (a, b). Let
D  fxx (a,b)fyy (a,b)  [ fxy (a,b)]2

(i) If D > 0 and fxx (a,b)  0 , then f has a local minimum at (a, b).
(ii) If D > 0 and fxx (a,b)  0 , then f has a local maximum at (a, b).
(iii) If D < 0, then f has a saddle point at (a, b).
(iv) If D = 0, then no conclusion can be drawn.

147
Note
The expression fxx fyy fxy 2 is called the discriminant or Hessian of f. It is sometimes
easier to remember it in the determinant form,
fxx fxy
fxx fyy fxy 2
fxy fyy

If the discriminant is positive at the point (a, b), then the surface curves the same way in all
directions:
 downwards if fxx  0 , giving rise to a local maximum
 upwards if fxx (a,b)  0 , giving a local minimum.

If the discriminant is negative at (a, b), then the surface curves up in some directions and
down in others, so we have a saddle point.

Geometric Interpretation of Second Derivatives

The unmixed second partials fxx and fyy tells us about the concavity of a surface whilst the
mixed partials, fxy tells us about the rate at which the slope changes (the twisting of a
surface).

The following graphs depict these behaviours. Notice what is happening along the edges of
the graphs.

z x 3y y2 z x2 3xy y2

Illustration
Finding relative extrema
 using first partial derivative
 using second partial derivative

148
Example 2.33 Prompts/Questions
Discuss the nature of the critical point for the following  Where can relative extreme values
surfaces: of f (x, y) occur?
i. z x 2 y 2 o What are critical points?
 How do you decide the nature of
ii. z x 2 y 2 1 critical points?
iii. z y 2 x 2

Solution
Let f (x , y )  x 2  y 2 , g(x , y )  1  x 2  y 2 and h(x , y )  y 2  x 2 . We find the critical points:

i. fx (x , y )  2x , fy (x , y )  2y . Solve the equations fx = 0 and fy = 0 simultaneously.

Thus the critical point is (0, 0). The function f has a local minimum at (0, 0) because x 2
and y 2 are both nonnegative, yielding x 2  y 2  0 .

ii. gx (x , y )   2x , gy (x , y )   2y . Solve the equations gx = 0 and gy = 0 simultaneously.

Thus the critical point is (0, 0). The function g has a local maximum at (0, 0) because
z  1  x 2  y 2 and x 2 and y 2 are both nonnegative, so the largest value z occurs at
(0, 0).

iii. hx (x , y )   2x , hy (x , y )  2y . Solve the equations hx = 0 and hy = 0 simultaneously.

Thus the critical point is (0, 0). The function h has neither a local maximum nor a local
minimum at (0, 0). h is minimum on the y-axis (where x = 0) and a maximum on the x-
axis (where y = 0). Such point is called a saddle point.

Remarks
 In general, a surface z = f(x, y) has a saddle point at (a, b) if there are two distinct
vertical planes through this point such that the trace of the surface in one of the planes
has a local maximum at (a, b) and the trace in the other has a local minimum at (a, b).
 Example 2.33 (iii) illustrates the fact that fx (a,b)  0 and fy (a,b)  0 does not
guarantee that there is a local extremum at (a, b).

Example 2.34 Prompts/Questions

 What are the critical points?
Locate all local extrema and saddle points of o How are they calculated?
f (x , y )  1  x 2  y 2 .  How does the second partials test
help you to classify the critical
points?

Solution
 Determine the critical points: fx  fy  0
Find fx and fy:
fx (x , y )   2x and fy (x , y )   2y .
149
 Solve the equations fx = 0 and fy = 0 simultaneously, we have
 2x  0 and  2y  0
So the only critical point is at (0, 0).

 Compute the discriminant D(x, y) : D(x , y ) fxx (a,b)fyy (a,b) [ fxy (a,b)]2

fxx (x , y )   2 , fxy (x , y )  0 and fyy (x , y )   2

2 0
D  4
0 2

 Analyse the critical point:

Since D = 4 > 0 and fxx (0, 0)   2 < 0, the second partials test tell us that a local maximum
occurs at (0, 0).
In other words, the point (0, 0, 1) is a local maximum, with f having a corresponding
maximum value of 1.

Example 2.35 Prompts/Questions

 What are the critical points?
Locate all local extrema and saddle points of o How are they calculated?
f (x , y )  8x 3  24xy  y 3 .  How do you classify these points?
o Can you use the Second
Derivative Test?

