Designing a Research Project

Preface

Many manuals have been written on the topic of research methods and all are available to
the reader when carrying out a research project. However, there is much less material
available on the problems that the researcher encounters when involved in the upstream
process of designing a research project. This book was born from the idea that people often
face many problems during this initial stage of a research project. Our goal is to help the
reader design a research project suitable for success.

The guidelines and methods presented to design a research project have been developed
from a clear vision of the research. A current view on research can be described as linear-
serial. In this view, the various components of a research project are treated consecutively
in a methodical manner. In con-

Instead, this perspective is an iterative-parallel approach. Here a research project is seen

more as a process during which several components are carried out at the same time. The
researcher is continually returning to earlier decisions and findings to determine the extent
to which it is desirable or necessary to adjust them on the basis of later decisions and
findings. We wrote this book from an iterative-parallel perspective. This book draws
largely on ideas that have been developed over the years within the scope of a course on
'research design', attended by students from a wide range of disciplines. This diversity of
participants forced us to develop general methodological guidelines that are not restricted to
certain disciplines. We would like to thank these students for sharing their experiences with
us.

Notes to the second revised edition

Although the first edition of this book was well received and appeared to meet the demands
and desires of educational programs, we have decided to introduce in this second edition
several important adjustments, moderations and additional sections. We have extended the
presentation of the intervention cycle, and the elaboration of the set of practice-oriented
types of research that are based on the different phases of the intervention cycle (see
Chapter 2). In addition, we specify the technique of unraveling key concepts. We updated
the numerous examples in our book and added many more examples to present the reader
with a wide variety of examples from many different social sciences. We also added an
extensive series of tasks throughout the book, offering readers multiple opportunities to test
their knowledge and practice their skills in designing a research project.

In the Appendix, we add an in-depth discussion of the conceptual (causal) models. We

present a step-by-step plan with many examples, which will help the reader master the
difficult but very important topic of developing and applying these models.

Piet Verschuren

Hans Doorewaard Nijmegen, April 2010

Introduction

The objective of this book

For many researchers, the initial stage of a research project often proves to be the most
difficult. This is true both for those whose job it is to carry out research projects, as well as
for bachelor's and master's students who are beginning to write their assignments for their
finals, and PhD candidates who are about to embark on their research projects. dissertation.
Experienced researchers are aware of the problems in formulating an exact definition for
the problem to be solved, or in dealing with the specific way in which the project party
exactly conceives the assignment. Students or PhD candidates face similar problems and
very often do not have a well-defined idea of what the project entails and what is expected
of them. These startup problems can cause great uncertainty, both for those carrying out the
project and for supervisors. As a consequence, this can be detrimental to the quality of the
project. Furthermore, such a poor start does not contribute to the pleasure found in carrying
out the work. Therefore, it is important to be as well prepared as possible when embarking
on a research project.

In addition to this general background, there are two specific reasons for training in
research design. The first reason concerns contract researchers who are commissioned by
an external director. We call this research-oriented practice. One of the most common
deficiencies of these researchers is that they got to work on the research project too quickly.
The research project is often launched before all parties have gained a clear idea of what
problem needs to be addressed and what exactly the problem is. This often causes friction
between the client and the researcher and, in retrospect, the results of these research
projects will generally be of little value. The second reason applies to students beginning
their final research project. As soon as a place to do practical training has been found and
the topic of the research has been more or less established, they tend to dive headlong into a
literature search. However, because they forget about a set of well-defined research
questions, they start reading everything about the topic. Much of this will seem unnecessary
or of little relevance once the research questions are well formulated. So they waste time
compared to those who start by formulating a research design.

The root of the problem is that most of the methodological literature, implicitly or
explicitly, focuses on how to carry out a research project. Much attention is paid to the
collection, and in particular the analysis of research material. Very often one neglects the
stage that precedes actual performance. This stage concerns the design of the research
project. The goal of this book is to close this gap.

The objective and the target group

The aim of this book is to instruct novice researchers, both graduates, PhD candidates and
more experienced contract research researchers, on how to establish an appropriate research
design in general. We provide them with a method that can be used to design a research
project. By following and studying this method, and carrying out the accompanying tasks,
the reader can practice this planned approach. Our method can be applied to any type of
research in the social, policy and management sciences, regardless of the precise content
and research strategy chosen.

This book covers many different aspects involved in designing a research project, such as:
defining the context of the project, outlining the research project to manageable
proportions, defining a realistic research objective, formulating a set of research questions
that are sufficiently oriented, give a clear idea of the definition of key concepts and
operationalization of these concepts in dimensions and aspects, selection of the necessary
research material and research strategy, as well as the development of a project plan. In the
Appendix, we pay attention to the design of a conceptual model.

The target group for this book includes students and PhDs in arts and humanities: social
studies, public administration, human geography and spatial planning, social sciences and
environmental policy, communication studies, organizational studies and business
administration, to mention only the more important. Most of the examples in this book
come from these disciplines.

Furthermore, we explicitly address supervisors of students and PhD candidates. Many

teachers in academic and vocational education are familiar with the problems associated
with monitoring projects. The most common problems are the continuous preparation time
and the duration of the final project. Another problem is inconsistent or ill-founded
statements found in the documents produced. In many cases, students are able to write short
articles, but as soon as a longer document, such as a thesis, is required, they have trouble
following the plan and arriving at an intelligible argument. To some extent, this is caused
by the absence of a detailed research design. Such a design can make clear in advance what
the research project is to produce and what is necessary to achieve it. Dissertation project
supervisors are also familiar with these issues. A dissertation project usually begins with a
research proposal based on the research funds that have been awarded. In most cases, these
research proposals cannot be compared with what is defined in this book as research
design. In order to acquire a grant, proposals often tend to focus on the scientific merits and
complexity of the proposed project. However, a research design with a set of sufficiently
guiding research questions must be established using completely different elements. What
is required here is not so much the scope of the project, but how to arrive at the required
degree of practicality and delineation. The consequences of not paying sufficient attention
to these issues are an excessively long preparation time and a literature survey that can take
up to eighteen months, including the risk of doctoral candidates prematurely abandoning
their project. Therefore, in this book the reader will find many guidelines and ways of
reasoning that are useful for supervisors and assistant supervisors so that they can help
speed up the initiation stage and shorten the time span of the total research project, not to
mention The improves the quality of research results as they help design effective research
before the project begins.

A third target group consists of professionals whose job it is to commission a research

project and/or deal with the results of scientific research, such as policy advisors in
government organizations and personnel managers in for-profit organizations who wish to
make use of the results obtained appropriately. A complaint often heard is that the results
presented and recommendations made are not specific enough to support the required
improvements. A major cause of this problem is the lack of fit between the actual problems
in the tasking organization and the paraphrasing of these problems in the research objective
and set of research questions. In Part I of this book, which deals with the conceptual design
of a research project, we focus specifically on the fit between the real problems of the
organization and the formulation of the research objective, the set of research questions and
the model. conceptual. The theoretical insights and training assignments offered in Part I
will help professionals in the commissioning organization ensure that the results of the
proposed research contribute to the improvement required for the organization's policies to
be successful.

