Understanding

Color
Giordano Beretta
Hewlett-Packard Company
Palo Alto
http://www.hpl.hp.com/imaging/uc/

2000

Photonics West

Showcasing the power of Light

2 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Table of contents
What is color? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Color theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Color vision physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Colorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Objective color terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Famous color spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Measuring color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Color reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Color appearance modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Short color dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 3
4 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 What is color?
◊ Color is an illusion

◊ Colorimetry: the art to predict an illusion from a physical

measurement

◊ Experience is much more important than knowing facts

or theories

◊ The physiology of color vision is understood only to a

very small degree
• Physiology:
physical stimulus → physiological response
• Psychophysics:
physical stimulus → behavioral response

What is essential is invisible to the eye

Antoine de Saint-Exupéry (The Little Prince)

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 5
 Terminology
CIE definition 845-02-18: (perceived) color

Attribute of a visual perception consisting of any

combination of chromatic and achromatic content. This
attribute can be described by chromatic color names such as
yellow, orange, brown, red, pink, green, blue, purple, etc.,
or by achromatic color names such as white, gray, black,
etc., and qualified by bright, dim, light, dark etc., or by
combinations of such names

Perceived color depends on the spectral distribution of the

color stimulus, on the size, shape, structure and surround of
the stimulus area, on the state of adaptation of the
observer’s visual system, and on the observer’s experience
of the prevailing and similar situations of observation

Perceived color may appear in several modes of

appearance. The names for various modes of appearance
are intended to distinguish among qualitative and
geometric differences of color perceptions

6 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Color term categories

Subjective color term: A word used to describe a color

attribute perceived by a human. Example: the colorfulness
of a flower

Objective color term: A word used to describe a physical

quantity related to color that can be measured. Example:
the energy radiated by a source

We use objective color terms as correlates to subjective color

terms

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 7
 Subjective color terms

Hue

Hue: The attribute of a color perception denoted by blue,

green, yellow, red, purple, and so on

hue scale

Unique hue: A hue that cannot be further described by use

of the hue names other than its own. There are four unique
hues, each of which shows no perceptual similarity to any
of the others: red, green, yellow, and blue

8 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Brightness and lightness

Brightness: The attribute of a visual sensation according to

which a given visual stimulus appears to be more or less
intense, or according to which the visual stimulus appears to
emit more or less light
Objective term: luminance (L)

brightness scale

Lightness: The attribute of a visual sensation according to

which the area in which the visual stimulus is presented
appears to emit more or less light in proportion to that
emitted by a similarly illuminated area perceived as a
“white” stimulus
Objective terms: luminance factor (β), CIE lightness (L*)

Brightness is absolute, lightness is relative to an area

perceived as white

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 9
 Colorfulness

Chromaticness or Colorfulness: The attribute of a visual

sensation according to which an area appears to exhibit
more or less of its hue. In short: the extent to which a hue is
apparent
Objective term: CIECAM97s M

Chroma: The attribute of a visual sensation which permits a

judgement to be made of the degree to which a chromatic
stimulus differs from an achromatic stimulus of the same
brightness. In other words, chroma is an attribute
orthogonal to brightness: absolute colorfulness; we
perceive a color correctly independently of the illumination
level
Objective term: CIE chroma (C*uv, C*ab)

10 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Colorfulness (cont.)

Saturation: The attribute of a visual sensation which

permits a judgement to be made of the degree to which a
chromatic stimulus differs from an achromatic stimulus
regardless of their brightness. In other words, it is the
colorfulness of an area judged in proportion to its
brightness: relative colorfulness; we can judge the
uniformity of an object’s color in the presence of shadows
and independently of the incident light’s angle
Objective terms: purity (p), CIE saturation (Suv)

saturation scale

Colorfulness is absolute, chroma is relative to a white area

and absolute w.r.t. brightness, saturation is in proportion to
brightness

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 11
 Our goal

◊ We would like to be able to predict the color of a

sample by making a measurement

◊ Humans can distinguish about 7 to 10 million different

colors — just name them and build an instrument that
identifies them

◊ Task: find good correlates to the subjective color terms

◊ Some observations:
• If you want to buy a skirt or a pair of slacks to match
a jacket, you cannot match the color by memory —
you have to take the jacket with you
• Just matching in the store light is insufficient, you
have to match also under the incandescent light in
the dressing room and outdoors
• You always get the opinion of your companion or
the store clerk
◊ Three fundamental components of measuring color:
• light sources
• samples illuminated by them
• observers

12 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Spectral curves

quantities we can measure

◊ The spectral power curve gives at each wavelength the

power (in watts), i.e., the rate at which energy is
received from the light source
◊ The spectral reflectance curve gives at each wavelength
the percentage of incident light that is reflected

0.40
reflectance

human complexion
0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 nm

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 13
 Spectral color reproduction

◊ By spectral color reproduction we intend the physically

correct reproduction of color, i.e., the duplication of the
original object's spectrum
◊ The general reproduction methods (micro-dispersion
and Lippmann) are too impractical for normal use
◊ For some special applications like painting restauration
or illuminant reconstruction, the spectrum may be
sampled at a small number of intervals and combined
with principal component analysis
◊ Fortunately, spectral color reproduction is required only
in rare cases, such as paint swatches in catalogs, and in
this cases it is often possible to use identical dyes

Our aim is to achieve a close effect for a normal viewer

under average viewing conditions

Mathematically: build a simple model of color vision

14 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Color theories
◊ 800 B.C. — Indian Upanishads
• there are relations among colors
◊ 400 B.C. — Hellenic philosophers
• Plato: light or fire rays emanate from the eyes
• Epicurus: replicas of objects enter the eyes
◊ First Millennium — Arab school, pure science
• Abu Ali Mohammed Ibn al Hazen: image is formed
within the eye like in a camera obscura
◊ 15th century — Renaissance, technology
• Leonardo da Vinci:
– color perception
– color order system
– black & white are colors
– 3 pairs of opponent colors
(black–white, red–green, yellow–blue)
– simultaneous contrast
– used color filters to
determine color
mixtures

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 15
 Opponent colors

Off-axis front views

W
W

Y
Y
R
G
G
R
B
B

K K

Top view
Y

G R

◊ Note: rendered with chiaro-scuro technique

16 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Color theories (cont.)

◊ 18th century — Enlightenment, physics & chemistry

• Isaac Newton:
– spectral dispersion, white can be dispersed in a
spectrum by a prism
– colors of objects relate to their spectral
reflectance
– light is not colored and color perception is
elicited in the human visual system
◊ 19th century — scientific discovery
• Thomas Young: trichromatic theory
• Hermann von Helmholtz: spectral sensitivity curves
• Ewald Hering:
– opponent color theory (can explain hues,
saturation, and why there is no reddish green or
yellowish blue)
– black and dark gray are not produced by the
absence of light but by a lighter surround
◊ 20th century — advanced scientific instruments
• Johannes A. von Kries: chromatic adaptation
• G.E. Müller & Erwin Schrödinger: zone theory
• physiological evidence for inhibitory mechanisms
becomes available in the 1950s

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 17
 Color vision is not based on a bitmap

◊ Vision is based on contrast

◊ Vision is not hierarchical. The simple model

distal event
↓
proximal stimulus
↓
brain event
is very questionable. It is believed that feedback loops
exist between all 26 known areas of visual processing
◊ In fact, it has been proved that a necessary condition of
some activity in even the primary visual cortex is input
from “higher” areas
◊ Like the other sensory systems, vision is narcissistic
◊ Many sensory signals are non-correlational — a given
signal does not always indicate the same property or
event in the world

The “inner eye’s” function is not to understand what the

sensory states indicate

18 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Cognitive model for color appearance

Stimulus Detectors Early mechanisms Pictorial register

color

edges
contour
motion Context parameters
depth
…
chroma
etc.
hue
Color lexicon
lightness
Internal
chroma color space
etc.
amber hue
lightness

Action Color name Apparent color

representation

◊ Reliable color discrimination: 1 week

◊ Color-opponent channels: 3 months
◊ Color constancy: 4 months
◊ Internal color space
◊ Color names

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 19
 Memory colors

◊ Vision is not hierarchical

◊ Delk & Fillenbaum experiment

◊ We tend to see colors of familiar objects as we expect

them to be

Surround

10°
Sky

Complexion

2°

Adapting
field
Vegetation

20 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Color vision physiology
◊ The retina has a layer of photoreceptors, which grow
like hair (10µm per day). They are of two kinds: rods and
cones
◊ The cones are of three kinds, depending on the
pigments they contain. One pigment absorbs reddish
light, one absorbs greenish light, and one absorbs bluish
light
◊ This leads to the method of trichromatic color
reproduction, in which we try to stimulate
independently the three kinds of cones

el ls m
bers nc
i o s l l s ells h eli
u
i l l l e t
r v ef a ng e ce e lls a l c ne c ones t epi
g c t co & c en
i c ne n a l c r in l a r
z o n
&
t i a o r i d s m
op ret am bip ho ro rod pig

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 21
 Evolution

◊ From the difference in the amino-acid sequences for the

various photoreceptor genes it is clear that the human
visual system did not evolve according to a single design
Rod and S L and M
Finding Mechanisms Mechanisms

Distribution perifoveal foveal

Anatomy one class two classes
Bipolar circuitry
(only on) (on and off)
Spatial resolution low high
Temporal resolution low high
Psychophysics Weber fraction high low
Wavelength sensi-
short medium
tivity
Response function saturates does not saturate
Latencies long short
ERG-off-effect negative positive
Electrophysiology Ganglion cell
afterpotential no afterpotential
response
Receptive field large small
Vulnerability high low

Genetics autosomal sex-linked

Source: Eberhart Zrenner, 1983

22 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Catching photons

◊ Retinal pigments: rhodopsin, cyanolabe, chlorolabe,

erythrolabe
• lysine attaches chromophore to a protein backbone
• electronic excitation (two-photon catch) initiates a
large shift in electron density in less than 10–15
seconds
• shift activates rotation around two double-bonded
carbon atoms in the backbone
• entire photocycle lasts less than a picosecond (10–12
sec.)
• photoisomerization induces shift in positive charge
perpendicular to membrane sheets containing the
protein
• this generates a photoelectric signal with a less than
5 psec. rise time
• forward reaction is completed in ~50 µsec. (10–6 sec.)
◊ Quantum efficiency: measure of the probability that the
reaction will take place after the absorption of a photon
of light
◊ 4 pigments sensitized to photons at 4 energy levels
(wavelength): L, M, S, and rods