Solution
 Find the critical points: fx  fy  0

fx  24x 2  24y , fy   24x  3y 2

Solve fx 0 and fy 0 simultaneously,

24x 2  24y  0 (1)

 24x  3y 2  0 (2)

From Eqn. (1), we obtain y  x 2 . Substitute this into Eqn. (2) to find

 24x  3(x 2 )2  0
 x  0,2

The corresponding values of y are y 0 and y 4 . Thus, the critical points are (0, 0), (2, 4).

 Find fxx , fyy and fxy and compute D:

fxx (x , y )  48x , fxy (x , y )   24 and fyy (x , y )  6y .

fxx fxy 48x  24

D    288xy  576
fxy fyy  24 6y

150
 Analyse the critical points:
At (0, 0), D = 576 < 0, so there is a saddle point at (0, 0).
At (2, 4), D = 288(2)(4)-576 = 1728 > 0
and fxx(2, 4) = 48(2) = 96 > 0. So there is a local minimum at (2, 4).

Therefore f has a saddle point (0, 0, 0) and local minimum (2, 4, 64).

The Second Derivative Test fails to inform us about the nature of the critical points if D 0 .
However, the following example illustrates we may still be able to determine the behavior of
the function at the critical points by other methods such as looking at the properties of the
function, the level curves or the cross-sections in coordinate planes.

Example 2.36 Prompts/Questions

Find the local extreme values of the function.  Where can you find extremum?
o What are the critical points?
(i) f (x , y )  x 2y 4  Can you use the second partials test?
o What do you do when the test
(ii) h(x , y )  x 3  y 3 fails?
 How does the function behave near
the critical points?

Solution
(i) The partial derivatives of f are fx 2xy 4 , fy 4x 2y 3 .

Solving fx 0 and fy 0 simultaneously, we note that the critical points occurs whenever
x  0 or y  0 . That is every point on the x or y – axis is a critical point.
So, the critical points are (x,0) and (0, y ) .
Using the Second Derivative Test:
fxx  2y 4 , fxy  8xy 3 and fyy  12x 2y 2
Thus,
2y 4 8xy 3
D 3 2 2
 24x 2y 6  64x 2y 6   40x 2y 6
8xy 12x y

For any critical point (x 0 , 0) or (0, y0 ) , the second partials test fails.
Let’s analyse the function. Observed that f (x , y )  0 for every critical point (either x  0 or
y  0 or both. Since f (x , y )  x 2y 4  0 when x  0 and y  0 , it follows that each critical
point must be a local minimum. The graph of f is shown below.

151
 z

y
x

(ii) hx (x , y ) 3x 2 , hy (x , y ) 3y 2 . Solving the equations hx = 0 and hy = 0 simultaneously,

we obtain (0, 0) as the only critical point.
The second partials test fails here. Why?
Let us examine the traces on the coordinate planes. FINISH IT OFF...

 h(x , y ) has neither kind of local extremum nor a saddle point at (0, 0).

Graph of h(x , y )  x 3  y 3

Important Facts
Every relative extremum is a critical point of the function, but not every critical point is an
extremum.

152
Making Sense
 What can you say about the partial derivatives of a differentiable function at a local
(relative) maximum or minimum?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 How do you find the points for where a local (relative) maximum or minimum might be
located? Saddle point?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 What is the second derivative test?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 What do you do if the second partials test is inconclusive?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Thinking Tips Characterising

It is important to recognise what are the properties which makes the second partials test work.
When the test is inconclusive, you have to consider other means to study the behaviour of the
functions.

Structured Examples 2.10

Finding relative extrema
 using first partial derivative
 using second partial derivative

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Consider the point (3, 1). Suppose that  What do you mean by local extremum?
fx fy 0 and fxx 0 , fyy 0 , fxy 0. o How do you find them?
What can you conclude about the behaviour of the
function near the point (3, 1)?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Suppose f (x, y)  xy  x  y .  What are critical points?
o How are they calculated?
(i) Find the critical points.
 What is the Second Derivative Test?
(ii) Use the Second Derivative Test to classify the o How does it help you to classify the
critical points. critical points?

153
Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Suppose g(x, y) 3x 2 2xy y 2 8y . Determine  How do you determine the nature of
critical points?
the nature of the critical points. o Can you use the Second Derivative
Test?
o How does it help you to classify the
critical points?

Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Find the relative extrema and saddle points of the  At which points can local extremes
functions occur?
o How do you find the points?
(a) f (x, y)  xy  x 3  y 2  How do you classify these points?
o Can you use the Second Derivative
(b) f (x, y) x2 2y 2 x 2y Test?

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Find the relative extrema and saddle points of the  What are the critical points?
functions  Can you use the Second Derivative Test
to classify the critical points?
(a) f (x, y) x2 y2
9x
(b) f (x, y )
x2 y2 1

154
Question 6 Prompts/Questions
Show that the following functions have 3 critical  How do you find the critical points?
points. Determine the nature of these points.
 What test can you use to classify the
(a) f (x, y)  4xy  x 4  y 4 points?

(b) f (x, y)  x 4  y 4  4xy

(c) Compare (a) and (b). What can you
conclude?

Question 7 Prompts/Questions
Find all the local extrema and saddle points of the Compare (i), (ii) & (iii)
functions:  What are the critical ponts?
 Can you use the second partials test?
(i) f (x, y)  x 4  y 4 o What do you do when the test fails?
(ii) f (x, y)  x 4  y 4  How does the function behave near the
critical points?
(iii) f (x, y)  x 4  y 4

Question 8 Prompts/Questions
Locate all relative extrema and saddle points of the  What are the critical points?
functions:
 What can you say about a function that
(a) f (x, y)  xey has no critical points?

(b) f (x, y)  x  y  1

Answers
2. saddle at (1, 1); 3. rel. min. at (2, 6) 4. (i) rel. max. at (1/6, 1/12), saddle at (0, 0);
(ii) rel. min. at (0, 0), saddle at (2, 1)
5. (i) rel min at (0, 0); (ii) rel. max at (1, 0), rel. min. at 6. (i) saddle at (0, 0), rel max at (-1, -1) & (1, 1); (ii)
(-1, 0) saddle at (0, 0), rel min. at (1, -1) & (-1, 1)
7. (i) rel min at (0, 0); (ii) rel max at (0, 0); (iii) saddle 8. (i) no extremum & no saddle; (ii) no extremum &
at (0, 0) no saddle

155
REVIEW EXERCISE 2.5

1. What is a critical point of a function of two variables?

2. What derivative tests could you use to determine whether a critical point is a local
maximum, local minimum or neither?

3. Consider the function f (x, y) x2 2x y2 4y 1 . Identify all local extrema by

completing the square.

4. At the point (a, b), suppose that fx fy 0 and fxx 0 , fyy 0 , fxy 0 . What
can you conclude about the shape of the graph of f near the point (a, b)?

5. For f (x, y) A (x 2 Bx Cy) , what values of A, B, and C give f a local maximum

value of 15 at the point (-2, 1)?

6. Let f (x, y) kx 2 y2 8xy . Determine the values of k (if any) for which the critical
point at (0, 0) is:
i. a saddle point
ii. a relative maximum
iii. a relative minmum

7. Find the local extrema and saddle points of the functions.

(a) f (x, y) x2 xy y2 3x 3y 4 (b) f (x, y) 3x 2 6xy 7y 2 2x 4y

(c) f (x, y) x2 y2 2x 4y 6 (d) f (x, y) x3 3xy y3

(e) f (x, y) x3 y3 3x 2 3y 2 8 (f) f (x, y) x3 y3 2xy 6

(g) f (x, y) 2x 4 xy 2 2y 2 (h) f (x, y) (x 2)2 (y 3)4

(i) f (x, y ) x2 (j) f (x, y ) x 2y 2

x2 3y 2
(k) f (x, y ) xy 3
2 2

Answers
3. local min. at (-1, 2) 4. saddle point at (a, b)
5. A 10, B 4, C 2 6(i) k 16 ; (ii) none; (iii) k 16
13 3
7(a) local min. at (3, 3); (b) local min. at , ; (c) saddle point at (1, 2)
12 4
(d) saddle point at (0, 0), local max. at ( 1,  1); (e) saddle point at (0, 0), local min. at (0, 2),
2 2
local max. at ( 2, 0); (f) saddle point at (0, 0), local max. at , ;
3 3
(i) local min. at (0, y); (j) local min. at (x, 0) & (0, y)
(k) saddle point at (1, 1) & ( 1,  1), local min. at (0, 0)