Finally, a word of warning is appropriate here. The application of the detailed design
methodology offered in this book allows the development of a well-structured and
directional research design. One can compare the results of our methodology with the
design and specifications made by an architect. Generally, the architect's design and
specifications form the beginning of a successful construction process. The same applies to
the designer who uses the design methodology offered in this book to successfully initiate
the research project. However, the reader is advised to delve deeper into the existing
literature on data collection, data analysis, and the research strategy the researcher plans to
use, before undertaking these activities. He or she should do this because in Part II of this
book, in which we discuss various research strategies and data collection and data
collection methods, we especially focus on the part of research methodology that is needed
when designing a research project, than in the execution of the research.

How to read this book

This book does not require specific prior methodological knowledge. The constructive line
of reasoning, the numerous well-crafted instructions and heuristics on how to obtain results,
the abundance of examples and a set of tasks make it suitable for self-study. As a result, the
reader is unlikely to have problems perusing the text. Designing a research project from the
beginning is quite difficult. That's why the step-by-step instructions and plans presented in
this book have been kept simple.

Another word of caution is also appropriate here. The simplicity of the book may lead to an
underestimation of the difficulties encountered when designing a research project. This will
change, however, as soon as the reader applies what he has learned to the practice of his
own research. It will then become clear that the various steps in the design process are more
difficult than they first appeared. The design process is even more complicated because,
apart from the necessary knowledge and skills, the designer needs creativity and
imagination.

The best thing to do is apply the methodology in this book to a real research project.
Therefore, after completing each chapter, the reader is encouraged to apply the suggestions
and tasks to his or her own research project. We strongly support teamwork in this regard.
The design process works best with the support of a colleague who is involved in the same
process. Teamwork encourages the use of creativity and imagination. It also offers
opportunities for critical reflection and discussions about weaknesses, inconsistencies and
gaps during "work in progress."
In addition to self-study, the book can primarily be used in training courses in which
participants in working groups discuss and practice the various elements of creating a
research project. Today, master's students, bachelor's students and, increasingly, doctoral
students have the opportunity to pursue these courses at various universities and research
institutes.

To facilitate this type of use, each chapter ends with a step-by-step approach that allows the
researcher to carry out the relevant stage of their research project. Please note the
following. If the researcher simply applies the step-by-step plans presented after each
chapter to his or her research project, he or she risks losing the benefits of an iterative
design strategy suggested in this book (see Chapter 1). Simply put, the iterative design
strategy suggests that the designer continually switches between the various parts that make
up the design process. That is why we suggest that the researcher acquire the skills to
design a research project in two separate phases. First, you should familiarize yourself with
the different methods and heuristics of each individual stage in the design process by
studying the contents of each of the following chapters of this book. Once the reader has
become familiar with the various techniques and acquired the necessary skills, he or she
can apply the methodology to a real-life project. Only then can the research project best
benefit from the iterative design strategy. Additionally, the book can be used as an easy
reference manual for anyone who is about to carry out contract research or is undertaking
an activity comparable to research, such as writing reports and documents, writing articles
and short-term configuration. applied research projects. In the past, it has proven to be quite
practical when you have the opportunity to re-read the basics of research design during a
research project.

Again, there is a danger that, as a consequence of the step-by-step plans, the reader will
slavishly apply these steps, without critical reflection. This will reduce the learning effect
and increase the risk of developing a low-quality research project. Research is often too
complex and too multiform to be designed completely according to a set of previously
established rules. The step-by-step plans presented in this book are intended to serve as
general guidelines to support the design process. They should be used as initial steps that
help the reader structure their ideas. We strongly suggest that readers maintain a critical
attitude during each step of our methodology. You can never design a research project on
autopilot, without critical thinking.

Structure

Chapter 1 explains the logic behind the project design and the structure of this book as a
whole, by illustrating this with an authentic case. Chapters 2 to 8 and the Appendix explain
and elaborate the various elements of the design. For each individual chapter, the text has
been structured as follows. The beginning of each chapter gives an example of an everyday
situation that demonstrates the point we want to make that is based on a specific problem.
We then go into more detail about the methods, procedures, methodologies and guidelines
you can use when carrying out this particular stage of the research design. All of this leads
to a step-by-step approach. At the end of each chapter, the step-by-step approach is applied
to the authentic case presented at the beginning of the chapter.
1 Design project

Designing can be compared to making a painting. When you engage in this activity, you
continually work on all areas of the canvas. The shapes and colors of one section inspire
the shapes and colors of another. From time to time you take a step back, eyes half closed,
to see and reflect on the quality and harmony of the whole.

1.1 Introduction

Designing and carrying out a research project is a complex activity. The researcher is
bombarded by a series of new impressions. Furthermore, the various parties involved in the
process make different and often contradictory demands on it. In such a situation, many
readers will find it difficult to develop a goal-oriented mode of action, in which it is clear to
you and the other parties what is going to happen. The following example describes such a
situation.

Example 'A problem with logistics'

An organizational studies student has been assigned a project for his master's thesis on a
department store chain. After a quick tour of one of the company's department stores and
after consulting with his supervisor, the student immerses himself in the logistics literature
and compiles a list of potential logistics-related problems. He presents this list to various
employees within the company. However, it soon appears that problems with logistics are
not the real problem. What is more important are the different points of view held by the
company's employees regarding what has caused these problems. For now, the student has
been working on his final project for more than a month. You realize you better hurry up
with the people you still need to interview about their views on this particular logistics
problem. But who should you approach for these interviews? And what exactly should I
ask? Should I delve into the issues revolving around logistics or not? And what is really
part of the company's logistics and what is not? Plus, it's July now and a lot of people are
on vacation. You feel pressured and decide to conduct several interviews with some
executives, but you don't get much information. "When will the report be finished?" his
supervisor urges. The student quickly puts together some interview reports, but it soon
becomes quite clear that this is not going to pass as a thesis. What should the thesis
contain? How can theoretical depth be realized in the subject? Overall, the project doesn't
look very promising.

The student in this example lacks information about the various steps involved in preparing
a research project. To him, it is simply a jumble of activities that lack a well thought out
and planned approach.

This first chapter presents an overview of the various aspects involved in the research,
which will be developed later in this book. Section 1.2 provides a survey of the research
design and a summary of its various aspects. This section shows how you should structure
your design activities. Section 1.3 outlines the process in which the research design can be
developed.

1.2 Project design - in a nutshell

The research design involves two separate sets of activities. The first involves determining
everything you want to achieve through the research project.This has to do with modeling
the content of the research; We call this the conceptual design of a research project. The
second set of activities concerns how to do all of this during the project implementation
stage. This is called technical research design.

Conceptual design is the topic of Part I of this book. It determines what, why and how
much we are going to study, and consists of four elements.First , the objective of the
research project is formulated, that is, the objective of the research. It is about the
contribution that the researcher wants to make to solve a problem outside of the research
itself.That is why the research objective is also called the external research objective, the
project objective.