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 23
 Catch probabilities

◊ For each pigment, there is a probability distribution for

a reaction, depending on the photon’s wavelengths
w(λ) dλ
◊ What counts is not the energy of a single photon, but
the average
◊ For a spectral power distribution Pλ:
S = ∫ Pλ w(λ) dλ
absorbance
S-cone
1.0
M-cone
0.8
L-cone

0.6 Rod

0.4

0.2

nm
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650

Dartnall, H. J. A., Bowmaker, J. K., & Mollon, J. D. (1983). Human visual

pigments: microspectrophotometric results from the eyes of seven
persons. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 220, 115-130

24 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Retinal mechanisms

Surround

Center

Surround

Retinal Amacrine Bipolar Horizontal Receptor

ganglion cell cell cell
cell

◊ Receptors in retina are not like pixels in a CCD

◊ Receptive field: area of visual field that activates a
ganglion (H.K. Hartline, 1938)
◊ Center-surround fields allow for adaptive coding
(transmit contrast instead of absolute values)
◊ Horizontal cells presumed to inhibit either its bipolar cell
or the receptors: opponent response in red–green and
yellow–blue potentials (G. Svaetichin, 1956)
◊ Balance of red–green channel might be determined by
yellow
◊ Ganglion can be tonic or phasic: pathway may also be
organized by information density or bandwidth

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 25
 Parvocellular and magnocellular pathways

P– M–

Originating retinal Tonic Phasic

ganglion cells

Fast (mostly transient

Slow (sustained responses, low
Temporal resolution responses, some sustained,
conduction velocity)
high conduction velocity)
Chromatic Luminance
Modulation
dominance Adaptation occurs at high fre- Adaptation occurs at all fre-
quencies quencies
Receives mostly combined
Receives mostly opponent type (broadband) input from M and
Color input from cones sensitive to L cones, both from the center
short and long wavelengths and from the surround of
receptive fields

Contrast sensitivity Low (threshold > 10%) High (threshold < 2%)

Linear up to about 64% con-

LGN cell saturation At 10%
trast

Spatial resolution High (small cells) Low (large cells)

When fixation is strictly foveal,

extraction of high spatial fre-
Spatio-temporal quency information (test grat- Responds to flicker
resolution ings), reflecting small color
Short integration time
receptive fields
Long integration time
Could be a site for both a light- Might be a site for achromatic
ness channel as for opponent- channels because the spectral
Relation to color channels. The role sensitivity is similar to Vλ, it is
channels depends on the spatio-tempo- more sensitive to flicker, and
ral content of the target used has only a weak opponent
in the experiment color component
Sustain the perception of color,
Possible main role Sustain the detection of move-
texture, shape, and fine stere-
in the visual system ment, depth, and flicker
opsis

26 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Color constancy

Optic
tract Lateral Primary Blob
geniculate visual
Optic cortex
body
radiations

◊ Axons of retinal ganglion cells in optical nerve terminate

at LGN and synapse with neurons radiating to striate
cortex
◊ LGN might generate masking effects; combination with
saccadic motion of eye
◊ Blobs in area 17 consist mainly of double opponent cells
◊ May be site for color constancy
◊ Requires input from V4 (Zeki)

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 27
 Limited knowledge

◊ Reaction time at rhodopsin level: femtoseconds

◊ Reaction time at perceptual level: seconds
◊ From photon catches to constant color names

We do not know exactly what happens in-between

◊ Examples: simultaneous contrast, chromatic induction

28 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 1 color appears as 2

Appearance mode

Three flat objects or picture of a white cube illuminated

from the top and right?

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 29
 Basis for colorimetry

◊ Too many unknowns in physiology and cognitive

processes
◊ Cannot yet build accurate color vision model
◊ Unlike auditory system, visual system is not spectral but
integrative
• Advantage of integrative system: metamerism
◊ Basis of colorimetry:
1. Instead of a physiological model, build a psychophysical
model
• Physiology:
physical stimulus → physiological response
• Psychophysics:
physical stimulus → behavioral response
2. Assume additivity
3. Keep the viewing conditions constant

30 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Colorimetry
Colorimetry is the branch of color science concerned with
specifying numerically the color of a physically defined
visual stimulus in such a manner that:
1. when viewed by an observer with normal color vision,
under the same observing conditions, stimuli with the
same specification look alike,
2. stimuli that look alike have the same specification, and
3. the numbers comprising the specification are functions
of the physical parameters defining the spectral radiant
power distribution of the stimulus

Trichromatic generalization: over a wide range of

conditions of observation, many color stimuli can be
matched in color completely by additive mixtures of three
fixed primary stimuli whose radiant powers have been
suitably adjusted (proportionality). In addition, the color
stimuli combine linearly, symmetrically, and transitively

Grassmann’s laws of additive color mixture

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 31
 Color matching

Colors are assessed by matching them with reference colors

on a small-field bipartite screen:

32 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Color-matching functions

Given a monochromatic stimulus Qλ of wavelength λ, it can

be written as
Qλ = RλR + GλG + BλB,
where Rλ, Gλ, and Bλ are the spectral tristimulus values of Qλ

Assume an equal-energy stimulus E whose

mono-chromatic constituents are Eλ
(equal-energy means Eλ ≡ 1)

The equation for a color match involving a mono-chromatic

constituent Eλ of E is
Eλ = r(λ)R + g(λ)G + b(λ)B,
where r(λ), g(λ), and b(λ), are the spectral tristimulus values
of Eλ. The sets of such values are called
color-matching functions
3.0
Stiles-Burch (1955;1959)
2.5
2.0 b(λ)
1.5 g(λ)
1.0 r(λ)
0.5
0.0
nm
0.5
400 500 600 700

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 33
 Metameric stimuli

Consider two color stimuli

Q1 = R1R + G1G + B1B
Q2 = R2R + G2G + B2B
If Q1 and Q2 have different spectral radiant power
distributions, but R1 = R2 and G1 = G2 and B1 = B2, the two
stimuli are called metameric stimuli
0.6
reflectance

0.5
D
C
0.4 B
A

0.3

0.2

0.1

nm

0.0
400 500 600 700

◊ Color reproduction works because of metamerism

34 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Chromaticity diagrams

We can normalize the color-matching functions and thus

obtain new quantities
r (λ) = r (λ) / [r (λ) + g(λ) + b(λ)]
g(λ) = g(λ) / [r (λ) + g(λ) + b(λ)]
b(λ) = b(λ) / [r (λ) + g(λ) + b(λ)]
with r(λ) + g(λ) + b(λ) = 1

The locus of chromaticity points for monochromatic colors

so determined is called the spectrum locus in the (r, g)-
chromaticity diagram
2.0

g(m)
1.5

1.0 2° pilot group

Stiles-Burch (1955)

0.5

r(m)
0.0
-1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 35
 Imaginary color stimuli

◊ The fact that the color-matching functions and the

chromaticity coordinates can be negative presents a
problem when the tristimulus values are computed from
a spectral radiant power distribution
◊ Because the color-matching space is linear, a linear
transformation can be applied to the primary stimuli to
obtain new imaginary stimuli that lie outside the
chromaticity region bounded by the spectrum locus.
This ensures that the chromaticity coordinates are never
negative

2.0

A: ~2856˚K
Planckian locus
1.5
D65: ~6504˚K

∞
1.0

0.5 z2(λ)
y2(λ)
x2(λ)
nm
0.0
400 500 600 700 800

36 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 CIE 1931 standard colorimetric observer

We want to obtain results valid for the group of normal

trichromats (95% of population). Because
R = ∫ Pλ r (λ) dλ, G = ∫ Pλ g(λ) dλ, B = ∫ Pλ b(λ) dλ,

an ideal observer can be defined by specifying values for the

color-matching functions. The Commission Internationale
de l'Éclairage has recommended such tables containing x(λ),
y(λ), z(λ), for
λ ∈ [360 nm, 830 nm] in 1 nm steps

In addition to the color-matching properties, the CIE 1931

Standard Observer is such that it has also the
heterochromatic brightness-matching properties. The latter
is achieved by choosing y (λ) to coincide with the photopic
luminous efficiency function
X and Z are on the alychne, which in the chromaticity diagram is a
straight line on which are located the chromaticity points of all stimuli
having zero luminance

The data is based averaging the results a) on color matching

in a 2° field of 17 observers and b) the relative luminances
of the colors of the spectrum, averaged for about 100
observers

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 37
 Tristimulus normalization

◊ X, Y, and Z are defined up to a common normalization

factor. This factor is different for objects and for
emissive sources
◊ The perfect reflecting diffuser is an ideal isotropic
diffuser with a reflectance equal to unity
◊ The perfect reflecting diffuser is completely matt and is
entirely free from any gloss or sheen. The reflectance is
equal to unity at all wavelengths
◊ When the tristimulus values are measured with an
instrument, YL represents a photometric measure, such
as luminance. For object surfaces it is customary to scale
X, Y, Z, so that Y = 100 for the perfect diffuser
In practice a working standard such as a BaSO4 plate is used in lieu of
the perfect diffuser

◊ For emissive sources there is no illuminant and therefore

the perfect diffuser is not relevant. So it is customary to
use the photometric measures

38 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Objective color terms
quantities we can measure

Dominant wavelength: Wavelength of the monochromatic

stimulus that, when additively mixed in suitable proportions
with a specified achromatic stimulus, matches the color
stimulus considered
(In disuse, replaced by chromaticity)

Luminance: The luminous intensity in a given direction per

unit projected area
L v = K m ∫ L e, λ V ( λ ) dλ
λ
where Km is the maximum photopic luminous efficacy (683
lm W–1), Le,λ the radiance, and V(λ) the photopic efficiency

Luminance factor: The ratio of the luminance of a color to

that of a perfectly reflecting or transmitting diffuser
identically illuminated. Symbol: β

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 39
 Y

Y stimulus (luminosity in some literature): In the XYZ system

the luminance depends entirely on the Y stimulus. The Y
values of any two colors are proportional to their
luminances. Therefore, Y gives the percentage reflection or
transmission directly, where a perfectly reflecting diffuser
or transmitting color has a value of Y = 100
Y = V

where V is the luminance of the stimulus computed in

accordance with the luminous efficiency function V(λ)

40 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Chromaticity

Excitation purity: A measure of the proportions of the

amounts of the monochromatic stimulus and of the
specified achromatic stimulus that, when additively mixed,
match the color stimulus considered
(In disuse, replaced by chromaticity)
x – xw y – yw
p c = ------------------- or p c = -------------------
xb – xw yb – yw

where w denotes the achromatic stimulus and b the

boundary color stimulus

Chromaticity: Proportions of the amounts of three color-

matching stimuli needed to match a color (see p. 35).
Relationship between chromaticity coordinates r(λ), g(λ),
b(λ) and x(λ), y(λ), z(λ) of a given spectral stimulus of
wavelength λ are expressed by the projective
transformation

