MEC 2101 Manufacturing Processes

MODULE II METAL JOINING PROCESSES

Dr K Sathickbasha
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering
BSACIST
Module II

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WELDING

• Processes of joining similar or dissimilar materials with or with out the applications of
pressure and heat.
Classifications of welding
1. Pressure (Solid State Welding)
2. Non Pressure (Fusion Welding)

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Gas Welding

• Gas welding is accomplished by melting the edges or surfaces to be

joined by gas flame and allowing the molten metal to flow together,
thus forming a solid continuous joint upon cooling.
• This process is particularly suitable for joining metal sheets and
plates having a thickness of 20 to 50 mm. The filler material of more
than 15 mm thick is added to the weld as a welding rod.
• Several gas combinations can be utilized for producing a hot flame
for welding metals. Common mixtures of gases are oxygen and
acetylene, oxygen and hydrogen, oxygen and other fuel gas, and air
and acetylene.
• The oxygen-acetylene mixture is used to a much greater extent than
the other and has a prominent place in the welding industry. The
temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame in its hottest region is about
3200°C, whereas the temperature obtained in the oxy-hydrogen
flame is about 1900°C.

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Gas Welding (Cont…)

• The accurate arrangement of the flame is necessary for reliable works. When oxygen and
acetylene are supplied to the torch in nearly equal volumes, a neutral flame is produced having
a maximum temperature of 3200°C.
• This neutral flame is desired for most welding operations, but in certain cases a slightly
oxidizing flame, in which there is an excess of oxygen or slightly carburizing flame, in which
there is an excess of acetylene is needed. The condition of the flame is readily determined by its
appearance.
• Neutral Flame Has Two Definite Zones
• A sharp brilliant cone extending a short distance from the tip of the
touch
• An outer cone or envelope only faintly luminous and of a bluish colour.
• The first one develops heat and the second protects the molten metal
from oxidation.
• The neutral flame is broadly used for welding steel, cast iron, stainless
steel, aluminium, copper, etc.
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Gas Welding (Cont…)

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Gas Welding (Cont…)

Carburizing Flame Has Three Zones

• A carburizing flame is one in which there is an excess of
acetylene
This flame has three zones:
• The sharply defined inner cone,
• An intermediate cone of whitish color, and
• The bluish outer cone. The length of the intermediate cone
is an indication of the ratio of excess acetylene in the flame.
• When welding steel, this will tend to give the steel in the
weld higher carbon content than the parent metal, resulting
in a hard and brittle weld.

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Gas Welding (Cont…)

Oxidizing Flame
• An oxidizing flame is one in which there is an excess of
oxygen.
This flame has two zones
• The small inner cone which has a purplish tinge.
• The outer cone or envelope.
• In the case of oxidizing flame, the inner cone is not sharply
defined as that of neutral or carburizing flame. This flame
is necessary for welding brass.
• In steel, this will result in large grain size, increased
brittleness with lower strength and elongation.

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Types of Gas Welding

1. Oxy-acetylene gas welding

2. Oxy-gasoline gas welding
3. MAPP gas welding
4. Butane or propane welding
5. Hydrogen gas welding

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Oxy-acetylene Welding

• In this type of welding, oxy-acetylene welding applies a

mixture of acetylene gas and oxygen gas to supply
welding torches.
• Oxy-acetylene welding is the most generally used gas
welding type.
• This gas mixture provides the highest flame
temperature of available fuel gases.
• Although acetylene is generally the most expensive of
all fuel gases.
• Acetylene is a volatile gas and requires specific
handling and storage procedures.

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Equipment Used in Gas Welding

Following are the equipment used in gas welding

1. Cylinders
2. Welding torch
3. Welding hand-screen or helmet
4. Protective gloves
5. Welding goggles

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Equipment Used in Gas Welding (Cont..)

1. Cylinders
• In gas welding, the cylinders are used to store the
amount of oxygen and acetylene and it is usually
made of steel.
• The cylinder must always be safe and used in an
upright position.
• The valve cap should always be in place when the
cylinder is not being used.
2. Welding Torch
• The welding torch has a mixer chamber and control
values.
• At the other end of the torch is a nozzle where the
fuel – oxygen mixture is ignited together.