The objective of research, in other words, refers to the use of the knowledge that the
research produces , not the knowledge itself . Second, this research objective must be
derived and integrated into what we will refer to as the project context . The draft research
structure is then developed into a research framework. A research framework consists of a
schematic representation of the most important research phases. Subsequently, the
researcher must determine what information can contribute to achieving the selected
research objective. We are now in the stage of formulating the set of research questions.
This set consists of a series of main questions and sub-questions that must be answered
during the different phases of the research project. The answers to the research questions
provide the exact knowledge required to achieve the research objective. This refers to the
so-called internal research objective, the objective within the research project. An important
part of formulating research questions is determining what theoretical framework will be
used to study the research object. In this book we call this theoretical framework the
"research perspective." Sometimes the theoretical framework consists of a ready-made
theory that the researcher has found by studying the relevant literature. But more often than
not, the researcher will have to derive a theoretical framework from different theories that
must be adjusted to fit the research project. Such a theoretical framework often takes the
form of a so-called conceptual model. The conceptual model is the theoretical framework
of the research project, and consists of a set of assumed relationships between the central
concepts of this project . In the Appendix of this book we present detailed instructions on
how to develop such a conceptual model. The final part of the conceptual design refers to a
set of activities in which the basic concepts of the research objective, the research questions
and the conceptual model are defined, refined and specified. It is particularly important that
abstractly defined core concepts are translated into observable phenomena , i.e. indicators.
This process is called defining and operationalizing key concepts. This process helps the
researcher to delimit his research object.

The second set of core activities in designing a research project refers to technical research
design, or simply technical design . Technical design is the subject of Part II of this book.
Broadly speaking, technical design consists of decisions about how, where, and when we
will do our research to answer the research questions. A first step to take is the selection of
the research strategy. The main questions that need to be answered are: Is the researcher
looking for breadth or depth, will he or she follow a quantitative or qualitative approach,
first-hand observation or analysis of information or data produced by others? Once the
researcher has decided on a research strategy, he or she must choose a set of activities that
establishes the type of research material needed to answer the research questions: where is
this research material located or how can it be produced? We call this carefully deliberate
set of decisions the research material generation plan, also known in quantitative research
as the data collection process. The third and final category of activities and decisions that
are needed in the framework of making a technical design refers to a clear and consistent
research plan. Figure 1.1 summarizes this.

Figure 1.1 General image of the research design

Conceptual design

Research objective
Conceptual design
Research question
Conceptual model

Definitions and operationalization

Research design
Research strategy

Technical design Research material

Research planning

Research objective

At the beginning of a research project there is a set of problems, the project context . As a
general rule, this context is too large and too complex to be treated exhaustively in a single
research project. Therefore, the first step in developing a conceptual design is demarcation .
The research designer needs to isolate an area of the project context that is manageable for
the purposes of a research project. The result is a well-defined and not overly extensive part
of a problem, to which research can possibly make a significant contribution. When this
part of the project context is formulated as an external objective, the solution of a practical
problem, that is, an organizational or policy problem, we call the result of this delineation
the research objective.

Example 'A problem with logistics'

Context or context of the project

A department store chain is having problems with its supply of goods. This problem is
multifaceted: logistics management, transportation management, agreements with suppliers,
ease of customer service, etc. Despite recent attempts to reorganize the logistics system, no
improvements have been made. It is not entirely clear where the logistical problems come
from. Some people in the organization blame the organizational structure. Others point to
the lack of commercial orientation of the organizational culture. Some people claim that the
central problem has to do with employees' resistance to changing the way they work. The
Head of the Logistics and Distribution Department commissions a consulting agency to
carry out a research project that must provide a clear view of the background of logistics
problems.

Research objective

The objective of the research is to offer the Head of Department logistics and distribution
recommendations on how to improve logistics policy, making an inventory of the opinions
held within the organization (general administration, logistics and distribution of personnel,
transporters, local management offices ) about the background of the problems with
logistics and the suggested solutions for these problems.

In our experience, this process of demarcating and defining a realistic and feasible research
objective is an extremely difficult hurdle for most beginning researchers. However, the
formulation of such a research objective is a very important condition for designing a
successful research project. In Chapter 2 we will elaborate more on how to formulate a
research objective.

Research Framework

Before formulating your research questions, you should begin by broadly outlining how
you intend to accomplish this research objective. Writing an organized research framework
will be helpful . The research framework is a highly visualized, schematic representation of
the steps that must be followed to achieve the research objective. Such a representation will
prove to be an extremely useful tool for controlling the project. Chapter 3 will develop the
research framework.

Example 'A problem with logistics'

The reasoning why he hopes to achieve his objective in this project is as follows. An
analysis of the organizational literature on logistics, as well as the literature on
organizational structure, organizational culture, organizational change, plus preliminary
research, will give you a theoretical framework. In this and many other cases, this
framework takes the form of a conceptual model, which consists of a set of factors that
influence the effectiveness of logistics. With the help of this conceptual model, you can
map and compare the opinions that different parts of the organization have about logistics
problems and solutions. Figure 1.2 provides a visual representation of the above.
Figure 1.2. Research framework to investigate the problem with logistics

Research questions and theoretical framework

Next, the designer should formulate the research questions that must be answered during
the course of the research project. These questions have been selected and formulated in
such a way that the answers will provide information that is useful or necessary to achieve
the objective of the research. Chapter 4 elaborates in more detail on the method of how to
compose this set of research questions. In the process, he or she will subsequently develop
the theoretical framework for the research, primarily by studying the relevant scientific
literature. An example of this theoretical framework, in the form of a conceptual model, can
be found in the Appendix. As soon as the reader has been able to develop a set of research
questions and has arrived at a theoretical framework that meets the requirements, further
elaboration of the concrete research steps, i.e. the technical design, should not pose a
problem. The research designer may even consider using the following as a final criterion
for the quality of the set of research questions. If the researcher experiences any problems
when designing the technical part of the research or has to reconsider the choices made
regarding the technical design, then the cause of these problems is likely to do with having
an inappropriate set of research questions. . In that case, the designer should refer back to
the instructions we have presented in this book to formulate an appropriate research
objective and set of research questions. The reader will probably notice that the research
objective and research questions need to be adjusted.
Example 'A problem with logistics'

The central questions of this research are:

1. What conceptual model (consisting of key concepts and assumed relationships between
these concepts), derived from the literature and preliminary research, will be relevant in
enumerating the opinions held by organizational stakeholders about problems with logistics
and solutions to these problems? (= the theoretical perspective).
2. What are the views of the different parties on the basic concepts and the assumed
relationships between these concepts, when applied to their own organization?
3 What are the main similarities and differences of opinion that different parties in the
department store chain have about the various problems with the flows of goods and the
best way to solve these problems?
Figure 1.3 represents the theoretical framework of this research project. In this case, as in
many other cases, the theoretical framework consists of a conceptual model, that is, the key
concepts and the assumed relationships between these concepts.
Figure 1.3 Conceptual framework 'A problem with logistics'

Organizational structure:
• Hierarchy
• Labor harmonization
Organizational culture:
• Rituals Logistics management
• Implicit rules effectiveness

Organizational change
• Acceptance change
• Willingness to change

The conceptual model says the following: based on a literature search and preliminary
research, the researcher has chosen to study the influences of organizational structure
(hierarchy and work harmonization), organizational culture (rituals and implicit rules) and
organizational change (acceptance of the change) and willingness to change) in the
effectiveness of logistics management.