156
FURTHER EXERCISE 2.5
1. Find the local extrema and saddle points of the functions.

1 ii. f (x, y) x2 y ey
i. f (x, y ) 2 2
x y 1
1 1 2 2
iii. f (x, y ) xy iv. f (x, y ) (1 x2 y 2 )e1 x y
x y
v. f (x, y) y sin x vi. f (x, y) e2x cos y

y3 2
vii. f (x, y ) 9x 3 4xy viii. f (x, y ) x2 y2
xy
3
2 4
ix. f (x, y ) xy
x y

2. Each of the following function has a critical point at (0, 0). What is the nature of this point?
a) f (x, y) x4 3y 2
b) f (x, y) x4 y3
c) f (x, y)  1  x 2y 2
d) g(x, y) sin x sin y

3. Locate all local extremum and saddle point if any.

(i) f (x, y) x 2y 5
(ii) f (x, y) xy(4 x2 y2)
13
(iii) f (x, y) 1 (x 2 y2)
(iv) z exy
(v) f (x, y) yex 3x y 2
(vi) f (x, y) yx 2 x 3

Answers
1(i) local max. at (0, 0); (ii) saddle point at (0, 0) (iii) local min. at (1, 1); (v) saddle point at (np, 0)
(vi) no extrema & no saddle points 4 4
(vii) saddle point at (0, 0), local min. at ,
9 3
(viii) local min. at (1, 1) & (1, 1) (ix) rel. min. at (1, 2)
2(a) local min.; (b) saddle point 2(c) local max.; (d) saddle point
3(i) no extrema & no saddle points 3(ii) saddle point at (0, 0), ( 2, 0) & (0, 2) , local
max at (1, 1) & (1, 1), local min. at (1, 1) & (1, 1)
(iii) local max at (0, 0) (iv) no extrema & no saddle points
(v) saddle point at (0, 3) (vi) no critical points

157
2.6 Absolute Extrema

Focus of Attention
 Where can absolute extreme values of f (x, y ) occur?
 Under what circumstances does a function of two variables have both an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum?
 What is the procedure for determining absolute extrema?

A function f (x, y) may have both an absolute maximum and absolute minimum on a region,
or just one, or neither. However, there are conditions that guarantee that a function has an
absolute maximum and absolute minimum.

2.6.1 Absolute Extrema on Closed and Bounded Regions

Recap: A function of one variable f(x) assumes both a maximum and a minimum on any
closed, bounded interval [a, b] where it is continuous. All absolute extrema occur either at
one of the endpoints of the interval [a, b] or at an interior critical value. The situation for
absolute extrema of functions of two variables is similar. The following is the analogous
result for f (x , y ) .

Terminology
 Interior point - Point P for which there is some disk or ball centred at P that contains
only points inside the region. Interior of a region is the set of all interior points.
 Boundary point - Point P for which every disk or ball centred at P contains both
points inside and points outside the region. Boundary of a region is the set of all
boundary points.
 Open region - contains none of its boundary points
 Closed region - contains all its boundary points
 Bounded region - Entire region can be contained in some finite 2-space or 3-space.

Theorem 2.12 Extreme-Value Theorem

If f (x , y ) is continuous on a closed bounded region R, then f has both an absolute
maximum and absolute minimum on R.

A closed region is one which contains its boundary, and a bounded region is one which does
not stretch to infinity in any direction. For example,
(i) the disk x 2 y2 1 is closed and bounded
2 2
(ii) the disk x y 1 is bounded but not closed
(iii)the first quadrant x 0, y 0 is closed but not bounded

Can you think of a region that is neither closed nor bounded? COMPLETE THE
SOLUTION…

158
The only places a function f (x , y ) can ever have an absolute extremum value are
 interior critical points
 boundary points of the function’s domain

Theorem 2.13
If f (x , y ) has an absolute extremum at an interior point of its domain, then this
extremum occurs at a critical point.

Note
 Absolute extremum is also known as global extremum.
 If f (a,b ) is an absolute extremum of f in R and (a, b) is in the interior of R, then f (a,b )
is also a local extremum of f.
 The theorem is also true for functions of three or more variables.
 If f is not continuous or the region R is not closed and bounded, there is no guarantee
that f has an absolute maximum or absolute minimum on R.

2.6.2 Finding Absolute Extrema

Given a function f that is continuous on a closed, bounded region R:
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interior of R.
Step 2: Find all boundary points at which the absolute extrema can occur (critical points,
endpoints, etc.)
Step 3: Evaluate f (x , y ) at the points obtained in the preceding steps.