0.49000r ( λ ) + 0.31000g ( λ ) + 0.20000b ( λ )

x ( λ ) = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.66697r ( λ ) + 1.13240g ( λ ) + 1.20063b ( λ )
0.17697r ( λ ) + 0.81240g ( λ ) + 0.01063b ( λ )
y ( λ ) = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.66697r ( λ ) + 1.13240g ( λ ) + 1.20063b ( λ )
0.00000r ( λ ) + 0.01000g ( λ ) + 0.99000b ( λ )
z ( λ ) = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.66697r ( λ ) + 1.13240g ( λ ) + 1.20063b ( λ )

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 41
 Uniformity
◊ The X, Y, Z tristimulus coordinates allow us to decide if
two colors match in a given context. If there is no
match, it does not tell us how large the perceptual
mismatch is
◊ Consequently, the CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram is not
a perceptually uniform chromaticity space from which
the perception of chromaticity can be derived

y
520
530
0.8
540
510
550
Stiles Line Element
Ellipses plotted 3 x
560
0.6
570
500
580

590
0.4 600
610
620
490 630
700

0.2
480

470
0

460 x
45

0 0.2 0.4 0.6

x = X Ú (X + Y + Z) , y = Y Ú (X + Y + Z) , x+y+z = 1

42 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Uniform chromaticity diagram

◊ The CIE 1976 UCS (Uniform Chromaticity Scale)

chromaticity diagram is perceptually uniform

u' = 4X Ú ( X + 15Y + 3Z ) = 4x Ú ( – 2x + 12y + 3 )

v' = 9Y Ú ( X + 15Y + 3Z ) = 9y Ú ( – 2x + 12y + 3 )

0.6 v'

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

u'
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 43
 CIELAB

◊ CIE 1976 lightness, L*

◊ A non-linear function to provide a measure that
correlates with lightness more uniformly
◊ Similar lightness distribution to the Munsell Value scale

L* = 116 ⋅ 3 Y Ú Y n – 16

◊ Tangential near origin

◊ Two color opponent channels a*, b*

 
3 3
a* = 500 ⋅  X Ú X n – Y Ú Y n 
 

 
3 3
b* = 200 ⋅  Y Ú Y n – Z Ú Z n 
 

◊ Xn, Yn, Zn: reference white

• D50: 96.422, 100, 82.521; D65: 95.047, 100, 108.883
◊ von Kries type adaptation

44 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Color difference formulæ

◊ The CIE has defined two uniform color spaces, 1976 CIE
L*u*v* and 1976 CIE L*a*b* in which the difference of
two color stimuli can be measured
◊ u* and v* (but not a* and b*) are coordinates on a
uniform chromaticity diagram. The third dimension is
the psychometric lightness

2 2
C* ab = a* + b*

h ab = atan ( b* Ú a* )

2 ∆H* ab  2
∆L* 2  ∆C* ab  
∆E* 94 =   +
----------------
k ⋅ S  - ----------------- +  ------------------
L L  k C ⋅ S C  k H ⋅ S H

SL = 1
S C = 1 + 0.045 ⋅ C* ab
S H = 1 + 0.015 ⋅ C* ab

kL = kC = kH = 1

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 45
 Famous color spaces
XYZ + basis for all other CIE color spaces
– non-uniform
RGB + can be produced by additive devices
+ linear transformation of XYZ
– non-uniform

R 0.019710 – 0.005494 – 0.002974 X

e.g., G = – 0.009537 0.019363 – 0.000274 Y
B 0.000638 – 0.001295 0.009816 Z
sRGB + contains non-linearity typical for PC CRTs
+ easy to implement
- non-uniform and non-linear
CIELAB + most uniform CIE space
+ widely used in the printing industry
– cubic transformation
CIELUV + simple transformation of XYZ
+ uniform
+ related to YUV (PAL, SECAM)
– less uniform than CIELAB
YIQ + used for NTSC encoding
+ black and white compatible
– contains gamma correction
– non-uniform

46 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Other famous color spaces

YES, YCC + linear transformations of XYZ

+ black and white compatible
+ opponent color models
– less uniform than CIELAB and CIELUV
– YCC contains gamma correction
– private standards
L*C*hab + has perceptual correlates
+ best for gamut mapping
+ perceptually uniform
– cylindrical
– not uniform for compression
TekHVC™ + has perceptual correlates
+ normalized chroma
+ derived from CIELUV
– cylindrical
– not uniform for compression
– private standard

NCS, Munsell, Coloroid, etc.: not derived from XYZ

Pantone: not a color order system

CIECAM97s: see p. 61

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 47
 Uniform discretization errors

Cartesian coordinates:

Cylindrical coordinates:

48 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Illumination
◊ The spectral power distribution of the light reflected to
the eye by an object is the product, at each wavelength,
of the object's spectral reflectance value by the spectral
power distribution of the light source

CWF Complexion

400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700

Incident SPD x Reflectance curve = Reflected SPD

Deluxe Complexion
CWF

400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700

◊ The spectral power distribution of a tungsten filament

lamp depends primarily on the temperature at which
the filament is operated
◊ Typical average daylight has a color temperature of
6500˚K, which can be achieved also by Artificial Daylight
fluorescent lamps, a.k.a. North-light or Color Matching
lamps

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 49
 CIE standard illuminants
250

relative radiant power

200 D65

150

100

50

wavelength [nm]
0
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800

◊ CIE standard illuminant A represents light from a full (or

blackbody) radiator at 2854°K
◊ CIE standard illuminant D65 represents a phase of
natural daylight with a correlated color temperature of
6504°K
CIE standard illuminants B and C were intended to represent direct
sunlight with a correlated color temperature of 4874°K resp. 6774°K.
They are being dropped because they are seriously deficient in the UV
region (important for fluorescent materials)

50 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 CIE standard sources

◊ Illuminant refers to a specific spectral radiant power

distribution incident to the object viewed by the
observer
◊ Source refers to a physical emitter of radiant power, such
as a lamp or the sun and sky
◊ CIE illuminant A is realized by a gas-filled coiled-
tungsten filament lamp operating at a correlated color
temperature of 2856°K
◊ There are no artificial sources for illuminant D65, due to
the jagged spectral power distribution. However, some
sources qualify as daylight simulators for colorimetry

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 51
 Measuring color
◊ There are no filters that approximate well the color
matching functions
◊ There are no artificial sources for the popular
illuminants D65 and D50
◊ Today’s hardware situation has changed dramatically
• Embedded processors are inexpensive
• Holographic gratings are inexpensive
• Light sources are highly efficient
• CCD sensors have much less dark noise
◊ It is better to perform spectral measurements and let
the instrument do the colorimetry
◊ Spectroradiometer: determine the reflected SPD
◊ Spectrophotometer: determine the reflectance curve
• see drawing on page 49 (Illumination)
◊ Because they are a closed system, spectrophotometers
are very reliable

52 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Trusting your instrument

Sooner or later all users enter a deep trust crisis in their

instruments. Some survival tips:
◊ Illuminate your work area with a source simulating your
target illuminant
• see what the instrument “sees”
◊ Compact spectrophotometers have a very small
geometry; perpendicularity between optical axis and
sample, as well as distance to the sample are critical
• maintain an uncluttered work space
◊ The instrument’s light source generates heat, which
increases dark current noise in the CCD and causes
geometric deformations in the grating
• wait between measurements
• recalibrate
– at each session start
– after each pause
– after a long series of measurements,
– when the ambient temperature has changed by
more than 5˚C

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 53
 Calibrations

White calibration: adjusts the computational parameters

so that the calculated tile’s reflectance curve is the same as
the absolute reflectance curve
• do it often

Absolute certification: verifies that the measured color of

the tile is within the tolerance (e.g. 0.6 ∆E units) from the
absolute color of the tile
• important for agreement between laboratories

Relative certification: verifies if the measured color of the

tile is within the tolerance (e.g. 0.3 ∆E units) from the initial
color of the tile with the same instruments
• important for reproducibility

Collaborative testing: verifies that the entire color

measurement procedure is in agreement with outside
laboratories
• Collaborative Testing Services Inc, 340 Herndon
Parkway, Herndon, VA 20170, 703-742-9107

54 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Effect of variability

◊ A measurement is never perfect

◊ The effect of variability of color measurement is reduced
by using multiple measurements
◊ How many measurements should I make and average?
◊ Rule of thumb: 10× for each variability parameter
• instrument’s variability: measure each spot — 10×
• sample uniformity: repeat at several locations —
100×
• sample variability: repeat for several samples —
1000×
• …
◊ Follow ASTM standard practice E 1345 – 90 to determine
how many measurements are necessary in each case
• ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohoken, PA
19428, 610-832-9585, http://www.astm.org
◊ Improve all process aspects to minimize the required
number of measurements
◊ ISO 9001

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 55
 Geometries of illumination and viewing

◊ On a glossy surface there are mirror-like (specular)

reflections
◊ There are more reflections in the case of diffuse light
sources
◊ Since the color of the illuminant is white, specular
reflections add white, with the effect of desaturating
the color
◊ Non-metallic glossy surfaces look more saturated in
directional than in diffuse illumination
◊ Matt surfaces scatter the light diffusely — matt surfaces
usually look less saturated than glossy surfaces
◊ Most surface are between glossy and matt
◊ Diffuse illumination is provided by integrating spheres
• usually they are provided with gloss traps
◊ Instruments with 45/0 and 0/45 geometry are less critical
◊ ASTM recommendation for partly glossy samples:
• use the geometry that minimizes surface effects
(usually the one that gives lowest Y and highest
excitation purity)
◊ 45/0 geometry gives rise to polarization problems

56 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Color reproduction
In most cases, color repro is simple and inexpensive because
of metamerism

Spectral color repro: equality of spectral reflectance or SPD

• rarely needed
• paint samples, metamerism assessment

Colorimetric repro: equality of chromaticities and relative

luminances
• useful when viewing conditions are the same and
light source is the same

Exact repro: equality of chromaticities, absolute & relative

luminances
• useful when viewing conditions are identical

Equivalent repro: same appearance of chromaticities,

absolute & relative luminances
• useful when the luminance level is the same

Corresponding repro: same appearance of chromaticities

and rel. luminances when the luminance levels are the same
• current focus of research in color repro; CIECAM