Definition and implementation

By defining the research objective and the set of research questions for a project, one or
more concepts emerge that then take center stage in the research. How you define these
concepts determines what will be done in the rest of the project. So, we must describe the
content of the key concepts in an exact definition. This means not only presenting an
accurate description of these concepts, but also providing a clear demarcation of what
components and dimensions are included in this definition and what components and
dimensions are omitted. The researcher's decisions are part of the operationalization
process. In short, by defining and operationalizing key concepts, we can further delineate
the research project and thus give more clarity about where to look in the library and in the
empirical field . These topics are detailed in Chapter 5.

Example 'A problem with logistics'

A key concept in this project is "logistics management".

Definition

For the purposes of this project, we will refer to 'logistics management' as the set of
decisions regarding processes, products, partners and costs that influence both the flows of
goods between suppliers and the company's individual department stores. on the one hand,
and the way in which these flows affect each other. This ignores the flows of goods
between department stores. It will be clear that the researcher involves an important
delineation of the project. This is precisely what is needed at this stage of the design
process.

Now that the conceptual design of the research project has been completed, we can begin to
focus on the technical part of the design. As we mentioned earlier, the technical design
consists of the decisions to be made regarding the research strategy, research material
(data), and research planning . More on this is presented below.

Research strategy

A subsequent decision concerns the way in which we plan to approach the object of
research. We can choose a strategy that allows us to make valid observations. In this case, it
is logical that we opt for extensive research in which we strive for breadth rather than
depth. The large amount of data this requires generally requires quantitative data
processing. We call this type of research a quantitative survey. We may also be more
interested in doing a thorough examination of a complex case. Then one can opt for a
strategy known as a case study . Here research is generally approached in several ways and
qualitatively.

You opt for a case study, partly because you prefer qualitative research and partly because
you would like to conduct an in-depth study. The price you pay for depth is that it is
impossible to generalize the results. Using various methods, such as interviews and
observations of production processes, as well as the study of documents, you can try to
obtain as deep an insight as possible into the problem at hand, taking into account all its
aspects.

Research material

A next phase in the design process is the plan to gather the research material. A first step in
this plan is to define the research population. The research population is the real segment of
reality that the researcher wishes to study. Once he or she has defined the research
population, the researcher can select resources that will provide information about this
population. Research resources can be people, objects, situations, media and documents .
The last step is to decide how to obtain the required information from these resources.
Some of the most well-known collection techniques are questionnaires, interviews,
observation and content analysis of written and audiovisual documents and multimedia
content. More information about the research material can be found in Chapter 7.

Example 'A problem with logistics'

As part of the 'logistics' research project, you have decided to gather the views of the four
stakeholder groups using a combination of a semi-structured questionnaire and in-depth
interviews. You decide to approach five members of each stakeholder group to obtain
information.

Research plan

One of the remaining design activities to carry out is to develop a plan. This refers to both
the processing of the research project and the writing of the research report. Regarding the
process of carrying out the research project, it is not only advisable to draw up a schedule
with deadlines for various 'products'. It is also important to specify in advance what
activities should lead to these 'products'. To analyze the data and report the results, it is very
valuable to have a mental image of the final report in the form of a table of contents. More
details on this follow in Chapter 8, which deals with research planning.

Example 'A problem with logistics'

The project assignment will take approximately six months or twenty-five work weeks.
Three of these weeks have already been dedicated to the development of a conceptual
design. The activities that will be carried out within the framework of the task consist of
conducting interviews and conducting observations. You decide on a total of twenty
interviews and allocate three weeks of your time to this. This decision has been based on
the rule of thumb that it takes 8 hours to deal with each individual interview, in total. This
includes formulating the interview questions, making appointments with respondents, travel
time, the actual interview, analysis of the interview, and selecting the information needed to
answer the research questions. You have estimated that these activities will take a month
and a half in total to complete. Additionally, he intends to spend five full days making
observations. You assign another fourteen days to systematize and record the impressions
you have obtained. To optimize the link between interviews and observations, plan these
days in the same six-week period as the interview sessions. Additionally, allocate five
weeks to analyze all the material and write the draft. Finally, you have another six weeks to
relate your findings to the theoretical framework and process all this into a final report in
the form of a thesis.

1.3 Design iteratively

The reader has just received a brief summary of what the outcome of his or her design
activities should look like, from our perspective. This result can be seen as the product of
the research design. The next question is how to achieve this design product. Here we focus
on research design as a process. This is the topic of Section 1.3.
We may have given the reader the impression that designing a research project is a linear
and consecutive process. It may seem as if the context of the project, from which a research
objective has been derived and a research framework created, must be mapped out first.
Only then will the research objective be translated into a set of research questions and, if
appropriate, a conceptual model. Subsequently, in this linear approach, the necessary
material and a research strategy are selected . In this misconception of the process, all
decisions are subject to a meticulous plan.

By viewing design as a product, the steps described above can logically follow from each
other. For example, in the final design, the research questions should be logically derived
from the research objective, as the answers to these questions should provide sufficient
information to achieve the research objective.Likewise, the technical design must provide a
logical translation of the problem into a series of research steps, because carrying out the
planned research project must provide the answers to the research questions. However,
although this linearity is inevitably part of the design as a product, this is not the way the
design will be established. Designing is a process. In other words: what has been presented
is a logical sequence, not a time sequence. The process of designing a research project is
much messier than the reader may think. For example, at the beginning of the research
project design, the researcher may have planned to conduct interviews. In the past, the
researcher had been trained to do this and it seemed interesting for him to try this
technique.

The design approach we support is an iterative process. The notion of iteration is derived
from mathematics, where iteration means that the result of one calculation is taken as the
input for a second set of calculations. This process should continue until the final
calculation no longer results in recognizable changes to the calculation results. In that case,
the calculations converge. In everyday language, we would say that the design has
completely crystallized. In design terms, iteration means that the designer must constantly
switch from one part of the design to another. Each time, he or she reconsiders the
consequences that the provisional decision with respect to one part will have on each of the
other parts of the design. That is, both the parts that are yet to be followed and the parts that
have already been designed must be adapted if necessary. This process stops as soon as an
adjustment has no recognizable consequences for any of the other parts of the design.

