THEME-1

BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES

Q1. Archaeologists generally use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic
differences amongst people living within the Harappan culture. Explain those stratergies.
OR
How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the
differences that they notice?
OR
Burials reveal socio-economic differences amongst people living in a particular culture. Explain.
OR
Differences between utilitarian and luxury objects found in Harappan Civilization. How do the help
us to identify social differences? P9
Answer-
1. STUDY OF BURIALS
• At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits.
• Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made – in some instances, the
hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks.
• Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be
used in the afterlife. Jewellery, copper mirror has been found in burials of both men and
women.
• These variations can be an indication of social differences.

2. STUDY OF ARTEFACTS
• Archaeologists broadly classify artefacts as utilitarian and luxuries.
• Utilitarian- includes objects of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as
stone or clay. These include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (body scrubbers), etc., and
are usually found distributed throughout settlements.
• Luxuries-Archaeologists assume objects were luxuries if they are rare or made from costly,
non-local materials or with complicated technologies. Thus, little pots of faience found at
large settlements like Harappa and Mohenjodaro were probably considered precious because
they were difficult to make.

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Q2. Examine the town planning measures adopted by the Harappans.
OR
Mention the two sections of the Harappan settlements and illustrate their features.

Answer-

I. Upper town/Citadel
a) Upper town was higher in elevation because building were constructed on mud brick platforms.
b) The upper town was smaller in size but intensive in agriculture.
c) The citadel had structures that were of special public purpose.
d) These include warehouse ( a massive structure made of bricks and wood )and the Great Bath.
e) It was fortified or walled to demarcate it from the lower town.
f) Consisted of large structures which functioned as administrative centres.

II. Lower Town

a) It was walled.
b) It was larger in size but lower in height.
c) It had residential buildings. Example- At Mohenjodaro , residential complexes centred around
courtyard.
d) In the lower town, the roads and streets well laid out a long pattern, intersecting at right angles.

Q3.“The drainage system developed by the Harappans was a distinctive feature of town planning”.
Comment.
OR
On what grounds can we say that Harappans took care of civic virtues like sanitation and hygeine?
Does it indicate town planning?
OR
Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons
for your answer. Pg 6-7(To be included-Source 2-The most ancient system yet discovered )

1. Streets with drains were laid out first and then houses were built along them.
2. Domestic waste water flowed into the street drains.
3. Drains were made of mortar, limestone.
4. Drains were covered.
5. Inspection holes at regular intervals for cleaning.

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Q4. "The problems of archaeological interpretation are most evident in attempts to reconstruct
religious practices. "Critically examine the statement.
OR
Analyse the attempts made by archaeologists to reconstruct the religious beliefs & systems of
Harappan culture.

1. One problem is that archaeologists thought that certain objectives that seemed unusual or unfamiliar may
have had religious significance but religious use is unclear.

2. Mother Goddess -of heavily bejewelled women, some with elaborate head dresses may have been
regarded as Mother Goddesses.

3. Priest King-Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardized posture seated with one hand on the
knee such as the figure assumed to be “priest king” was classified.

4. Structures with ritual significance-Some structures have been assigned ritual significance -eg Great
Bath and Fire Altars at Kalibangan and Lothal.

5. Nature Worship-Reconstructing religious beliefs by examining seals depicting ritual scenes, plant
worship indicate nature worship.

6. Seals-Some animals like the one horned unicorn on seals seem to be a mythical, composite creature. Also
humped bulls may have been considered sacred.

7. Proto Shiva Seals- of a cross legged figure of a deity in yogic posture surrounded by animals is compared
to the Rig Vedic Rudra.

8. Lingas-Besides conical stone objects have been classified as Lingas and may have been worshiped.

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Q5.What were the different techniques adopted by John Marshall and R.E.M Wheeler in studying
Harappan Civilisation.
OR
‘John Marshall’s stint as Director- General of the ASI marked a major change in Indian
archaeology’. Justify.
OR
Discuss the role of R.E.M wheeler in solving the problem arising due to Marshall’s excavations.

I. John Marshall
General Points
1. As Director-General of ASI Marshall brought fundamental changes in archaeology.
2. He brought with him the experience of Greece and Crete to the field.