Preferred repro: achieve more pleasing repro of memory

colors by departing from equality of appearance

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 57
 The additive method

◊ Probable sensitivity curves of the human eye and the

three best lights for additive color reproduction
absorbance
S-cone
1.0
M-cone
0.8
L-cone

0.6 Rod

0.4

0.2

nm
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650

◊ Note the strong overlap in the orange-yellow interval

◊ This means that correct color reproduction cannot be
achieved with simple trichromatic methods, because
there are always unwanted stimulations
◊ Hence, the trivial idea of stimulating the cones
independently does not work with a simple approach

58 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 The subtractive method

◊ The additive method has two major disadvantages when

the set-up is not light-emissive:
• the required filters significantly reduce the
brightness of the image
• the reproduction of a mosaic can be tricky
◊ It is easier to generate colors from a beam of white light
and varying the proportions of reddish, green, and
bluish parts
◊ On top to the unwanted stimulations, there is a problem
with unwanted absorptions, making the subtractive
method even harder to master than the additive method
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4 10%
50%
0.2
100%
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6 10%
0.4 50%
0.2 100%
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700

1.0

0.8

0.6 10%
0.4 50%
100%
0.2

0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 59
 Color appearance
modeling
◊ Recommended model: CIECAM97s
◊ Do not use an appearance model when
• stimulus specification is simple (CIELAB, sRGB, …)
• simple color tolerances (CIE94)
• only one viewing condition
• it is not clear it will help
◊ What they allow you to do
• map from measurements to color names
• predict color matches across viewing conditions
– render color across media
• gain a deeper understanding of color
• no metric for color differences
color

edges
contour
motion Context parameters
depth
…
chroma
etc.
hue
Color lexicon
lightness
Internal
chroma color space
etc.
amber hue
lightness

60 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 CIECAM97s

◊ Conditions modeled
• adaptation
• discounting the illuminant
• surround effects
◊ Predictions missing from the model
• rod contributions
• color difference metric
• constant hue lines
• Helson-Judd effect
• Helmholtz-Kohlrausch effect
◊ Graphical representation
• CIECAM97s is represented in cylindrical coordinates
– lightness J
– chroma C
– hue h
• trigonometric transformation necessary for plots

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 61
 The color selection problem

Surround

10°
Background

Color
considered

2°

Adapting
field
Proximal field

◊ This user interface problem cannot be solved without

color appearance model
◊ Currently users converge towards their intended
rendering by trial and error

62 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 The gamut mapping problem
b*
Printer

a*

Monitor

CG Image

Measure original

Compute appearance

Gamut compression

Modify appearance (L*C*hab)

Compute colorant quantities

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 63
 Summary
◊ What you should take home from this course:
• a more realistic expectation from color reproduction
• color is more an art than a science
– practice, practice, practice
– develop your intuition
• how to interpret the result of a color measurement
• how to trust your instrument
◊ [email protected]
◊ www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Giordano_Beretta

64 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Bibliography
◊ R.M. Boynton. Human Color Vision. Optical Society of
America, 1992 (original publication 1979)
◊ J. Davidoff. Cognition through Color. The MIT Press,
Cambridge, 1991
◊ M.D. Fairchild. Color Appearance Models. Addison-
Wesley, Reading, 1998
◊ G.A. Gescheider. Psychophysics. Lawrence Erlbaum,
Hillsdale, 1985
◊ E.J. Giorgianni and Th.E. Madden. Digital Color
Management. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1998
◊ R.W.G. Hunt. Measuring Colour. 3rd edition, Fountain
Press, Kingston-upon-Thames, 1998
◊ R.W.G. Hunt. The Reproduction of Colour in
Photography, Printing & Television. 5th edition, Fountain
Press, Kingston-upon-Thames, 1995
◊ R.S. Hunter and R.W. Harold. The Measurement of
Appearance. 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1987
◊ H.R. Kang. Color Technology for Electronic Imaging
Devices. SPIE, Bellingham, 1997
◊ H.R. Kang. Digital Color Halftoning. SPIE, Bellingham,
1999

U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 65
 ◊ K. Nassau, Editor. Color for Science Art and Technology.
North-Holland Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1998
◊ A. Nemcsics. Colour Dynamics—Environmental Colour
Design. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1993
◊ H. Widdel and D.L. Post, Editors. Color in Electronic
Displays. Plenum Press, New York, 1992
◊ S.J. Williamson and H.Z. Cummins. Light and Color in
Nature and Art. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983
◊ G. Wyszecki and W.S. Stiles. Color Science: Concepts and
Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulæ. 2nd edition,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982

66 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
 Short color dictionary
English Italiano Deutsch Français Español
absorptance fattore di assorbimento Absoptionsgrad facteur d’absorption absortancia

absorption assorbimento Absorption absorption absorción

accommodation accomodamento Akkommodation accommodation acomodación

achromatic (perceived) colour colore acromatico unbunte Farbe couleur (perçue) achromati- color acromático (percibido)
que

adaptation adattamento Adaptation adaptation adaptación

afterglow postluminescneza Nachleuchten postluminescence postluminiscencia

alychne alicne Alychne alychne alychne

aperture colour colore di apertura freie Farbe couleur-ouverture color-apertura (percibido)

base; cap attacco Sockel culot casquillo

binary hue tinta binaria Zwischenton teinte binaire tono binario

bright brillante hell lumineux luminoso

brightness brillanza Helligkeit luminosité luminosidad

bulb bulbo Kolben ampoule ampolla

chroma croma Buntheit chroma croma

chromatic adaptation adattamento cromatico Farbumstimmung adaptation chromatique adaptación cromática

chromatic (perceived) colour colore cromatico bunte Farbe couleur (perçue) chromatique color-cromático (percibido)

chromaticity cromaticità Farbart chromaticité cromaticidad

chromaticity coordinates coordinate tricromatiche Farbwertanteile coordonnées trichromatiques coordenadas de cromaticidad

chromaticity diagram diagramma colorimetrico Farbtafel diagramme de chromaticité diagrama de cromaticidad

CIE 1931 standard colorimet- osservatore colorimetrico CIE farbmeßtechnischer Normal- observateur de référence observador colorimétrico
ric observer 1931 beobachter CIE 1931 colorimétrique CIE 1931 patrón CIE 1931

CIE 1931 standard colorimet- sistema colorimetrico CIE CIE-Normvalenzsystem 1931 système de référence colori- sistema colorimétrico patrón
ric system 1931 métrique CIE 1931 CIE 1931
67
 English Italiano Deutsch Français Español
CIE 1964 supplementary osservatore colorimetrico farbmeßtechnischer Groß- observateur de référence observador colorimétrico
standard colorimetric supplementare CIE 1964 feld-Normalbeobachter CIE colorimétrique supplémen- patrón CIE 1964
observer 1964 taire CIE 1964

CIE standard illuminants illuminanti CIE CIE-Normlichtarten illuminants normalisés CIE iluminantes patrones CIE

CIE standard sources sorgenti CIE CIE-Normlichtquellen sources normalisées CIE fuentes patrones CIE

CIELAB colour space spazio colorimetrico CIELAB CIELAB-Farbenraum espace chromatique CIELAB espacio de color CIELAB

colorimeter colorimetro Farbmeßgerät colorimètre colorímetro

colorimetric purity purezza colorimetrica spektraler Leuchdichteanteil pureté colorimétrique pureza colorimétrica

colorimetry colorimetria Farbmessung colorimétrie colorimetría

colour colore Farbe couleur color

colour equation equazione colorimetrica Farbabgleichung équation chromatique ecuación de color

colour matching uguagliamento di colori Farbabgleich égalisation de couleur igualación de color

colour rendering resa dei colori Farbwiedergabe rendu des couleurs rendimiento en color

colour solid solido dei colori Farbkörper solide des couleurs sólido de color

colour space spazio colorimetrico Farbenraum espace chromatique espacio de color

colour stimulus stimolo di colore Farbreiz stimulus de couleur estimulo de color

colour-matching functions funzioni colorimetriche Spektralwertfunktionen fonctions colorimétriques funciones de igualación del
color
colourfulness predominanza di colore … niveau de coloration colorido
cones coni Zapfen cônes conos

contrast contrasto Kontrast contraste contraste

contrast sensitivity sensibilità al contrasto UnterscheidungsempÞnd- sensibilité au contraste sensibilidad de contrastre

lichkeit

correlated colour temperature temperatura di colore prossi- ähnlichste Farbtemperatur température de couleur temperatura de color correla-
male proximale cionada

dark scuro dunkel sombre oscuro

68
 English Italiano Deutsch Français Español
dark current corrente di buio Dunkelstrohm lumière du jour luz de día

daylight luce diurna Tageslicht lumière du jour luz de dia

diffuser diffusore Diffusor diffuseur difusor

diffusion factor indice di diffusione Streuvermögen facteur de diffusion factor de difusión

diffusion; scattering diffusione Streuung diffusion difusión

dim Þoco dunkel obscur ténue

dispersion dispersione Dispersion dispersion dispersión

equal energy spectrum spettro di uguale energia energiegleiches Spektrum spectre équieenergétique espectro equienergético

excitation eccitazione Anregung excitation excitación

excitation purity purezza di eccitazione spektraler Farbanteil pureté d’excitation pureza de excitación

exposure meter esposimetro Belichtungsmesser posemètre exposímetro

Þlament Þlamento Leuchtdraht Þlament Þlamento

ßash tube lampada lampo a scarico Blitzröhre lampe à éclats lámpara de destello electró-
nica

ßicker sfarfallamento Flimmern papillotement parpadeo

ßuorescence ßuorescenza Fluoreszenz ßuorescence ßuorescencia

ßuorescent lamp lampada ßuorescente Leuchtstofßampe lampe à ßuorescence lámpara ßuorescente

fovea fovea Netzhautgrube fovea fóvea

fusion frequency frequenza critica di sfarfalla- Verschmelzungsfrequenz fréquence de fusion frecuencia de fusión
mento

glare abbagliamento Blendung éblouissement deslumbramiento

gloss lucentezza Glanz brillant; luisance brillo

glossmeter lucentimetro Glanzmesser luisancemètre brillómetro

hue tinta Buntton teinte; tonalité (chromatique) tono

illuminance illuminamento Beleuchtungsstärke éclairement (lumineux) iluminancia

69
 English Italiano Deutsch Français Español
illuminant illuminante Lichtart illuminant iluminante

incandescence incandescenza Glühen incandescence incandescencia

integrating sphere sfera integratrice Ulbrichtsche Kugel sphère intégrante esfera integrante