The largest of these values is the absolute maximum and the smallest is the absolute
minimum.

Illustration
Finding absolute extrema on closed and bounded region
 Critical points & boundary points
 Absolute extreme values – smallest & largest values

Example 2.37 Prompts/Questions

Find the absolute extrema of the function  Where can absolute extreme occur?
2 2 2 2 o What are the critical points?
f (x , y ) x y over the disk x  y  1 . o What are the boundary points?
 How do you decide there is an absolute
minimum? Absolute maximum?

Solution
Step 1: Find the critical points.

159
 x y
fx  , fy 
x 2  y2 x 2  y2
fx  0 and fy  0 for all (x, y). But fx and fy do not exist at (0, 0). Thus (0, 0) is the only
critical point of f and it is inside the region.
Step 2: Find the boundary points.
Examine the values of f on the boundary curve x 2  y 2  1 . Because y 2  1  x 2 on the
boundary curve, we find that f (x , y )  x 2  (1  x 2 )  1 . That is, for every point on the
boundary circle, the value of f is 1.
Step 3: Evaluate the value of f at each of the points we have found:
Critical point : f(0, 0) = 0
Boundary points : f (x , y )  1
We conclude that the absolute minimum value of f on R is 0 and the absolute maximum
value is 1.

Example 2.38 Prompts/Questions

Find the absolute extrema of the function  Where can absolute extreme occur?
o Can you find the points?
f (x , y )  3xy  6x  3y  7
 How do you determine the absolute
on the closed triangular region in the first quadrant maximum? Absolute minimum?
5
bounded by the lines x  0 , y  0 , y   x  5 .
3

Solution
Critical points:
fx  3y  6  0 , fy  3x  3  0
Thus, (1, 2) is the only critical point in the interior of R.
Boundary points:
The boundary of R consists of three line segments. We take one side at a time.

160
The region R is shown in the figure.

B(0, 5)

(0, 0) A(3, 0)

Graph of f (x , y )  3xy  6x  3y  7

 On the segment OA, y  0 .

The function f (x , y ) simplifies to a function of single variable x
u(x )  f (x , 0)   6x  7 , 0  x  3

This function has no critical numbers because u (x )   6 is nonzero for all x. Thus the
extreme values occur at the endpoints (0, 0) and (3, 0) of R.

 On the segment OB, x  0 .

v(y)  f (0, y)  3y  7 , 0  y  5

This function has no critical numbers because v (y)  3 is nonzero for all y. Thus the
extreme values occur at the endpoints (0, 0) and (0, 5) of R.

 Segment AB: we already accounted the endpoints of AB, so we look at the interior points of
AB.
5
With y   x  5 , we have
3
5
  5
 
w(x )  3x  x  5  6x  3  x  5  7   5x 2  14x  8 , 0  x  3
3 3

Setting w (x )   10x  14 = 0 gives x  7 5 . The critical number is (7 5 , 8 3) .

Evaluating the value of f for the points found, we have:

(0, 0) f(0, 0) = 7
(3, 0) f(3, 0) = 11
(0, 5) f(0, 5) = 8
(7 5 , 8 3)  
f 7 5 , 8 3 = 9/5

(1, 2) f(1, 2) = 1

Hence, the absolute maximum value of f is 7 and the absolute minimum value is 11.

161
Example 2.39 Prompts/Questions
Investigate the absolute maxima and minima of the  Under what circumstances does a
following functions. Give your reasoning in each case. function of two variables have an
2 2 2 2 absolute maximum? Absolute
(i) f (x , y ) 1 x y on the disk x  y  1 . minimum?
2 2 o Is the region closed and bounded?
(ii) g(x , y ) x 2x y 4y 5 on the xy-plane.
o Do you recognise the graphs of
(iii) h(x , y ) x 2 y 2 on the xy-plane. these surfaces?

Solution
(i) The graph of f (x , y ) 1 x 2 y 2 is a bowl-shaped paraboloid with an absolute
minimum of 1 at (0, 0), and an absolute maximum of 2 on the boundary of the
region x 2 y 2 1 .

(ii) The graph of g(x , y ) x 2 2x y 2 4y 5 is a bowl-shaped paraboloid with

an absolute minimum at the point (1, 2) and no absolute maximum because the
value of f increases without bound as x ,y .

(iii) The graph of h(x , y ) x 2 y 2 is a saddle surface (hyperbolic paraboloid) and

shows no absolute maximum because h(x, y) as x if y is constant.
Similarly, h has no absolute minimum because h(x, y) as y if x is
constant.