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Equipment Used in Gas Welding (Cont..)

3. Welding Hand-screen or Helmet

• The welding hand-screen or helmet is usually made of
lightweight material.
• The hand-screen or helmets protect the welder’s face
and eyes from hazardous damage.
4. Protective Gloves
• It is very necessary to wear protective gloves when
you are doing gas welding to protect the hand from
hazardous radiations and flame of fire.
5. Welding Goggles
• It is essential to wear welding goggles while you are
doing gas welding.
• The welding goggles protect eyes from radiation and
sparks produced in welding.

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Arc Welding

• Arc welding is a fusion welding process in which the welding

heat is obtained from an electric arc between the work (or base
metal) and an electrode.
• The electric arc is produced when the two conductors of an
electrical circuit are touched and then separated by a short
distance, such that the circuit has sufficient voltage to maintain
the electric current flow through the air.
• The temperature of the heat produced by the electric arc is on
the order of 6000°C to 7000°C
• The most common method of arc welding is with the use of a
metal electrode that supplies filler metal.
• The welding is done by first making contact with the electrode
with the work and then separating the electrode to a proper
distance to produce an arc.

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Arc Welding ( Cont..)

• When the arc is obtained, intense heat penetration produced instantly melts the work under
the arc forming a pool of molten metal which seems to be forced out of the pool by the blast
from the arc.
• A small depression is formed in the work and the molten metal is deposited around the edge of
this depression, which is called the arc creator.
• The slag is cleaned after the joint has cooled.
• They are, once started, should be advanced at a uniform speed along the desired line of
welding.
• The melting should reach enough depth below the original surfaces of the metal pieces to be
joined to obtain the desired weld.
• This is known as obtaining proper penetration.
• The direct or alternating current may be used for arc welding, but the direct current is
preferred for most purposes.

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Arc Welding ( Cont..)

• When the work is connected to the +ve terminal of a D.C. welding machine and the -ve
terminal to an electrode holder, the welding setup is said to have straight polarity.
• However, when work is connected to -ve and the electrode to a +ve terminal, then the
welding setup is said to have reversed polarity.
• The straight polarity is more useful for some welds while for other welds reversed
polarity should be utilized.

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Applications of Arc Welding

Following are the applications of arc welding:

• This process is commonly used in general construction & fabrication in shipbuilding,
on pipelines, and for maintenance work, because the equipment is, portable and can be
easily maintained.
• It is useful for working in remote areas, where a portable fuel-powered generator is
used as a power supply.
• The process is best suited for workpiece thickness of 3 to 19 mm, although this range
can be easily extended by skilled operators using multiple pass techniques.

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Advantages of Arc Welding

Following are the advantages of arc welding:

• Low-cost welding equipment.
• Faster welding operation compared to the gas welding process.
• Low cost of the welding operation.
• Relatively simple and versatile technique.
• It requires a relatively small variety of electrodes.
• Covering on the electrode can provide shielding gases, alloying elements and other
essential materials at relatively low cost.
• Welding equipment is manageable and can be easily maintained.

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Disadvantages of Arc Welding

Following are the disadvantages of arc welding:

• Heat input and filler material deposition cannot be separated.
• The electrode material is wasted in the form of unused end, slag & gas.
• There are more chances of slag inclusions in the bead.
• If proper drying of the electrode is not done, then moisture may lower the quality of
weld metal.
• Metal spatter & Arc blow are general problems of this process.
• Thin workpieces that are less than 3 mm in size are difficult to weld.

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Arc Welding Equipment's

Following are the different equipment’s used in arc welding

• A.C. or D.C. machine
• Electrode
• Electrode holder
• Cables, cable connectors
• Cable plug
• Chipping hammer
• Earthing clamps
• Wire brush
• Helmet
• Safety goggles
• Hand gloves
• Aprons, sleeves; etc.

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Resistance welding

• Resistance welding is a liquid state welding process, in

which a metal-to-metal joint is made in a liquid or molten
state.
• The resistance welding is also known as the thermo-electric
process in which heat is produced at the interface surfaces
of welding plates due to electrical resistance and controlled
low pressure is applied to these plates to form the weld
joint.
• It uses electrical resistance to generate heat therefore it is
called as resistance welding.
• Resistance welding is a very efficient pollution-free
welding process but its uses are limited due to its high
material cost and limited material thickness.