Lambertian surface superÞcie di Lambert vollkommen matte Fläche surface lambertienne superÞcie lambertiana

lamp lampada Lampe lampe lámpara

light chiaro hell clair claro

(perceived) light luce (wahrgenommenes) Licht lumière (perçue) luz (percibida)

light stimulus stimolo luminoso Lichtreiz stimulus lumineux estímulo luminoso

lighting; illumination illuminazione Beleuchtung éclairage iluminación

lightness chiarore Helligkeit clarté claridad

luminaire apparecchio di illuminazione Leuchte luminaire luminaria

luminance luminanza Leuchtdichte luminance luminancia
luminous colour colore luminoso Lichtfarbe couleur-lumière (perçue) color-autoluminoso (perci-
bido)

luminous efÞciency fattore di visibilità visueller Nutzeffekt efÞcacité lumineuse relative eÞciencia luminosa

luminous intensity intensità luminosa Lichtstärke intensité lumineuse intensidad luminosa

metamers metameri metamere Farbreize métamères estímulos metámeros

mixture of colour stimuli miscela di stimoli di colore Farbmischung mélande de stimulus de cou- mezcla de estímolos de color
leur

neutral step wedge Þltro grigio a gradini GraustufenÞlter Þltre neutre à transmission cuña neutra escalonada
échelonnée

neutral wedge Þltro grigio a cuneo Graukeil coin photométrique cuña neutra

object-colour colore oggetto gebundene Farbe couleur-object color-objeto (percibido)

perfect reßecting diffuser diffusore perfetto per rißes- vollkommen mattweißes diffuseur parfait par réßexion difusor perfecto por reßexión
sione Medium bei Transmission

photometric standard campione fotometrico photometrisches Normal étalon photométrique patrón fotométrico

70
 English Italiano Deutsch Français Español
Planckian locus luogo del corpo nero Planckscher Kurvenzug lieu des corps noirs lugar de los estímulos (de
color) planckianos

purple boundary retta degli stimoli porpora Purpurlinie limite des pourpres límite púrpura

purple stimulus stimolo porpora Purpurfarben stimulus pourpre estímulo (de color) púrpura

radiance radianza Strahldichte luminance énergétique; radiancia

radiance

radiant efÞciency rendimento energetico Strahlungsausbeute rendement énergétique eÞciencia radiante

radiant energy energia raggiante Strahlungsenergie énergie rayonnante (cantitad de) energia radiante

radiation radiazione Strahlung rayonnement; radiation radiación

reference colour stimuli stimoli primari di colore Primärvalenzen stimulus de couleur de réfé- estímulos de referencia
rence
reference illuminant illuminante di riferimento Bezugslichtart illuminant de référence iluminante de referencia

reßectance fattore di rißessione Reßexionsgrad facteur de réßexion reßectancia

reßection rißessione Reßexion réßexion reßexión

reßectivity … Eigenreßexionsgrad réßectivité reßectividad

refractive index indice di rifrazione Brechzahl indice de réfraction indice de refracción

related (perceived) colour colore relativo bezogene Farbe couleur (perçue) non isolée color dependiente (percibido)

responsivity; sensitivity sensibilità EmpÞndlichkeit sensibilité responsividad

retina retina Netzhaut rétine retina

rods bastoncini Stäbchen bâtonnets bastones

saturation saturazione Sättigung saturation saturación

single-coil Þlament Þlamento a spiralizzazione Wendel Þlament à simple boudinage Þlamento en espiral
semplice

skylight luce dal cielo Himmelslicht lumière du ciel luz del cielo

spectral distribution distribuzione spettrale spektrale Verteilung; densité spectrale; concentración espectral
Strahlungsfunktion reepartition spectrale

71
 English Italiano Deutsch Français Español
spectral luminous efÞciency fattore spettrale di visibilità spektraler HellempÞndlich- efÞcacité lumineuse relative eÞciencia luminosa espectral
keitsgrad spectrale relativa

spectral stimulus stimolo monocromatico spektraler Farbreiz stimulus monoschomatique estímulo (de color) espectral

spectrophotometer spettrofotometro Spektralphotometer spectrophotomètre espectrofotómetro

spectroradiometer spettroradiometro Spektralradiometer spectroradiomètre espectroradiómetro

spectrum spettro Spektrum spectre espectro

spectrum locus luogo spettrale Spektralfarbenzug lieu spectral lugar de los estímulos (de
color) espectrales

sunburn eritema solare Sonnenbrand coup de soleil quemadura solar

suntan abbronzatura Sonnenbräunung bronzage bronceado

surface colour colore superÞciale Aufsichtfarbe couleur de surface color-superÞcie (percibido)

threshold soglia Schwelle seuil umbral
transmittance fattore di trasmissione Tranmissionsgrad facteur de transmission transmitancia

transmission trasmissione Transmission transmission transmisión

trichromatic system sistema tricromatico; trichromatisches System système trichromatique sistema tricromático
sistema colorimetrico

tristimulus values componenti tricromatiche Farbwerte composantes trichromatiques valores triestímulos

tungsten halogen lamp lampada ad alogeni Halogen-Glühlampe lampe (à incandescence) à lámpara (incandescente) con
halogènes halógenos
UCS diagram diagramma colorimetrico UCS-Farbtafel diagramme de chromaticité diagrama de cromaticidad
uniforme uniforme uniforme

uniform colour space spazio colorimetrico uni- gleichförmiger Farbenraum espace chromatique uniforme espacio de color uniforme
forme

unique hue tinta unitaria Urfarbe teinte eelémentaire tono unitario

unrelated (perceived) colour colore non relativo unbezogene Farbe couleur (perçue) isolée color-independiente (perci-
bido)

veiling reßections rißessioni di velo Schleierreßexionen réßexions-voile reßejos velantes

72
 English Italiano Deutsch Français Español
visual acuity acuità visiva Sehschärfe acuité visuelle agudenza visual

von Kries’ persistence law legge della persistenza di von Persistenzsatz nach von Kries loi de persistance de von ley de von Kries de persisten-
Kries Kries cia

wavelength lunghezza d’onda Wellenlänge longueur d’onde longitud de onda

working photometric stan- campione fotometrico di photometrisches Arbeitsnor- étalon photométrique de tra- patrón fotométrico de trabajo
dard lavoro mal vail

yellow spot macchia lutea gelber Fleck tache joune mancha amarilla

73
74
 Glossary
AATCC American Association of textile Chemists and Colorists.

Abney’s law An empirical law stating that if two color stimuli, A and B, are
perceived to be of equal brightness and two other color stimuli,
C and D, are perceived to be of equal brightness, then the addi-
tive mixtures of A with C and B with D will also be perceived to
be of equal brightness. The validity of Abney’s law depends
strongly on the observing conditions. [16]

Abney Change of hue produced by decreasing the purity of a color

phenomenon stimulus while keeping its dominant wavelength and luminance
constant. [16]

achromatopsia Loss of all color vision after cortical lesions. Also called mono-
chromatism.

actinism Property of optical radiations which enables them to cause

chemical changes on certain living or non-living materials. [16]

action time Duration of stimulation required to permit any visual sensation,

chromatic or achromatic, to build up to maximum strength. [18]

Adams theory of A theory devised by E.Q. Adams combining the tristimulus

color vision Young-Helmholtz theory and the Hering opponent-colors the-
ory, on the basis of a non-linear assumed photometric response
from each of the three retinal photoreceptors. [34]

adaptation The process by which the state of the visual system is modified
by previous and present exposure to stimuli that may have vari-
ous luminances, spectral distributions and angular subtenses.
[16]

additive color Superposition or other nondestructive combination of light of

mixture different chromaticities. [18]

affective That has to do with feelings rather than intelligence.

affective aspects Capacity of colors to evoke responses, such as liking, disliking,

of color pleasure, displeasure, excitement, depression, or other feelings,
emotions, or moods. [18]

75
after-image Sensation that occurs after the stimulus causing it has ceased.
[18]

angular subtense Angle subtended (by an object) at the first nodal point of the
eye. [4]

aperture Opening through which light passes. [18]

aperture color Perceived color for which there is no definite spatial localization
in depth, such as that perceived as filling a hole in a screen. [16]

appearance The aspect of visual experience by which things are recognized.

[4] → Color appearance.

appearance mode Perceived color may appear in several modes of color appear-
ance. The names for various modes of appearance are intended
to distinguish among qualitative and geometric differences of
color perceptions.
Modes of color appearance include object-color, surface color,
aperture color, film color, volume color, illuminant color, body
color, and Ganzfeld color. Each of these modes of color appear-
ance may be further qualified by adjectives to describe combina-
tions of color or their spatial and temporal relationships. Other
terms that relate to qualitative differences among colors per-
ceived in various modes of color appearance are luminous (per-
ceived) color, non-luminous (perceived) color, related (perceived)
color, and unrelated (perceived) color. [broadly after CIE 845-02-
18]

aspect Element of the collection of attributes and parameters of an

apparent color.

— Face as it is seen. That part of a multi-faceted entity that is being

considered.

association Mental connection established by process of learning. [18]

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials.

attention The allocation of conscious processing resources to the perfor-

mance of some cognitive task. Attention is a constraint that
stems from a system’s having limited conscious processing
resources; typically, therefore, only a few tasks can be attended
to simultaneously. Attention is also a crucial factor in perceptual

76
 processing, determining whether early perceptual information is
retained. [21]

attitude Mental state assumed in order to serve a purpose. [18]

attribute Distinguishing characteristic of a sensation, perception, or mode

of appearance. [18]

— Quality naturally belonging to an entity and particular to this

entity.

autosome A chromosome other than a sex-chromosome.

basic color terms Group of eleven color names found in anthropological surveys
to be in wide use in fully developed languages: white, black,
red, green, yellow, blue, brown, gray, orange, purple, pink. [4]

Bezold-Brücke Change of hue produced by changing the luminance (within the

phenomenon range of → photopic vision) of a color stimulus while keeping its
→ chromaticity constant. Within certain monochromatic stimuli,
hue remains constant over a wide range of luminances (for a
given condition of adaptation). The wavelengths of these stimuli
are sometimes referred to as invariant wavelengths. [16]

binary hue Perceived hue that can be described as a combination of two →

unique hues. For example: orange is a yellowish-red or reddish-
yellow; violet is reddish-blue, etc. [16]

binocular luster Luster, or glossy appearance, resulting from binocular combina-

tion of two very different color combinations. [18]

blackbody → Planckian radiator. [16]

bleeding The unintentional transfer of coloring matter from one medium

to or through another. [4]

blobs Small enclosed areas that are identified in an early stage of

visual image processing. They form part of a primal sketch. [21]

body color Color produced by absorption and scattering of light by colo-

rants within a colored material. [4]

brightness Attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area

appears to emit more or less light. [16]
Levels of brightness range from “bright” to “dim.”