Note
The region in parts (ii) and (iii) above are neither closed nor bounded.

2.6.3 Absolute Extrema on Open and Unbounded Regions

Example 2.40 Prompts/Questions

 What is the function to be minimised?
Find the shortest distance from the point (0, 3, 4) to o Can you find an equation that
the plane x  2y  z  5 . represents the desired quantity?
 Is the region closed & bounded?
o At which point could the absolute
minimum occur?

Solution
KNOW: The distance from a point (x , y, z ) to (0, 3, 4) is

d  (x  0)2  (y  3)2  (z  4)2

WANT: To minimise d

Let (x , y, z ) be a point on the plane x  2y  z  5 . We have z  5  x  2y .

So d  x 2  (y  3)2  (5  x  2y  4)2
Instead of d, we can minimize the expression
162
 d 2  f (x , y )  x 2  (y  3)2  (1  x  2y )2 and we know d 0.
Find the critical values:
fx  2x  2(1  x  2y )  4x  4y  2  0 (1)
fy  2(y  3)  4(1  x  2y )  4x  10y  10  0 (2)

Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously, we obtain the critical point (5/6, 4/3). Also
fxx  4 , fyy  10 , fxy  4 , so D > 0. Since fxx  0 , this means there is a local minimum at
(5/6, 4/3).

This local minimum must also be the absolute minimum because there must be only one
point on the plane that is closest to the given point. The shortest distance is,


2 2 2
5 4  5 4  5
d    3   1   2    
 
6 3   6  3  6

Note
In general it can be difficult to show that a local extremum is also an absolute extremum. In
practice, the determination is made using physical or geometrical considerations.

Example 2.41 Prompts/Questions

 What is the function to be minimised?
Find the dimensions of the closed right circular o Name the variables.
cylindrical can of smallest surface area whose volume o Identify the equation that relates
is 16 cm3. the variables.
 Where can absolute extrema occur?
o How do you find the points?
 How do you know the dimensions
give the minimum surface area?

Solution
KNOW: Volume, V pr 2h
Surface area, S 2prh 2pr 2 , r > 0, h > 0

WANT: To minimise S
16 16
Given V pr 2h 16p h 2
. Substitute h  2 into S:
r r

163
 16 32p
S f (r , h ) 2prh 2pr 2 2pr 2pr 2 2pr 2
r2 r
Find the critical point:
32p 32p
S 4pr . S 0 4pr 0
r2 r2
 r  2 and h = 4
64p
Since S 4p 0 when r = 2, we have a local minimum at (2, 4).
r3
Thus r = 2 cm and h = 4 cm give the only extreme surface area. That is S 24p must be the
minimum surface area.

Remarks
In simple cases such as in Examples 2.40 and 2.41, we use the constraint equation to find an
explicit expression for one of the variables, say z, in terms of the other two and to then
substitute this into f which thus becomes a function of two variables. We then find the
extrema of f as a function of x and y.
For a more complicated constraint, it may not be possible to use the constraint equation to
obtain an explicit expression for one of the variables in terms of the others so a more general
procedure such as the method of Lagrange Multipliers, is required.

Important Facts
If we have a continuous function f (x, y ) on a closed bounded region, there is always both an
absolute (global) maximum and minimum.

Making Sense

 Where do absolute extreme values of f (x, y ) occur?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

 What are the conditions that guarantee f (x, y ) has an absolute maximum and an absolute
minimum?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 How do you find the absolute maximum or minimum value of a function on a closed and
bounded domain? On an open or unbounded region?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Structured Examples 2.11

164
Finding absolute extrema on closed and bounded region
 Critical points & boundary points
 Absolute extreme values – smallest & largest values

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
 Where can absolute extreme occur?
Show that f (x , y )  x  y has an absolute o What are the critical points?
minimum in the first quadrant, x  0 and y  0 . o What are the boundary points?
 How do you decide there is an absolute
minimum?
o The function has no absolute maximum.
Why?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Find the absolute extrema of f (x , y )  xy  2x  What is absolute extrema?
o Where can it occur?
over the triangular region with vertices (0, 0),
 How do you know a function has an
(0, 4) and (4, 0). absolute maximum? Absolute minimum?