Point of difference
1. Marshall excavated along horizontal units of the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of site.

2. This meant that all artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together even if they were found
at different stratigraphic layers.

3. As a result valuable information about the context of these finds was lost.

II. R.E.M. Wheeler/ How did REM Wheeler rectify the problem in archaeological excavation
as posed by John Marshall.

Point of difference
1. He rectified the problem and recognised that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy
(Digging layer by layer) of the mound rather than dig mechanically along horizontal lines.

2. He brought with him military precision to the practice of archaeology.

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Q6. Describe some of the distinctive features of Mohenjodaro .
OR
Describe the features that justify that Mohenjodaro was a planned urban centre.

Answer-
1. Most well known- Mohenjodaro is the most well know site of Harappan Civilisation.

2. Division of town-It was divided into Upper Town(Citadel) and Lower Town. Both sections were walled.

3. Upper town/Citadel-Had structures for public purposes.eg warehouses, Great Bath.

4.Planning and implementation- Some buildings were built on platforms which served as foundation and
shows that settlement was first planned and then implemented.

5. Standardised ratio of bricks- baked bricks are also a sign of planning.

6. Planned drainage system-Explain from Answer on drainage if it comes.

7.Roads and streets- The roads formed a grip pattern , intersected at right angles .

8.Lower Town/ Describe the distinctive features of domestic architecture.

a) Residential buildings were centred around a courtyard, with rooms on all sides
b) Courtyard was centre of activities such as cooking, washing etc.
c) There was concern for privacy as there were no windows at ground level. Main entrance was not given a
direct view of entrance.
d) Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks with drains connected through the drains on streets.
e) Some houses had staircases to reach the second storey or roof.
f) Many houses had wells.

Q7. Point out the evidences of organized government or political authority in the Harappan
Civilization.
OR
Describe the functions that may have been performed by rulers in the Harappan society.
OR
What are the indications on the basis of which we can say that complex decisions were being taken
and implemented in Harappan society?

1. Varied interpretations- Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers,
and that everybody enjoyed equal status.
2. Varied interpretations- Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a
separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.
3. Evidence of a palace-A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by
archaeologists but no spectacular finds were associated with it.
4. Priest King-A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”.
5. Uniformity of artefatcs-There was extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts.
6. The standardised ratio of brick size-suggests that complex decisions were being taken by a
political authority.
7. Planned settlements-Settlements were strategically set up near sources of raw material. This
suggests presence of organised authority.
8. Labour management- It was mobilised for making bricks and for the construction of massive walls
and platforms.

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Q8. Examine the reasons for the decline of the Harappan Civilization.

OR

Attribute reasons for the catastrophic end of the mighty Harappan Civilisation.

1. Catastrophic Flooding: - The heavy silting deposits about 6 feet above the present ground level in the
excavated streets & houses indicate occurrences of abnormal excessive floods & heavy rainfall.

2. Salinity: - must have devastated stock breeding & agriculture & destroyed soil fertility to such an extent
that people must have been forced to abandon the sites.

3. Changing course of Indus River: - may be due to tectonic movements (earthquakes) might have raised
the level of flood plains blocking the route of river into the sea. The raised water levels destroyed cities.

4. Disruption of commercial life: - on the river & seaports also hampered coastal communities.

5. Excessive wind action - could have blown in huge quantities of sand & silt.

6. Overuse of landscape: - Over cultivation of land to meet the demand of the centres may have led to
deforestation. Growing economic activities destroyed the ecology of the region. The semi-arid areas could
no longer support the huge human & cattle population.

7. Invasion: - by hill tribes & barbarians from the North. Though there are evidences of massacre on the
streets of Mohenjodaro, possibly by Aryan invasions, however no weapons are found. It is also argued that
the Aryans came around 1500 BC while Harappa declined around 1800 BC.

8. The Collapse of Harappa: -Harappa was a strong unifying element and its end is evidenced by the
disappearance of distinctive artefacts like seals, special beads, fine pottery, a shift from standardized weights
to local weights, writing, long distance trade, & specialized crafts. There was thus a transformation of
material culture. Later far fewer materials were used to make far fewer things. Techniques of domestic
architecture also declined. A rural culture replaced urban culture in the later Harappan period.