77
brilliance Colloquial term denoting sparkling brightness.

candela (cd) SI unit of → luminous intensity: The candela is the luminous

intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochro-
matic radiation of frequency 540⋅1012 hertz and that has a radi-
ant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. [16]

categorization Classification of information into groups or concepts. Categori-

zation may be viewed as an instance of reasoning by inductive
argument. Traditionally, conceptual categories were regarded as
being sharply defined through a set of necessary and sufficient
conditions for category membership. More recently, it has been
recognized that category boundaries are not always sharp and
that some members of a given category tend to be regarded as
more typical than other members. [21]

cesia Set of visual sensations due to differences in the spatial distribu-

tion of light. [Caivano]

choroid Resilient network of connective tissue within the → sclera.

chroma Chromaticness, → colorfulness, of an area judged as a propor-

tion of the brightness of a similarly illuminated area that
appears white or highly transmitting. For given viewing condi-
tions and at luminance levels within the range of photopic
vision, a color stimulus perceived as a related color, of a given
chromaticity and from a surface having a given luminance fac-
tor, exhibits approximately constant chroma for all levels of illu-
minance except when the brightness is very high. In the same
circumstances, at a given level of illuminance, if the luminance
factor is increased, the chroma usually increases. [16]

Levels of chroma range from “strong” to “weak.”

chromatic → Adaptation by stimuli in which the dominant effect is that of

adaptation different relative spectral distributions. [16]

chromaticity Property of a color stimulus defined by its chromaticity coordi-

nates, or by its dominant or complementary wavelength and
purity taken together. [16]

chromaticity Ratio of each of a set of three tristimulus values to their sum.

coordinates [16]

78
chromaticness → Colorfulness. Formerly it denoted the combined perceptions
of hue and saturation, i.e., the perceptual correlate of chroma-
ticity. [16]

chromatopsia Capacity of color vision.

CIE International Commission on Illumination. Organization

devoted to international cooperation and exchange of informa-
tion among its member countries on all matters relating to the
art and science of lighting.

clarity Characteristic of a transparent body whereby distinct high-con-

trast images or high-contrast objects (separated by some dis-
tance from the body) are observable through the body. [4]

CMC Color Measurement Committee of the Society of Dyers and

Colourists.

cognition Any instance of a mental operation that displays intentionality.

[21]

colorant Dye, pigment, or other agent used to impart a color to a mate-

rial. [4]

color appearance Representation of a color sensation mediated by an internal

color space, and the conditions that parametrize this representa-
tion.

— That aspect of visual perception by which an observer is able to

assign perceptual attributes, such as hue, saturation, and bright-
ness, to a given visual stimulus displayed in the observers field of
view. [Wyszecki, quoted by Sève]

color atlas Collection of color samples arranged and identified according to

specified rules. [16]

— Selected set of color samples, arranged according to their nota-

tions in a particular color order system, and designed to be used
under specified illuminating and viewing conditions. [Robertson
AIC 93]

color constancy The general tendency of the colors of an object to remain con-
stant when the color of the illuminant is changed. [4]

79
— Effect of visual adaptation whereby the appearance of colors
remains approximately constant when the level and color of the
illuminant are changed. [30]

color dynamics A science concerned with the relations between the surface
appearance of environment and environmental elements, and
man living in this environment. It studies the interrelations of
color, man and environment. [50]

colorfulness Attribute of a visual sensation according to which the perceived

color of an area appears to be more or less chromatic. For a color
stimulus of a given → chromaticity and, in the case of related
colors, of a given luminance factor, this attribute usually
increases as the luminance is raised except when the brightness
is very high. [16]

Levels of colorfulness range from “vivid” to “grayish.”

color harmony Intrinsic pleasantness of color combinations. [18]

colorimetry Measurement of colors based on a set of conventions. [16]

color matching Action of making a color stimulus appear the same in color as a
given color stimulus. [16]

color-matching The tristimulus values of monochromatic stimuli of equal radiant

functions power. [16]

color mixture Short term for additive color mixture. [18]

color name Audible or written symbol of a restricted group of color percep-

tions. [18]

color notation The symbols used in a systematic way to designate colors. [4]

color order system A rational method or plan of ordering and specifying all object
colors, or all within a limited domain, by means of a set of mate-
rial standards selected and displayed so as to represent ade-
quately the whole set of object colors under consideration. [4]

color perception Awareness of a color sensation and its categorization mediated

by an internal color space with the possibly ensuing facilitation
of a color name.

80
— The consciousness content arising when the observer is able to
distinguish in the visual field two adjacent parts of equal size,
shape and texture, by means of the difference between the
spectral distributions of the observed radiations. [50]

color, (perceived) Attribute of visual perception consisting of any combination of

chromatic and achromatic content. This attribute can be
described by chromatic color names such as yellow, orange,
brown, red, pink, green, blue, purple, etc., or by achromatic
color names such as white, gray, black, etc., and qualified by
bright, dim, light, dark, etc., or by combinations of such names.

Perceived color depends on the spectral distribution of the color

stimulus, on the size, shape, structure and surround of the stimu-
lus area, on the state of adaptation of the observer’s visual sys-
tem, and on the observer’s experience of the prevailing and
similar situations of observation. [16]

color preference Preference, within a specific application, for one color over
other related colors. Examples include preferred blue for sky or
green for grass in photographic color reproduction, and pre-
ferred white for bond paper. [4]

color, A specification of a color stimulus in terms of operationally

psychophysical defined values, such as three tristimulus values. [16]

color rendering Effect of an → illuminant on the color appearance of objects by

conscious or subconscious comparison with their color appear-
ance under a reference illuminant. [16]

color scale Series of ordered numbers which represents observable grada-

tions of a given attribute or gradations of a combination of
attributes of color perception. [77]

color solid That part of a color space which contains surface colors. [16]

color space Geometric representation of colors in space, usually of three

dimensions. [16]

color specification Notation or set of three color-scale values used to designate a

color in a specified color system. Practical color specifications
may include color tolerances as well as target color designation.
[4]

81
color stimulus Visible radiation entering the eye and producing a sensation of
color, either chromatic or achromatic. [16]

color tolerance The permissible color difference between sample and specified
color. [4]

color-vision theory Attempt to explain color vision in terms of structure and physio-
logical processes in eye and nervous system. [18]

complexion Natural color of the skin.

cones Photoreceptors in the → retina containing light-sensitive pig-

ments capable of initiating the process of photopic vision. [16]

There are three types of cones, and these are maximally respon-
sive to short (S), middle (M), or long (L) wavelengths.

consciousness Being aware. The stage in the cognitive process before an infer-
ence is drawn. Some theorists (the representationalists) consider
that consciousness is constructed from stored knowledge by the
act of paying attention.

— An ability to experience or perceive the environment, or to rep-

resent an actual or possible state of affairs (for example,
through imagination). In general, consciousness is expressible,
either through verbal or nonverbal behavior. Since it may admit
of various degrees, a person (animal, machine) might be aware
of some phenomena but not aware of other phenomena. In tra-
ditional modern philosophy, consciousness has been considered
the fundamental hallmark of any mind. For biological creatures,
the range of possible consciousness appears to be determined by
neurophysiological capacities under the influence of environ-
mental histories. Consciousness should be distinguished from
self-consciousness, which is an awareness of awareness. [21]

conspicuity The characteristics of an object that determine the likelihood

that it will come to the attention of an observer. [4]

contrast 1. In the perceptual sense: Assessment of the difference in

appearance of two or more parts of a field seen simulta-
neously or successively (hence: brightness contrast, lightness
contrast, color contrast, simultaneous contrast, successive
contrast, etc.

82
 2. In the physical sense: Quantity intended to correlate with the
perceived brightness contrast, usually defined by one of a
number of formulæ which involve the luminances of the
stimuli considered, for example: ∆L/L near the luminance
threshold, or L1/L2 for much higher luminances. [16]

correlated color The temperature of the → Planckian radiator whose perceived

temperature (Tcp) color most closely resembles that of a given stimulus at the same
brightness and under specified viewing conditions. Unit: K. [16]

corresponding Pairs of color stimuli that look alike when one is seen in one set
color stimuli of adaptation conditions, and the other is seen in a different set.
[30]

cortex Outer layer of brain.

critical flicker → Fusion frequency. [16]

frequency

dark current (I0) Output current of a photoelectric detector or of its cathode in

the absence of incident radiation. [16]

densitometry The science of measuring the optical densities of photographic

deposits on transparent films or solid reflection prints. [34]

detector Device to convert radiant energy into a neural signal (such as the
eye) or an electrical signal (such as a phototube, photomultiplier
tube, photocell, photodiode, or the like). [4]

diaphanous An objects’s characteristic of being transparent. This percept

requires that the “transparent” object and the object “seen”
through it are perceived as independent objects.

discharge lamp → Lamp in which the light is produced, directly or indirectly, by

an electric discharge through a gas, a metal vapor or a mixture
of several gases and vapors. [16]

discrimination Ability to distinguish.

document Structured organization of information to influence or inform

an audience.

emotional Enthusiastic likes or dislikes for the visual appearance of sur-

responses to color roundings. [18]

83
epistemology The study of the sources, nature, and limits of knowledge, and
related concepts such as justification and belief. [21]

erythema, (actinic) Reddening of the skin, with or without inflammation, caused by

the → actinic effect of solar radiation or artificial optical radia-
tion. Non-actinic erythema can be caused by various chemical or
physical agents. [16]

eye Organ of sight, comprising a part sensitive to light stimuli called

retina, optic media diffracting these stimuli, and ancillary com-
ponents such as muscles, lacrimal gland, and protective tissue.

ocular conjunctiva ora serrata

zonule fibers vitreous body

aqueous humor fovea

lens optic disk (papilla)

iris
optic nerve

cornea
retina

ciliary muscle
sclera

field That portion of the surface of a specimen that is illuminated by

the illuminator or viewed by the receiver. [4]

film mode Mode of appearance of colors, in which no texture or other

attributes except size and shape are recognized. [18]

flicker Impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light

stimulus whose luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates
with time. [16]

fluorescent lamp A discharge lamp of the low pressure mercury type in which
most of the light is emitted by one or several layers of phosphors
excited by the ultraviolet radiation from the discharge. [16]

fovea; fovea Central part of the → retina, thin and depressed, which contains
centralis almost exclusively → cones and forming the site of most distinct

84
 vision. The fovea subtends an angle of about 1.5° in the visual
field. [16]

foveola Central region of the → fovea which contains only → cones. The
fovea subtends an angle of about 1° in the visual field. [16]

functional color Colors or color combinations that promote the functional effi-
ciency of the visual mechanism. [18]

fusion frequency Frequency of alternation of stimuli above which → flicker is not

perceptible. [16]

gamma correction A correction factor applied to linearize the relationship between

screen luminance and electron gun voltage. It is more accurate
to use a model of the cathode ray tube.

gamut, device Set of colors that can be produced on a particular device and
media combination under given conditions. This set is usually
finite.

gamut of colors Total variety of colors that can be produced by any prescribed
method. [18]

gloss The mode of appearance by which reflected highlights of

objects are perceived as superimposed on the surface due to the
directionally selective properties of that surface. [16]

glossiness An attribute of surface mode of visual appearance which is

attributable to gloss and which ranges from “matt” to “glossy.”
[34]

Grassmann’s laws The three empirical laws that describe color-matching properties
of additive mixtures of color stimuli:

1. To specify a color-match, three independent variables are

necessary and sufficient.
2. For an additive mixture of color stimuli, only their tristimulus
values are relevant, not their spectral compositions.
3. In an additive mixture of color stimuli, if one or more compo-
nents of the mixture are gradually changed, the resulting tri-
stimulus values also change gradually.