The design approach we support is an iterative process. The notion of iteration is derived
from mathematics, where iteration means that the result of one calculation is taken as the
input for a second set of calculations. This process should continue until the final
calculation no longer results in recognizable changes to the calculation results. In that case,
the calculations converge. In everyday language, we would say that the design has
completely crystallized. In design terms, iteration means that the designer must constantly
switch from one part of the design to another. Each time, he or she reconsiders the
consequences that the provisional decision with respect to one part will have on each of the
other parts of the design. That is, both the parts that are yet to be followed and the parts that
have already been designed must be adapted if necessary. This process stops as soon as an
adjustment has no recognizable consequences for any of the other parts of the design.
Such an iterative design approach has a number of consequences for the design of a
research project. The reader should understand that making a final decision in the area of
technical design depends on a number of other decisions that have been made in the area of
conceptual design. For example, the decision to use interviews as a data collection method
may be an appropriate starting point for the design process. If the researcher is attracted to
this method of data collection, it will motivate him to take on the heavy workload that a
research project inevitably entails . Of course, the decision to opt for interviews has
consequences for subsequent decisions that will be made regarding the other parts of the
conceptual and technical design. For example, the researcher may need to reconsider the
various ideas and insights about companies that his or her interviews have produced or will
produce (the set of research questions). Or you may even decide to go back to an earlier
stage and consider other types of management problems that organizations are currently
dealing with (the project context). So it is generally not that difficult to develop a
conceptual design and a technical research design, in which interviews have a significant
place in the whole. In summary, in this conception of research design there are continuous
movements back and forth between the various stages of the design.

Not only will you need this rocking motion if you want to fit your own preferences and
interests; It will also be necessary because design is a very complex activity. The
possibilities that a designer can choose with respect to each part of the design and the
consequences of each decision made for the rest of the process are numerous and complex.
No one can realize this at the beginning of the process.

A third reason to opt for an iterative design approach is the fact that design needs
imagination and creativity. Usually, when reflecting on a certain aspect of the design, the
designer is inspired by many new ideas about the previous stages and also the later stages.
For example, in the course of writing a technical design, it may seem important to learn
how respondents evaluate a certain phenomenon, while the research objective and set of
research questions until now only allowed their perception. In the former case, the
researcher is looking for values, in the latter case, in facts. To include this new perspective,
he or she will have to adapt the set of research questions he or she formulated earlier. The
new set of research questions will include a question or series of questions regarding
respondents' assessment or evaluation of certain problems. This modification is likely to
cause adjustments to other design elements, and so on.

This iterative approach also supports design efficiency. As readers have already learned,
technical design servers answer the set of research questions. This response in turn serves
to support the achievement of the research objective. In other words, there is an
instrumental chain at work that is as strong as the weakest link. At each stage of design,
several pragmatic decisions need to be made. The right initial set of research questions may
require data that first seem difficult to gather. It may take a long time before the researcher
has it available, it may not be possible to obtain the correct data, or there may be those who
do not wish to be interviewed. Sometimes the research designer can avoid such problems
by making small adjustments to the set of research questions. But once you have done so, it
may be necessary to return to the objective of the research . If necessary, the designer can
change the objective such that the "new" set of research questions can be logically derived.
This discussion of the iterative nature of the design operation has led us to an important
conclusion. We have seen that constructing a nature research design involves trial and
error, deciding and reflecting, writing and revising. Therefore, it can be concluded that
designing iteratively is only possible on paper. Simply thinking things through makes it
difficult for the researcher to juxtapose things and adjust them methodically. As you do so,
you will soon find yourself in an almost inextricable knot of thoughts. In short, iterative
design means that, when writing, you are continually aware that whatever you are writing at
this stage will need revision at a later time. Drafting and visualization , for example
drawing diagrams, are not products but vehicles for implementing a creative thinking
process. This can also be an important but very difficult learning moment for the beginning
researcher.

Many of them are inclined to think of realignment and reframing as an indication of

inability and failure. However, one needs to develop an attitude in which such a process is
considered as a completely normal procedure. Such an attitude may even lead to the
decision to include the research design process in a final research report. The reader may be
surprised to learn that some of the crucial decisions made during a research project have
resulted from an iterative design approach. Particularly in cases where the researcher had to
change his or her original design for practical reasons, without this information the reader
may disagree with the designer. This may be the case, for example, when the reader does
not agree with the wishes that the designer made regarding the demarcation of the research
topic. In this case, a deeper insight into the iterative approach to research design can help
convince the reader of the appropriateness of the research design.

A step by step approach

This book provides the reader with instructions on how to design a research project with the
help of the generic step-by-step approach below. We call this plan "generic" because each
of the seven steps will be worked out in the following chapters. Each step of the generic
plan consists of a set of smaller steps between the steps. Note that the sequential elaboration
presented in this book is not an adequate reflection of the design process. We can only
show this sequentially, but in practice design is an iterative-parallel process.

Design of the investigation

1. Explore the context of the research project at hand and decide on a unique and feasible
research objective.
2. Construct a research framework that provides a general indication of the steps you plan
to take to achieve the research objective.
3. Examine, partly on the basis of the research framework, what information will be useful
or necessary to achieve the research objective. Then formulate this information into a set of
research questions and, if appropriate, a conceptual model.
4. Determine the core concepts of the project and adapt the definitions and
operationalizations of the concepts to the research objective and set of research questions.
5. Determine what research strategy you will follow in collecting and processing the
material into answers to the questions.
6. For each research question, examine what type of research materials you need to obtain
accurate answers.
7. Develop a research plan that indicates the activities you will carry out, when they will be
carried out, and what products will be resumed during the different phases of the research.

Part I

Conceptual design

We are at the beginning of a research project. In most cases this means that the researcher
has roughly determined the topic of the project. In some cases, this topic will be purely
theoretical; You may have decided to unravel a theoretical problem by studying the existing
literature in the field and reflecting on this topic. Or the research project may be carried out
in a private for-profit or non-profit organization, or in a public sector organization. In this
case, the research will focus on a practical problem related to this organization, in which
the project is supposed to contribute to solving that problem. Typically, the researcher may
have made a decision about the set of research questions, but may not be sure how exactly
to contribute to the theoretical or practical problem at hand. These issues must be placed in
the conceptual design. Part I deals with the development of said conceptual design.

Conceptual design serves several purposes within a research project. However, you should
keep in mind when developing a conceptual design that the design flows outside of these
purposes. By far the most important purpose of conceptual design is direction. This not
only means leading the creation of the technical design, but also the actual implementation
of the research project later on. If the conceptual design meets all the requirements
described in this first part, the researcher will be able to correctly infer what specific
research activities should be carried out during the implementation stage. For example,
conceptual design helps deduce what research material should be collected, where this
information can be found (sources), how information can be derived from these sources
(data collection methods), and what should be done next. . the material (data analysis). If
these issues are not clear after the set of research questions has been formulated, then the
conceptual design must almost certainly be incomplete and/or methodologically incorrect.

The guiding purpose of conceptual design can be compared to the architectural design of a
building. The design (drawings) and detailed descriptions (specifications) of a house are
presented so that others can build the house exactly the way the architect intended it to be
built. The same applies to the conceptual design of a research project. If someone else were
to carry out the project according to what was originally anticipated, then the data collected
would have to be according to what was originally anticipated. In Part I, we will show that
this is a feasible criterion, although it places many high demands on the quality of the
conceptual design. A large number of methods, procedures and heuristics will be offered to
support this management purpose.