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Resistance welding (Cont..)

• It is a welding process in which heat is produced by the resistance offered by the

workpieces for the flow of electric current through them.
• In this process, the parts to be welded are held together and a high current is passed.
• Due to the resistance to the flow of current heat is produced which is sufficient
enough to fuse the metal.
• At the same time pressure is applied to the weld region so that the fused workpieces
join together.
• The heat produced is given by H = I2 Rt, where
H = Heat developed in joules
I = Current passing through the work in amps
R = Electrical resistance of the work in ohms
t = be the Time of current flow in seconds

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Types of Resistance Welding

• Spot resistance welding

• Projection resistance welding
• Seam resistance welding
• Flash resistance welding/Percussion welding
• Butt resistance welding

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Spot resistance welding

• In this process, the parts to be joined are held firmly between two heavy electrodes,
which are connected in the secondary circuit of the step-down transformers.
• The maximum resistance exists at the contact surface of the two parts being joined and
high heat is developed.
• The heat developed fuses the workpiece at the electrode spot.
• At the same time pressure is applied to the workpiece through the electrodes and
welding takes place.
• Current supply and amount of time must be sufficient for proper melting of interface
surfaces.
• The current stopped flowing but the pressure applied by the electrode remained for a
fraction of a second, while the weld cooled rapidly.

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Spot resistance welding (Cont…)

• Subsequently, the electrode is removed and

brought to contact another location.
• This will form a circular nugget.
• The size of the nugget depends on the size
of the electrode.
• It is usually about 4–7 mm in diameter.

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Seam Welding

• Similar to spot welding but in this a continuous

weld is produced by passing the work between
rotating wheel-shaped electrodes, which exert the
welding pressure and also conduct the welding
current.
• It may be continuous or intermittent.
• First, the rollers are exposed to the workpiece.
• A high amount of ampere current is passed
through these rollers.
• This interface surfaces will melt and form a weld
joint.

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Seam Welding (Cont…)

• Now the rollers start rolling on the work

plates.
• This will form a continuous weld joint.
• The movement time of the weld and
electrode is controlled to assure that the
weld overlaps and the workpiece is not
too hot. It is used to make airtight joints.

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Percussion Welding

• It is a type of resistance welding process,

which can be used for joining together the
ends of sheets, wires, rods or tubes.
• Here electric arc is produced in the gap
between the workpieces until the welding
temperature is attained.
• Then pressure is applied to produce a
continuous weld.
• The welding is also called as flash welding.

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Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG)

• It is a welding process, in which heat is

produced by an electric arc ignited between
a base metal (workpiece) and the non-
consumable tungsten electrode.
• TIG welding uses a tungsten electrode
because tungsten has a high melting point.
• TIG weld electrode gets hot but it doesn’t
melt we say that is a non-consumable
electrode.
• The non-consumable electrode doesn’t
mean it lasts forever that just means that it
doesn’t melt and become a part of the weld.

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TIG (Cont..)

• The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Helium,

Argon, Nitrogen) protecting the molten metal from
atmospheric contamination.
• For most metal, the current is direct current (DC).
• The heat generated by the arc melts the workpiece edges
and joins them.
• In tig welding, amount of heat generated can be
controlled by pressing a foot pedal or thumbwheel on
the torch.
• If required filler rod may be used.
• It produces a high-quality weld of most of the metals.
• Flux is not used in the process.

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TIG (Cont..)

Advantages of Tungsten Inter Gas Arc Welding

• In tig welding, the weld composition is close to that of the parent metal.
• Weld structure is of high quality.
• Slag removal is not required/No slag formation.
• Thermal distortions of workpieces are minimal due to the concentration of heat in the
small zone.
Disadvantages of Tungsten Inter Gas Arc Welding
• Low welding rate.
• Tig welding is comparatively expensive.
• To tig weld, a highly skilled operator is required.