Grassmann’s laws do not hold for all observing conditions. [16]

85
Helmholtz- Change in brightness of perceived color produced by increasing
Kohlrausch the purity of a color stimulus while keeping its luminance con-
phenomenon stant within the range of photopic vision. For related perceived
colors, a change in lightness can also occur when the purity is
increased while keeping the luminance factor of the color stimu-
lus constant. [16]

Helson-Judd effect Tendency, in colored illumination, for light colors to be tinged

with the hue of the illuminant, and for dark colors to be tinged
with the complementary hue. [30]

Hering theory of An opponent-color theory according to which color is due to

color vision three pairs of antagonistic processes in the optic system yielding
respectively, white and black, yellow and blue, and red and
green. [34]

homunculus Literally “little man,” the idea of a homunculus is presupposed

by theories of mind that tacitly invoke cognitive processes in
order to explain cognitive processes. For example, visual percep-
tion is sometimes thought of as involving the production of pic-
torial images in the mind. But if this were an accurate account,
then the internal pictures would presumably have to be looked
at by some internal agent (homunculus)—yet no such agent is to
be found. Moreover, the homunculus approach threatens to
generate a vicious infinite regress, since the perceptions of a
homunculus would also need to be accounted for (in terms of its
internal homunculus?). On a more subtle level, theories of cog-
nition that posit symbols that are “manipulated according to
rules” must explain how symbolic processing can be done with-
out appealing to a conscious agent that interprets symbols and
consults rules. [21]

hue Attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area

appears to be similar to one of the perceived colors, red, yellow,
green, and blue, or to a combination of two of them. [16]

Hunt-Berns effect Inability of the cognitive factor to decide on a set. Example:

When in an environment with colored illumination the brightest
object is not known a priori to be white, the cognitive part of
chromatic adaptation fails because it is not possible to establish
whether that object is white or has a hue similar to that of the
illuminant. This is especially so, if the observer is knowledgeable
about the Helson-Judd effect.

86
Hunt effect Increase in perceived colorfulness with increasing luminance.
[25]

illuminance (Eν; E) Quotient of the luminous flux dΦ ν incident on an element of

the surface containing the point, by the area d A of that ele-
ment. Unit: lx. [16]

illuminant Radiation with a relative spectral power distribution defined

over the wavelength range that influences object color percep-
tion. [16]

illuminant mode Object mode of appearance by which sources of light are per-
ceived. [18]

illumination mode Located mode of appearance, by which the distribution of light

in space is perceived. [18]

incandescent lamp → Lamp in which light is produced by means of an element

heated to incandescence by the passage of an electric current.
[16]

induction Adaptation caused by local or momentary exposure. [18]

insistence Impressiveness or attention-catching power of a perceived color.

[18]

intensity General term used to designate the magnitude of a variable.

[30]

internal color Memory “palette” from which color categorization proceeds.

space [20]

interval scale → Ordinal scale in which

1. Differences between different magnitudes can indeed be

determined.
2. Numbers can be assigned to these magnitude differences so
that the differences between numbers characterize the sizes
of the corresponding observed magnitude differences of the
attribute.

In an interval scale the numbers are determined to within a lin-

ear transformation with an offset (that is, there is not necessarily
a natural origin). [77]

87
isomers Two or more colors with identical spectral power distributions.
This term was introduced by Ostwald; it is more common to
speak of a spectral match.

lamp Source made in order to produce an optical radiation, usually

visible. [16]

lateral geniculate Relay station in the midbrain where the axons of the retinal
nucleus ganglion cells in the optic nerve terminate and synapse with the
neurons radiating to the striate cortex. It is divided into two
anatomically distinct sections: the parvocellular (PC, dorsal) lay-
ers and the magnocellular (MC, ventral) layers.

lateral geniculate nucleus

lightness (of a The brightness of an area judged relative to the brightness of a

related color) similarly illuminated area that appears to be white or highly
transmitting. Only → related colors exhibit lightness. [16]

Levels of lightness range from “light” to “dark.”

light, (perceived) Universal and essential attribute of all perceptions and sensa-
tions that are peculiar to the visual system. Light is normally, but
not always, perceived as a result of the action of a light stimulus
on the visual system. [16]

light stimulus Visible radiation entering the eye and producing a sensation of
light. [16]

— Light is radiant energy evaluated with respect to its ability to

stimulate the sense of sight of a human observer.

local adaptation Adaptation produced by a stimulus that has been confined to a

specific, more or less sharply defined region of the retina. [18]

88
located modes of Stimulus object appears to be within definite limits of distance
appearance and direction from observer. [18]
dΦ ν
luminance (Lν; L) Quantity defined by the formula L ν = ----------------------------------- , where dΦ ν
d A ⋅ cos θ ⋅ dΩ
is the luminous flux transmitted by an elementary beam passing
through the given point and propagating in the solid angle dΩ
containing the given direction; d A is the area of a section of
that beam containing the given point; θ is the angle between
the normal to that section and the direction of the beam. Unit:
cd⋅m–2. [16]

luminance factor (at a surface element of a non-self-radiating medium, in a given

(βν; β) direction, under specified conditions of illumination)

Ratio of the luminance of the surface element in the given direc-

tion to that of a perfect reflecting or transmitting diffuser iden-
tically illuminated. [16]

luminance Lowest luminance of a stimulus which enables it to be perceived.

threshold The value depends on field size, surround, state of adaptation,
and other viewing conditions. [16]

luminous Ratio of radiant flux weighted according to V(λ) to the corre-

efficiency (V) sponding radiant flux. [16]

luminous intensity Quotient of the luminous flux dΦ ν , leaving the source and prop-
(Iν, I)
agated in the element of solid angle dΩ containing the given
direction, by the element of solid angle.

dΦ ν
I ν = ----------
dΩ
Unit: cd. [16]

luminous Color perceived to belong to an area that appears to be emit-

(perceived) color ting light as a primary light source, or that appears to be specu-
larly reflecting such light. Primary light sources seen in their
natural surroundings normally exhibit the appearance of lumi-
nous colors in this sense. [16]

luster Contrast gloss. Gloss associated with contrasts of bright and less
bright adjacent areas of the surface of an object. Luster
increases with increased ratio between light reflected in the

89
 specular direction and that reflected in the diffuse directions
which are adjacent to the specular direction. [34]

— The appearance characteristic of a surface that reflects more in

some directions than it does in other directions, but not of such
gloss as to form clear mirror images. [4]

— Attribute of mode of appearance. [18]

macula lutea Layer of photostable pigment covering parts of the → retina in

the foveal region. [16]

match Appearance of visual identity. [18]

matching Procedure for establishing visual equivalence. [18]

memory color Color of the light that, according to the judgment of the
observer, would be reflected by any particular object if it were
under the illumination in which that object is customarily seen.
[18]

mesopic vision Vision intermediate between → photopic and → scotopic vision.

In mesopic vision, both the cones and the rods are active. [16]

metamers Spectrally different color stimuli that have the same tristimulus
values. [16]

Müller theory of A theory proposed by G.E. Müller which suggested a three stage
color vision visual response; a photopigment stage, a retinal stage, and an
optic nerve stage. [34]

negative Influence on perception of skepticism concerning the reality of a

suggestion subjective phenomenon. [18]

neuroanatomy Science that treats of the structure of the nervous system.

neuron Nerve cell, consisting of a cell body containing the nucleus, mito-
chondria, and other organelles; an axon, which conveys impulses
from the cell; and the dendrites, which receive impulses from
other cells. Towards its end, the axon usually splits into many

90
 branches that come very close to the dendrites of other neurons;
these regions are called synapses. [29]
dendrites

cell membrane

axon

synapse nucleus

neurophysiology Science that treats of the function of the nervous system.

neutral Hueless, or achromatic, color. [18]

non-luminous Color perceived to belong to an area that appears to be trans-

(perceived) color mitting or diffusely reflecting light as a secondary light source.
Secondary light sources seen in their natural surroundings nor-
mally exhibit the appearance of non-luminous colors in this
sense. [16]

nonobject mode Mode of appearance disassociated from any stimulus object. [18]

nuance A two-dimensional attribute that distinguishes among colors

having the same hue. [4]

object attitude Attitude in which the individual is trying to perceive the object
itself. [18]

object-color Color perceived as belonging to an object. [16]

opacity Attribute of a mode of appearance, expressive of the degree to

which a surface or volume obscures objects or space beyond. [18]

opaque medium Medium which transmits no radiation in the spectral range of

interest. [16]

operational Definition in terms of method of measurement. [18]

definition

optimal colors Object colors having the maximum possible luminance factor for
each chromaticity. [4]

91
ordinal scale One-dimensional → color scale in which the numbers are
assigned to the magnitudes of the attribute, so that the order of
the numbers corresponds to the order of these magnitudes. An
ordinal scale is represented by a monotonic function. [77]

paramers Specimens having different spectrophotometric curves that pro-

duce approximately the same color sensation under the same
illuminating and viewing conditions. [4]

— Spectrally different color stimuli that have nearly the same tris-
timulus values. [30]

pearlescent Adjective to denote the reflecting colors that contain metallic or

other particles which impart reflective properties similar to
those of pearls. [30]

pellucid Very clear.

percept An imagelike entity traditionally thought to be produced in a

perceiver by acts of perception. Percepts are generally assumed
to be available to introspection. [21]

— The result of the process of perception. [4]

— A basis element or dimension in a representation of perceptions.