165
Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Find the absolute extrema of f (x , y )  x 2  y 2 on  How do you determine absolute extrema?
 Compare (i) and (ii).
the following region: o What is the same and different about the
(i) the disk (x  1)2  y 2  4 . region?
(ii) the triangular region bounded by o What can you say about the absolute
values of f ?
y  x , y  0, x  2 .

Question4 Prompts/Questions
Find the largest and smallest values of the  What do you need to know to determine
functions on the indicated region R. the extreme values of a two variable
function?
i. f (x , y )  x 2  y 2  2x  4y ; R is the region
 How are the values calculated?
bounded by y  x , y  3, x  0 .

ii. f (x , y )  48xy  32x 3  24y 2 ; R is the

rectangular plate 0  x  1, 0  y  1 .

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
 What is the quantity to be minimised?
Determine the minimum surface area of a closed o Name the variables.
rectangular box with volume 8 m3. o Identify the equation that relates the
variables.
 What information do you know
 How do you decide the area is minimum?

166
Question 6 Prompts/Questions
(i) Find the points on the plane x 2y 3z 6  What do you want?
 What do you know?
nearest the origin.
 What can you introduce?
(ii) Find the points on the surface x 2 yz 5 o Notation/Symbol
that are closest to the origin. o Formula/Equation

Answers
2. abs. max.: 1; abs. min.: -8 3(i) abs. max.: 9; abs. min.: 0 3(ii) abs. max.: 8; abs. min.: 0
4. (i) abs. max.: 12; abs. min.: -5 4(ii) abs. max.: 0; abs. min.: -2912 5. min. surface area : 24
6. (i) (o.44, 0.86, 1.28) 6(ii) (0,0, 5)

Reflection
 What did you do to learn this chapter?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 Is it effective? How do you know it’s effective?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 What were your biggest disappointments?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 Can you improve? How?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

167
REVIEW EXERCISE 2.6

1. Define the absolute extrema of a function of two variables.

2. The function f (x, y) x y fails to have an absolute maximum value in the closed first
quadrant ( x 0 and y 0 ). Does this contradict the Extreme-Value Theorem? Give
reasons for your answer.

3. Find the absolute extrema of f on the region R as indicated. Use Lagrange multipliers
method where appropriate.

i. f (x , y )  x  2y ; R is the square with vertices ( 1, 1) .

ii. f (x , y )  xy  x  3y ; R is the triangular region with vertices (0, 0), (0, 4) and (5, 0).

iii. f (x , y )  x 2  y 2 ; R the triangular region bounded by x 0, y 0, y 2x 2 in

the first quadrant.

iv. f (x , y )  x 2  y 2  4xy ; R is the region bounded by y  x , y   3, x  3 .

v. f (x , y )  x 2  xy  y 2 ; R is the square region with  1  x  1 and  1  y  1 .

vi. f (x , y )  x 2  2y 2  x ; R is the disk x 2  y 2  4 .

vii. f (x , y )  2x 2  y 2 ; R is the disk x 2  y 2  1 .

4. A flat circular plate has the shape of the region x 2 y 2 1 . The plate including the
boundary where x 2 y 2 1 , is heated so that the temperature at the point (x, y ) is

T (x, y) x2 2y 2 x.

Find the temperatures of the hottest and coldest points on the plate.

5. Suppose we wish to construct a rectangular box with volume 32 ft3. Three different
materials will be used in the construction. The material for the sides cost RM1 per square
foot, the material for the bottom costs RM3 per square foot, and the material for the top
costs RM5 per square foot. What are the dimensions of the least expensive such box?

6. Find the closest point on the cone z  x 2  y 2 to the point (2, 3, 0).

Answers
3. (i) abs. max 3, abs. min -3; (ii) abs. max. 0 at (0, 0), abs. min 12 at (0, 4); (iii) abs max. 4 at (0, 2), abs. min.
0 at (0, 0); (vi) abs. max 33/4, abs. min 1/4; (vii) abs. max. 2 at (1, 0) & (1, 0), abs. min. 1 at (0, 1) & (0, 1)
1 1
4. hottest 2 & coldest
4 4
168
FURTHER EXERCISE 2.6

1. Find the absolute extrema of f on the region R as indicated.

a. f (x, y) 4x 8xy 2y 1 on the triangular plate bounded by the lines
x 0, y 0, x y 1 in the first quadrant.

b. f (x , y )  xy 2 ; R is bounded by x 2  y 2  1 , x  0 and y  0 .
p p
c. f (x, y) (4x x 2 )cos y on the rectangular plate 1 x 3, y .
4 4
d. f (x , y ) x3 3x 2 9x y2 2y on the square domain
D (x, y) 0 x 2, 0 y 2 .