Two additional purposes of a conceptual design are motivational and evaluative purposes.
These are primarily relevant to the researcher and occasionally a supervisor. When
designing the research project, the researcher must select a research objective and a set of
research questions that are of interest to him or her. Motivation is something the researcher
will need when undertaking time-consuming activities, which research projects tend to be.
Finally, the evaluative purpose is usually realized through conceptual design that serves as
a product specification. This design indicates the type of information that the research will
produce and, in turn, how this information can contribute to the solution of a theoretical or
practical problem. This research objective and set of research questions are suitable as a
standard for evaluation after the research project has ended: Did the project really produce
what the researcher, supervisor or client had intended at the beginning and does it meet
with the vision they presented to third parties, that is, interested parties?

2 Research objective
Don't bite off more than you can chew.
2.1 Introduction
We start from the moment when the researcher has formed a general idea of what the topic
of the research project will be. At this stage, it is important to realize that a topic is always
part of a larger context. In the case of a theoretical subject, the context will include
literature relevant to a specific field, a research group research program or an ongoing
large-scale scientific research project. If he or she decides to opt for a practice-oriented
approach, the context will often be placed within an organization in which the research will
be carried out. It is important not to wait too long before becoming familiar with the
broader context. For example, the researcher may search the Internet to find relevant
information about the research topic or the organization that allows the researcher to carry
out the research project. Additionally, a library search will reveal what has been published
on the topic, and the researcher may consider approaching an expert who is familiar with
the topic. In the case of practice-oriented research, it would be a good idea to visit the
organization where the researcher hopes to carry out the research project as soon as
possible.
As soon as the researcher has become familiar with the broader theoretical or practical
context, he or she will find it necessary to deal with many impressions. Most topics are
covered by a large body of literature, and the organization where the research will be
located may be large, complex, and prone to rapid change. It is also possible that a contact
person in the commissioning organization will be someone who is not familiar with
scientific research. He or she may be unaware of the complexity of scientific research, or he
or she may have unrealistically high expectations regarding the results of a research project.
In such a situation, it is difficult not to be overwhelmed by the multitude of impressions and
still be able to get a sense of the researcher's role within this complex arrangement. As an
example, imagine the following situation.
Example 'Providence and Prudence'
You are studying business administration and are looking for a suitable subject for your
master's thesis. That is why he has asked the Mulder consulting company if it is possible to
carry out your final project within the company. You're lucky because the company would
like to involve you in a current project at Providence & Prudence Insurance Company. The
insurance company asked the consulting company for assistance in implementing a
complex organizational and technological change project. Apparently, there is a lot of
resistance to the changes that have been planned. Everyone can remember how the previous
IT project failed. The system was continually down, the job suddenly changed completely,
and staff were promised all sorts of training programs that were never offered. It was
therefore to be expected that a storm of protests would break out after a new reorganization
plan was announced. After consulting with the management team, the General Manager of
Providence & Prudence decided to call the consulting firm Mulder. A senior consultant
subsequently visited the company and discussed the proposed plans with several members
of staff. This resulted in a project proposal that stated that the consulting company would
carry out the following tasks:
• Prepare a list of the main problems related to the reorganization;
• Develop a plan for the complete redesign of the organization;
• Develop a plan for the introduction and implementation of the newly designed
organization;
• Carry out an ex-post evaluation of the reorganization.

Suddenly you find yourself in the main consultant's office and the question is: How does
your master's thesis fit into this? How can your project contribute to these plans?

The student is involved in a complex situation that has historical roots and in which all
types of interests and problems are involved. It is not easy for an uninitiated researcher or a
student to define their contribution to the project. It is clear that the investigator is not just
another junior employee of the consulting company. The thesis project consists of a
research project that will be established and carried out independently. Of course, it seems
natural that in one way or another the student assumes part of the consulting project.
However, the project has many different aspects, so it is not feasible for the researcher to be
involved in all of these aspects within the context of the graduation. Therefore, a choice
must be made. Additionally, the consulting project will require more time than the student
has at his or her disposal. That is why you must formulate a project that can be carried out
within the time available. However, it is evident that the outcome of the final project should
seriously contribute to the consulting project. Additionally, the project must meet the
requirements established by your institute. One of these requirements, for example, may be
that a connection be established with the existing body of scientific knowledge in this
particular field. And finally, you'll want to choose a subject that matches your skills and
interests. In view of the many requirements that a research project must meet, it is
important that the topic of the research project is carefully defined and integrated into the
broader context of the consulting project. We call this broader context the context of the
research project. The result of defining and embedding is ultimately reflected in the
formulation of the research objective of this project.

The goal of this chapter is to provide the tools needed when considering the many
possibilities that the researcher will encounter during the initial stage of the research
project. To this end, we will show how to recognize and explore a project context and how
to isolate from this context a research objective that is achievable and, at the same time,
acceptable to the client, the researcher and their supervisor. . We will first formulate the
general guidelines that should be taken into account when defining a project context and a
research objective (Section 2.2). Subsequently, these guidelines are further refined and
concretized for various types of research projects, that is, theory-oriented research (Section
2.3) and various types of practice-oriented research (Section 2.4). Finally, we will develop
a step-by-step approach so that the reader can formulate an effective research objective for
a research project, and then we can apply this plan to the example project "Providence and
Prudence" presented at the beginning of this chapter.

2.2 The context of the project and the objective of the research

Each research project aims to provide knowledge, information and insights that can
contribute to the solution of a problem. For example, a research project could contribute to
the development of theories in the field of sustainable agriculture, or may aim to contribute
to solving a policy problem. The first case refers to a theoretical problem, the second is a
practical problem. Consequently, we will respectively refer to a theory-oriented or practice-
oriented research project. In a theory-oriented research project, the project context consists
of the process and product of knowledge formation in the field in which the research
project will be carried out. We are not only referring to libraries in which this knowledge is
stored in the form of books and articles (product), but also to people and institutes that
participate in this knowledge formation as part of the context (process) of the project. In
practice-oriented research, the project context is a practical problem in a public or private
organization. Furthermore, we emphasize that each research project, intentionally or not,
for the most part serves both a theoretical and a practical goal. Therefore, a research
project, which was initially designed as a practice-oriented project, could directly or
indirectly contribute to the development of a theoretical body of knowledge in this field.
This is known as the theoretical relevance of a research project. In contrast, theory-oriented
research that was not originally intended to be of any practical use can often, in one way or
another, appear to provide information that can be very useful in practice. This is called
practical relevance of the project.

It is not difficult to understand that, within the context of a project, people pursue collective
or individual, and sometimes contradictory, objectives. Within a theoretical framework, this
goal usually means developing new theories and points of view. Within a practical
framework, this usually involves solving a particular problem, creating a new situation, or
instigating new developments. The problems involved in the project context are usually so
extensive and/or complex that a research project can only partially or indirectly contribute
to a solution. Therefore, we have deliberately used the term contribute. For this reason, the
designer of a research project must isolate a part or aspect of an objective in order to
formulate this as the objective of the research project in question. In summary, the first step
in establishing a research design is to map the context of the project, the problems related to
this framework and the objective within the context of this problem to which the researcher
wishes to be linked. The second step is to isolate a part or aspect of an objective as the
project objective. These two steps are explained below.