— An attribute of a visual sensation.

perception The acquiring of information about the external world by means

of the senses. Although some researchers have argued that a
significant amount of information about the environment is
contained immediately in perceptual stimuli, the primary
research paradigm of contemporary cognitive science maintains
that information must be “recovered” or extracted from sensory
stimuli by means of internal processing mechanisms (for the
most part unconscious). [21] → Color perception.

— An element of the content of consciousness elicited by an effect

on a sensory organ, which cannot be further analyzed. [50]

— The combination of different sensations and the utilization of

past experience in recognizing the objects from which the stimu-
lation comes. [34]

92
photopic vision Vision by the normal eye when it is adapted to levels of lumi-
nance of at least several candelas per square meter. The → cones
are the principal active photoreceptors in scotopic vision. [16]

photometry Measurement of quantities referring to radiation as evaluated

according to a given spectral luminous efficiency function, e.g.,
V(λ) or V’(λ). [16]

Planckian radiator Ideal thermal radiator that absorbs completely all incident radia-
tion, whatever the wavelength, the direction of incidence or the
polarization. This radiator has, for any wavelength and any
direction, the maximum spectral concentration of radiance for a
thermal radiator in thermal equilibrium at a given temperature.
[16]

primary light Surface or object emitting light produced by a transformation of

source energy. [16]

priming The activation of an area of memory by the presentation of a

stimulus, thereby making that area more quickly accessible
when subsequent, related stimuli are presented. [21]

product standard Material having a color designated as standard for a specified

product. [4]

pronouncedness Quality or degree of “goodness” of a color perception, such as

the whiteness of a white or the greenness of a green. [18]

psychophysical Specification of stimuli in accordance with equality or difference

measurement of sensations experienced by human observers. [18]

psychophysics Scientific study of the relationships between the physical mea-

surements of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions that
those stimuli evoke. [Fairchild 92]

Purkinje Reduction in the brightness of a predominantly long-wave-

phenomenon length color stimulus relative to that of a predominantly short-
wavelength color stimulus when the luminances are reduced in
the same proportion from photopic to mesopic or scotopic levels
without changing the respective spectral distributions of the
stimuli involved. In passing from photopic to mesopic to scotopic
vision, the spectral luminous efficiencies change, the wave-
length of maximum efficiency being displaced towards the
shorter wavelength. [16]

93
radiant flux Power emitted, transmitted or received in the form of radiation.
[16]

ratio scale → Interval scale with a natural origin; that is, there exists a point
on the scale to which the number zero is assigned when the
magnitude of the attribute is considered.

reception The act of receiving a stimulus.

receptive field The receptive field of a ganglion cell on the retina corresponds
to the area of the visual field that activates the cell. [20]

reference An illuminant with which other illuminants are compared. [16]

illuminant

reflection Process by which radiation is returned by a surface or a medium,

without change of frequency of its monochromatic components.
[16]

related (perceived) Color perceived to belong to an area seen in relation to other

color colors. [16]

representation A symbol or process that stands for something else. A particular

symbol may be arbitrary and need not resemble the thing it
stands for (both of these points are illustrated by the English
word eye and the Japanese word me, which are alternative rep-
resentations of the same thing). An important topic in cognitive
science concerns the way in which mental symbols or processes
come to represent reality. [21]

— The homomorphism or image of a homomorphism from a given

group to a group or other structure having some further mean-
ing or significance.

retina Membrane situated inside the back of the → eye that is sensitive
to light stimuli; it contains photoreceptors, the → cones and the
→ rods, and nerve cells (→ neurons) that transmit to the optic
nerve the signals resulting from stimulation of the photorecep-
tors. [16]

rods Photoreceptors in the retina containing a light-sensitive pig-

ment capable of initiating the process of scotopic vision. [16]

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers.

94
saturation Chromaticness, → colorfulness, of an area judged in proportion
to its brightness. For given viewing conditions and at luminance
levels within the range of photopic vision, a color stimulus of a
given chromaticity exhibits approximately constant saturation
for all luminance levels, except when the brightness is very high.
[16]

sclera White tough outer tunic of the → eye, contiguous with the
transparent corners in the front and contiguous with the sheath
of the optic nerve at the back of the eye.

scotopic vision Vision by the normal eye when it is adapted to levels of lumi-
nance less than some hundreds of candela per square meter. The
→ rods are the principal active photoreceptors in scotopic vision.
[16]

secondary light Surface or object which is not self-emitting but receives light
source and re-directs it, at least in part by reflection or transmission.
[16]

sensation Mode of mental functioning that is directly associated with stim-

ulation of the organism. [18]

— That element of the consciousness concept elicited by effects via

our sensory organs, which cannot be analyzed further. [50]

— Primitive awareness or uninterpreted conscious response to

stimulation of a sense receptor. [34]

set Attitude or intent of an observer that may have appreciable

effect on his perceptions of contrast and adaptation effects. [18]

shade 1. A color produced by a dye or pigment mixture including

black dye or pigment.
2. An expression of color difference from a reference dyeing
such that another dye must be added to produce a match.
3. A color slightly different from a reference color.

“Shade” is the most overworked of the terms used to describe

colors and color differences in terms of colorant technology,
sometimes even being used as a general synonym for “color.” [4]

shape Attribute possessed by all object modes of appearance. [18]

95
sheen The specular gloss at a large angle of incidence for an otherwise
matte specimen. [4]

simultaneous Juxtaposition of different colors. [18]

contrast

spectral (of a radiant, luminous or photon quantity X(λ))

distribution (Xλ)
Quotient of the radiant or luminous or photon quantity dX(λ)
contained in an elementary range dλ of wavelength λ, by that
range. The term distribution refers to the consideration of func-
tion Xλ(λ) over a wide range of wavelengths.

dX ( λ )
X λ = ---------------
dλ

Unit: [X]⋅m–1, e.g., W⋅m–1, etc. [broadly after CIE 845-01-17]

spectral luminous (of a monochromatic radiation of wavelength λ)

efficiency
(V(λ) for photopic Ratio of the radiant flux at wavelength λm to that at wave-
vision; length λ such that both radiations produce equally intense lumi-
V’(λ) for scotopic nous sensations under specified photometric conditions and λm
vision) is chosen so that the maximum value of this ratio is equal to 1.
[16]

spectral stimulus A stimulus consisting of a monochromatic radiation. [16]

standard observer An ideal observer having visual response described by the CIE
color-matching functions. [4]

steradian SI unit of solid angle: Solid angle that, having its vertex at the
center of a sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere
equal to that of a square with sides of length equal to the radius
of the sphere. [16]

Stevens effect Increase in contrast with increasing luminance. [25]

Stiles-Crawford Decrease of the brightness of a light stimulus with increasing

effect eccentricity of the position of entry of the light pencil through
the pupil. If the variation is in hue and saturation instead of in
brightness the effect is called the Stiles-Crawford effect of the
second kind. [16]

96
stimulus External condition capable of eliciting response of a living
organism. [18] → Light stimulus.

stimulus object Object which is intuitively assumed to exist and to be responsible

for a unified experience, consisting of visual and other sensa-
tions and perceptions. [18]

stop Any window or diaphragm that restricts the passage of light rays
in an optical device. [4]

subtractive color Mixture of absorbing media or superposition of filters so that

mixture spectral composition of light passing through the combination is
determined by simultaneous or successive absorption. [34]

surface color Color perceived as belonging to a surface from which the light
appears to be diffusely reflected or radiated. [16]

surface mode of An object mode that has the distinctive attribute of glossiness,
appearance as well as the attribute of less than perfect transparency. [18]

surround Portion of the visual field immediately surrounding the central

field or pattern of interest. [18]

TAPPI Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry.

texture Structural quality of a surface determined by the topography of

its elements. [34]

— The visible surface structure depending on the size and organi-

zation of small constituent parts of a material; typically, the sur-
face structure of a woven fabric. [4]

tint A color produced by the mixture of white pigment or paint with

a chromatic pigment or paint. A tint of a chromatic color is,
therefore, lighter and less saturated than the chromatic color. [4]

transformation Shift of mode of appearance of a color caused by either objec-

tive or subjective factors. [18]

translucent Medium which transmits visible radiation largely by diffuse

medium transmission, so that objects are not seen distinctly through it.
[16]

transparent Medium in which the transmission is mainly regular and which

medium usually has a high regular transmittance in the spectral range of

97
 interest. Objects may be seen distinctly through a medium which
is transparent in the visible region, if the geometric form of the
medium is suitable. [16]

tristimulus values Amounts of the three reference color stimuli, in a given trichro-
matic system, required to match the color of the stimulus consid-
ered. [16]

turbidity Loss of transparency due to diffusion caused by presence of par-

ticulate matter. [34]

uniform color scale → Interval scale of equal spacing. [77]

uniform color Color space in which equal distances are intended to represent
space threshold or suprathreshold perceived color differences of equal
size. [16]

unique hue Perceived hue that cannot be further described by the use of
hue names other than its own. There are four unique hues: red,
green, yellow and blue. [16]

— Unique yellow occurs at about 580 nm, unique green at about

500 nm, and unique blue at about 475 nm. [Boynton p. 210]

unrelated Color perceived to belong to an area seen in isolation from

(perceived) color other colors. [16]

UV quencing

vignetting Loss of light rays at stops of an optical instrument, other than

the aperture stop. [4]

viewing conditions The conditions under which a visual observation is made, includ-
ing the angular subtense of the specimen at the eye, the geo-
metric relationship of source, specimen, and eye, the
photometric and spectral character of the field of view sur-
rounding the specimen, and the state of adaptation of the eye.
[4]

volume color Perception of color in the volume mode of appearance. [18]

volume mode An object mode of appearance which has the attribute of trans-
parency. [18]

98
von Kries Algebraic transformation whereby changes in → adaptation are
transformation represented as adjustments of the sensitivities of the three cone
systems such as to compensate fully for changes in the color of
illuminants. [30]

Weber’s fraction The constant in Weber’s law.

Weber’s law The change in stimulus intensity that can just be discriminated
(∆φ) is a constant fraction (c) of the starting intensity of the stim-
ulus (φ):
∆φ = cφ or δφ/φ = c.

white Lightest color of a surface. [20]

window Daylight opening on a vertical or nearly vertical area of a room

envelope. [16]

yellow spot Macula lutea.

Young-Helmholtz There must be three different kinds of retinal receptors, each

theory differently sensitive to different parts of the spectrum, and all
colors must be perceived as the result of blends of differing
degrees and proportions of the responses of these receptors.
[18]

99
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