Q9. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how
these might have been obtained.

➢ RAW MATERIALS USED

A variety of materials was used for craft production. While some such as clay were locally available, many
such as stone, timber and metal had to be procured from outside.

➢ HOW RAW MATERIALS WERE OBTAINED

1. From Harappan Settlements(1/3 m)

• Through Settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot shell was procured.
• From Lothal carnelian was obtained
• Steatite (from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan).

2. From expeditions(1/3m)
• Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold).
• These expeditions established communication with local communities.
• Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro beads in these areas are
indications of such contact.

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 3. Overseas Trade/ State evidences of Harappan contact with distant lands/West Asia for
purchase or exchange of artefacts. (Board Question 2019)
• Archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the
southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.
• Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have
traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin.
• There are other traces of contact as well.
• A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has
been found at Omani sites.

Q10. Source 1-How artefacts are discovered ? Page 4

a) How do archaeologists try and understand what ancient artefacts were used for?
• Archaeologists try to establish a relationship between the present day objects with the objects
of past and try to understand what they were used for.

b) Name the material used for making equipment for processing of food.
• Stone, metal , terra-cotta

c) What strategy and equipment were used by Mackay?

• Mackay tried to know about lady objects by comparing them with present objects . Eg
Similarity between present day querns with Harappan querns.

d) What were curry stones? Who took it for loan and why?
• The curry stones were used for pounding herbs and spices. The cook of Mackay took curry
stoned on loan from the museum for use in kitchen.

Q11. Passage -Evidence of an invasion

a) Name the archaeologist who presented this source.

• John Marshall
b) Which argument has been put forth for the destruction of Harappan Civilisation in the excerpt?
The argument put forth is that of a foreign invasion.

c) Who co-relate this evidence with Rig Veda and why?

• R.E.M Wheeler . Rig Veda mentions PUR meaning fort . Indra the Aryans war god is called
Purandra meaning fort destroyer.

d) Who propounded the theory opposite to this? Why?

• George Dales. He hesitates to accept that this invasion was carried out by Aryans. He
demonstrated that skeletons found in the area do not belong to the same period. There is no
sign of extensive burning , no bodies of warriors clad in armour or weapons of war around
them.

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Q12. Our knowledge about the Indus Valley civilisation is poorer than that of other civilisation.
Explain it with an argument.
OR
Why is the Harappan script called an enigmatic one?

1. Enigmatic or mysterious script- The script of Harappan age remains undeciphered till date.
2. Scripts are the sole basis through which we gather information about art, literature etcwhich is
unknown in the case of Harappa.
3. The limited evidence points out that the prescription was not alphabetical. It has signs between 375
to 400.
4. It is suggested that the script was written from right to left on seals.
5. Writing have been found on seals, copper tools, jewellery. This indicates some level of literacy.
6. In the case of other civilisations such as Egypt, Mesopotamia the script has been decoded.

Q13. Describe some distinctive features of MohenjoDaro.

OR
Describe features indicating that MohenjoDaro was a planned urban centre.

1. Most well-known – Mohenjo Daro is the most well-known site of Harappan civilisation.
2. Division of town – it was divided into Upper town and lower town both sections were walled.
3. Upper Town/Citadel-It had structures for public purposes. Eg. Great Bath, warehouses.
4. Planning & Implementation- Some buildings were built on a platform which served as foundation
and shows that settlement was first planned and then implemented other things.
5. Standardised ratio of bricks-Baked bricks are a sign of planning.
6. Planned drainage system-From answer on Drainage.
7. Roads & Streets-They formed a grid pattern and intersected at right angles.
8. Lower town/Domestic Architecture

Q14. Describe the distinctive features of Domestic/residential Architecture.

1. Residential buildings were centred around courtyard with rooms on all sides.
2. Courtyards were the centre of activities like cooking, washing.
3. There was concern for privacy as there were no windows on ground floor.
4. Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks and drains connected to street drains.
5. Some houses had staircases to reach second floor.
6. Many houses had wells.