Exploring the project context

The 'Providence & Prudence' example that we presented at the beginning of this chapter
indicates that it is necessary to further investigate the problems at hand to clarify what the
research project should include and how it can contribute to solving the problems in
'Providence and Prudence'. This requires an exploration of the project context. One possible
way to achieve this is to ask questions like:
• What issues are involved within the context of the project?
• What is the origin of these problems?
• What solutions are stakeholders considering?

We will first give an example of an exploration of the project context of a theory-oriented

research project.

Example 'The quality of the environment'

He intends to carry out a theory-oriented research project on the concept "environmental

quality". There is extensive literature on this topic that provides a diversity of definitions in
which various aspects of the subject are discussed. This situation forms the project context
of your project. To define the research objective of your project, you must explore the
context of this project. What are the most important theoretical schools? What are the most
important topics of discussion in this domain? In what direction can we look for solutions
that are considered useful by people active in this field? Further exploration will draw a
general outline of the general framework within which the research project will be carried
out.

In the case of practice-oriented research, the context will often consist of a problematic
situation or a particular request to initiate a new policy. Other examples are the set of
different opinions in an organization regarding the organization's problems, the various
elements of these problems, the actors involved, and the interests and desires of these
actors. At the beginning of a research project, the researcher should give a brief description
of the context of the project, including all the elements mentioned above.

Example 'Communication problems'

You are carrying out a research project for municipality A, where there is tension between
the municipal organization, on the one hand, and the members of the municipal council, on
the other. You have been asked to look into these issues. The context of the project is the
existing situation within the municipality. From an initial interview with their contact
person in the municipality, it is clear that municipal council members feel that they are
insufficiently and inadequately informed by the town clerk's office. And vice versa, staff in
the city clerk's office believe that city council members are not able to indicate what type of
information they do or do not need. These communication problems cause irritation, but
have never been explicitly discussed. The general opinion is that something must be done
quickly or else there will be problems. The research project takes place within the context
of this project and must contribute to solving the communication problem.

Formulate the objective of the research

The second step in the initial stage of the research project is to demarcate an effective
research objective within the context of the project. We have already emphasized the
importance of defining the research project within the broader context of the project. In the
case of theory-oriented research, the context of the project is in fact always too broad,
because our desire for knowledge and the accumulation of aspects about which we would
like to acquire knowledge is almost inexhaustible. In the case of practice-oriented research,
the context of the project is often extremely extensive because we are usually faced with a
set of interconnected problems that have developed historically and are embedded in a
cultural, social and/or political context. In this initial stage, the researcher must position his
or her research, both in time and space, within the context of the project. This can be done
by formulating an effective research objective. An effective research objective is
understood to be useful, realistic and feasible within the scheduled time. It should also be
clear and informative. We explain these quality criteria briefly.
It is a prerequisite for an effective research objective that it is useful. In the case of theory-
oriented research, the researcher must therefore make clear how the project will contribute
to a solution of the anticipated theoretical problems. In the case of practice-oriented
research, the researcher must formulate the relevance of the research project to the benefit
of the organization or institute that allows the research to be carried out. Make sure the
utility is clear to the other parties involved. As a rule, the researcher must accept that if
explaining the usefulness of the research project requires a lot of effort, then its usefulness
is not convincing enough. If this is the case, then the researcher must reconsider the
objective of the research and the way it is conceptualized.
A second prerequisite for carrying out a successful project is formulating a research
objective that is realistic and feasible within the scheduled time. By "realistic" we mean
that it is plausible that the research will contribute to the solution of the problem. Keep in
mind that it is better to formulate a concrete goal that you can actively contribute to than to
bite off more than you can chew. Most of the problems that need to be studied are very
complex. For example, you can't promise that your research will solve the morning traffic
jam because that's definitely not realistic. It is more realistic to promise that your research
project will contribute to solving early morning traffic jam by providing detailed and
accurate information about the size and causes of morning traffic jam in a particular region.
Of course, the problem will not be completely solved, but the information that the
investigation will provide could definitely help find a long-term solution. The "viability" of
a research objective has two aspects. The first question is whether the person who is going
to carry out this research has the necessary knowledge and resources and can access the
necessary material. Previously we called this the technical relevance or feasibility of the
project. However, the most critical feasibility criterion is time. It is of particular importance
that the research objective can be achieved within the scheduled time. For example, the
above-mentioned project, which aims to provide accurate information on early morning
traffic jam within a particular region, can easily be done within the limits of two months.
Almost any research project, whether a master's thesis, a PhD project or a research contract,
has to comply with time constraints.
This implies that most of the time the designer of a research project is caught between the
criteria of usefulness and feasibility. One may be tempted to think that utility requires a
high research goal. Novice researchers in particular hesitate to define their research
objective. They implicitly think that the more they demarcate, the less useful the research
project will be. However, they have not yet realized how complex and demanding it is to
carry out an empirical research project. The usefulness of a research project does not
depend on the scale of a research objective. On the contrary, it depends on the likelihood of
achieving the research objective. Therefore, an insufficiently demarcated project context
and research objective will result in an unfeasible research project or invalid and unreliable
results. The researcher who started with too broad a research objective will end up reducing
his or her research activities over the course of the project due to time constraints. And that,
in turn, will harm the quality and usefulness of the project as well.
There is another reason why inexperienced researchers tend to start with a research
objective that is too broad and too complex. During their study, many of them are trained to
write theoretical and reflective essays. Compared to empirical research, demarcation plays
a less important role in these assignments. In theoretical and reflective essays, authors do
not have to build their line of reasoning on personal observations. Researchers should
however be very cautious when using broad and complex basic concepts such as 'structure'
or 'culture'. These concepts consist of so many phenomena that an empirical study of these
concepts cannot be done. All the researcher can do is focus on one small part. Additionally,
he or she should avoid including concepts that are too broad when formulating the ultimate
goal of the research. A concept that is too broad consists of a large number of empirical
phenomena. While these concepts are often very welcome in theoretical reflections due to
their abstract and general character, in empirical research they should be avoided as much
as possible. In this sense, a new way of thinking is needed to initiate researchers when
designing a research objective. Keep in mind that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound
of cure. In Chapter 5 we present the reader with an ordered method that helps delimit the
smallest parts of the whole.
By an intended research objective we mean that the research designer clearly formulates the
objective of the research project by stating precisely what the contribution of the project
will be to the solution of the theoretical or practical problem. This contribution can vary
widely, depending on the nature of the project. For example, in the case of theory-oriented
research, the researcher may contribute to developing part of a new theory or improving a
theoretical vision. What theory are you referring to? What deficiencies and defects stand
out? What exactly will your contribution be and to what particular part of that theory? All
these questions refer to the theoretical relevance of this research. It is important to be
precise, so the reader is advised to indicate the names of the authors and the articles and
books when referring to them.
When addressing a practice-oriented research project, the research designer may clarify a
policy problem, identify bottlenecks in situations of change, make recommendations to
improve an existing situation, or evaluate a specific policy or intervention. In particular, it
is important for the designer to briefly but nevertheless indicate the problem situation and
the contribution that the planned research project will offer to a solution. Furthermore, the
researcher must point out how to make this contribution. Again, the rule of thumb is that
the more explanation is needed, the more likely it is that the objective of the investigation
has not been formulated correctly. So it's either too vague or too complex, or both.
Finally, an informative research objective gives a rough idea of the knowledge that the
research project will generate to contribute to a solution. We emphasize the word rough,
because a more exact definition of the required knowledge will be discussed when the set
of research questions has been formulated (see Chapter 4). An informative research
objective makes two things clear: (a) what one can and cannot expect from the results of the
project, and (b) a general idea of the research activities involved. According to these two
aspects, the sentence in which the researcher formulates his research objective consists of
two parts, a part (a) and a part (b).
There is a very useful formula that can be used to verbalize a useful, feasible and clear
research objective. This formula is: The objective of the research is ... (a) ... t and ... (b) ....
In part (a), the unequivocal contribution of the research project to the solution of the
problem is broadly described. Earlier we called this the external goal of the research
project, in other words, the research goal. Part (b) of this formula involves a clear
description of the manner in which the contribution will be provided. This is the internal
objective of the research project, in other words, the objective within the project. Part (b) of
the research objective provides an indication of the type of knowledge, information and/or
insight that is needed to achieve the intentions stated in part (a).
Now that the basic structure of a suitable research objective has been presented, we can
offer a series of examples to show how to use the research objective structure. Part (a) of
the research objective provides the supervisor of a theory-oriented project or the
organization in charge of a practice-oriented project with information that will indicate
what results can be expected. Therefore, as a designer of a research objective you must ask
yourself: 'Will the client or supervisor understand the contribution my research will make to
solving the problem?' and 'Will you be satisfied with this contribution?' 'If both questions
can be answered with 'yes', then part (a) of the research objective is correct. To indicate part
(a) of a research objective, phrases should be used such as:
The objective of the research project is:
...to further develop author Y's theory X, which addresses topic Z;
...fill the gap in theory
...to test domain-based Theory X in reality (empirical findings) 2;
...to help improve existing policy X that deals with problem Z;
...contribute to the development of a new policy X that addresses issue Z;
...make recommendations to the organization in charge Y to solve problem Z.