1 4
2. Consider the function f (x, y ) 2xy x y defined over the region
2
{(x, y ) x 0, y 0} .
(i) Find all the critical points of the function f .
(ii) Classify each of the critical points of the function f as a local maximum, a local
minimum or a saddle point.
(iii) Show that the function f does not have an absolute maximum over the given region.

3. Find the absolute extrema of g(x, y) x2 xy 4 on xy-plane.

4. Find three positive numbers whose sum is 27 and such that the sum of their squares is as
small as possible.

5. Find the point on the graph of z 10 x2 y 2 farthest from the plane

x 2y 3z 0.

6. Find the point on the graph of z x2 y2 10 nearest the plane x 2y z 0.

7. Determine the maximum possible volume of a closed circular cylindrical can with surface
area 300p cm2.

Answers

3 2
1. (a) abs. max. 5 at (1, 0), abs. min. 1 at (0, 0); (c) abs. max. 4, abs. min. ; (d) abs. max at (2, 0) & (2, 2),
2
abs. min. at (1, 1)
1 1
2(i) ,2 ; (ii) local min. at ,2 ; 3. no absolute max & min.
2 2
1 1 355 1 45
5. farthest point , , ; 6. nearest point ,1, ; 7. 500 2p
6 3 36 4 4

169
Supplementary Questions Partial Derivatives

f x2 xy 3
1. Find for the following function, f (x , y ) .
x x2 y2

f f x
2. Find and , given f (x, y ) .
x y x y2

z
3. Given that z f (x, y) . Find if cos(xyz ) y2 xz 2.
y

z
4. Given that z f (x, y) . Find if sin(xz ) y2 z 2.
x
x
5. Let f (x , y ) x ln xy 2 . Calculate fxx and fyx.
y

6. If f (x, y, z ) x2 y2 2xy cos z , find fxzy fyzz .

dz
7. Let z x3 xy y 4 , where x 2 cos 3t , y 3 sin t . Evaluate at t = 0.
dt

dw
8. Let w xy 2z 3 , where x cos t , y et , and z ln(t 2) . Evaluate at t = 0.
dt

x f
9. Let f (x , y ) x ln xy 2 . Suppose that x stet and y 2set . Calculate .
y t

x2
10. Given f (x, y ) . Estimate f (1.96, 3.02) using partial differentiation.
1 y2

11. The temperature at a point P(x, y) is T (x, y) (2x 2 4y 2 ) 1 . Use differentials to

estimate the change in temperature when the point P moves from (6, 3) to (6.1, 2.8).

8 8
12. Find all critical points of f (x, y ) xy . Specify which yield relative
x2 y2
minimum, relative maximum, or saddle point.

13. Show that (0, 0) is a critical point of f (x, y) x 2 kxy y 2 where k is a real number.
For what values of k will the function f have a saddle point at (0, 0)?

14. The height of a right circular cone is decreasing at 3 mm/s. The radius of the base is
increasing at 2 mm/s. Find the rate of change of the volume when the height is 100 mm
and the radius is 50 mm.

15. Find the error in the area of a rectangle of dimensions 12 x 14 m, if there is a possible
error of 0.1 cm in each of the measurements.

170
16. The radius of a right circular cylinder is measured to be r 10 0.01 cm and its
height is measured to be h 15 0.005 cm. Use differentials to estimate the
maximum possible error in the volume of the cylinder.

Answers to Supplementary Questions

x 2y 3 2xy 2 y5 y2 2xy
1. 2. fx , fy
2 2 2 2 2 2
x y x y x y2

(z cos xz ) xz sin(xyz ) 2y
3. z x 4. z y
x cos xz 1 xy sin(xyz ) x

1 1 6. fxzy fyzz 2 sin z 2x cos z

5. fxx , fyx 2y
x y

dz dw 3
7. 6 8. 2(ln 2)3 (ln 2)2
dt t 0 dt t 0 2
f x 9. 48
9. [1 ln x y y 2 ][set stet ] [ 2xy ]2set 10.
t y 25
11. -0.0055469 12. relative min. at (-2, -2) and (2, 2)
13. k 2 k 2 12500
14. p mm3 / s
3
15. 0.026 m 16. 11cm3

171
Yudariah et.al.(2010)