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Metal Inter Gas Arc Welding (MIG)

• In this welding, a thin wire acts as the electrode which

is fed from a spool mounted on a gun through a
flexible tube and it comes out of the nozzle on the
welding gun or torch.
• The wire is fed continuously when the trigger on the
welding gun is pulled.
• An electric arc forms between this wire electrode and
the workpiece and heats both metals above their
melting point these metals mix together and solidify
to join the workpieces into a single piece.
• The metal in these parts to be joined calls as the base
metal. Here the metal that comes from the melting
wire electrode is called filler metal.

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Metal Inter Gas Arc Welding (MIG) (Cont..)

• MIG welding uses filler metal to the joint. These types of electrodes called a
consumable electrode.
• It is the arc welding process, in which the weld is shielded by an external gas such as
argon, helium, CO2, and argon + oxygen.
• It is having consumable electrode wire, with the chemical composition similar to that
of the parent material, is continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone.
• The arc heats and metals both the workpieces edges and the electrode wire.
• The fused electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the workpieces, fills the weld
pool and forms joint.
• Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the process is referred to as a
semi-automatic.
• The operator can control only the torch positioning and speed.

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Metal Inter Gas Arc Welding (MIG) (Cont..)

Advantages of MIG welding

• The continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions)
• High level of operators skill is not required.
• Slag removal is not required (on the slug).
Disadvantages of MIG welding
• Expensive and non- portable equipment is required.
• The outdoor application is limited because of the effect of
wind, dispersing the shielding gas.

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Submerged Arc Welding

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Submerged Arc Welding ( Cont…)

• Similar to MIG welding, SAW involves formation of an arc between a

continuously-fed bare wire electrode and the workpiece.
• The process uses a flux to generate protective gases and slag, and to
add alloying elements to the weld pool.
• A shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer of flux
powder is placed on the workpiece surface.
• The arc moves along the joint line and as it does so, excess flux is
recycled via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can be easily
removed after welding.
• As the arc is completely covered by the flux layer, heat loss is extremely
low. This produces a thermal efficiency as high as 60% (compared with
25% for manual metal arc). There is no visible arc light, welding is
spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction.

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Submerged Arc Welding ( Cont…)

• SAW is usually operated as a fully-mechanised or automatic process, but it can be

semi-automatic.
• Welding parameters: current, arc voltage and travel speed all affect bead shape, depth
of penetration and chemical composition of the deposited weld metal.
• Because the operator cannot see the weld pool, greater reliance must be placed on
parameter settings.
• Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of manganese,
silicon, titanium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and other compounds
such as calcium fluoride.
• The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a given electrode wire type so
that the combination of flux and wire yields desired mechanical properties.
• All fluxes react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal chemical composition
and mechanical properties.

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Submerged Arc Welding ( Cont…)

• It is common practice to refer to fluxes as 'active' if they add manganese and silicon to
the weld, the amount of manganese and silicon added is influenced by the arc voltage
and the welding current level. The main types of flux for SAW are:
• Bonded fluxes - produced by drying the ingredients, then bonding them with a low
melting point compound such as a sodium silicate. Most bonded fluxes contain
metallic deoxidisers which help to prevent weld porosity. These fluxes are effective
over rust and mill scale.
• Fused fluxes - produced by mixing the ingredients, then melting them in an electric
furnace to form a chemically homogeneous product, cooled and ground to the required
particle size. Smooth stable arcs, with welding currents up to 2000A and consistent
weld metal properties, are the main attraction of these fluxes.

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Submerged Arc Welding ( Cont…)

Applications
• SAW is ideally suited for longitudinal and circumferential butt and fillet welds. However,
because of high fluidity of the weld pool, molten slag and loose flux layer, welding is generally
carried out on butt joints in the flat position and fillet joints in both the flat and horizontal-
vertical positions.
• For circumferential joints, the workpiece is rotated under a fixed welding head with welding
taking place in the flat position.
• Depending on material thickness, either single-pass, two-pass or multipass weld procedures
can be carried out.
• There is virtually no restriction on the material thickness, provided a suitable joint preparation
is adopted.
• Most commonly welded materials are carbon-manganese steels, low alloy steels and stainless
steels, although the process is capable of welding some non-ferrous materials with judicious
choice of electrode filler wire and flux combinations

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