The first three formulations are examples of the external objective of a theory-oriented
research project; The last three formulations refer to practice-oriented research.

After you have formulated part (a) of the research objective, you need to add the connecting
word '...by...'. This introduces part (b) where you indicate roughly the knowledge,
information and insight that will be necessary to meet the expectations you formulated in
part (a).

To describe part (b) of the research objective in theory-oriented projects, use phrases such
as:
...testing a set of hypotheses, deduced from theory
...analyzing the conditions for the validation of theory
... comparing theory X and theory Y...;
...by critically reflecting on the core concepts X and Y of Theory Z.

In practice-oriented research, you can use phrases like;

...providing an overview of stakeholder opinions of...
...providing a clear view of an organization's problems...;
...doing an analysis of the factors that have caused the problem...
...making an analysis of the gap between the desired situation and the current one.
...making a comparison between...
...making an evaluation of..., and so on.

Note that in part (b) we are referring to a knowledge and information problem, and not a
practical problem. This is a fundamental difference; Too often one mistakenly expects the
results of practice-oriented research to solve a practical problem directly. However,
research is not an instrument for solving problems. Research creates knowledge, knowledge
and information. This knowledge does not solve the problem itself, but it helps the problem
solver make the right decisions. Obviously, it is very important for the researcher to make a
clear distinction between his or her role as a researcher, as someone who provides
information, and the role of a manager or decision maker, that is, someone who uses this
information to solve the problem. In most cases, both the researcher and the problem solver
are different people.

An appropriate research objective conveys sufficient information both with respect to the
expected contribution that the research will make to the solution of a problem, and with
respect to the type of knowledge, insight, and information sought by the researcher. The
reader will easily recognize two of the three purposes of conceptual design, mentioned in
the introduction to Part I, namely, the management function and the evaluation function.
That is why at the beginning of a project by formulating the research objective, the
researcher has already contributed to the realization of these two functions. It is obvious
that a well-formulated research objective can also contribute to the third function, the
motivational function.

Below are some examples of an effectively formulated research objective within a theory-
oriented and practice-oriented research project, respectively.

Example 'The quality of the environment'

You define your theory-oriented research project by limiting yourself to recent theories and
research reports related to the domains of “environment and society” and “environment and
nature.”

The research objective of his project is to contribute to the further development of theories
on environmental quality. In particular, it focuses on the following topics: (a) the
environmental planning policy of the (local) government, (b) the environmental awareness
of the inhabitants, (c) the physical climate, and (d) the social climate. This objective is
achieved by providing insight, based on a study of the literature, into the similarities and
differences between the ways in which theories on the environment and society on the one
hand, and on the environment and nature, conceptualize the following. Topics: 'political
environmental planning', 'respect for the environment', 'physical climate', 'social climate'. In
addition, it provides information on the results of recent scientific research on the
relationships between these topics.

The results of this theory-oriented research project will not constitute a new theory, nor will
they solve the theoretical problem in its entirety, but will contribute to the theoretical
discussion on this topic and, as a consequence, to the further development of science.

Example 'Communication problems'

You have defined your practice-oriented research project within municipality issues.

The research objective of your project is to make recommendations to the Municipal

Secretary on the improvement of communication policy within municipality and possible
relevant solutions.

Of course, your project will not solve the communication problem, but the understanding
provided can certainly contribute to the solution.

In the examples shown above, we distinguish between theory- and practice-oriented

research. We have not yet discussed the fact that, within both categories, a further
distinction can be made between various types of research projects, each of which has its
own type of research objective. The diagram in Figure 2.1 provides an overview. Section
2.3 discusses the project contexts and research objectives for the various types of theory-
oriented research. Finally, Section 2.4 develops the project contexts and research objectives
for practice-oriented research.

Figure 2.1 Types of theory-oriented and practice-oriented research

 Theoretical
development
Theory Oriented theory test

Problem analysis
Investigation
project
Diagnosis

Oriented practice Design

Change

Assessment

2.3 Theory-oriented research

Theory-oriented research has to do with the solution of a problem encountered in

theoretical development in a particular scientific area, and within this area, with respect to a
specific topic. Obviously, within the framework of this type of research, it is very unlikely
that you will be able to develop or change an entire theory. Therefore, in a theory-oriented
research project, an aspect, or a specific part belonging to a theoretical set of problems,
must be selected. This means making a clear distinction between the theoretical problem at
hand, i.e. the context of the project, and the actual research objective that the designer
wishes to achieve as a contract researcher/master's student, bachelor's student or doctoral
candidate. . Next, we will examine the aspects involved in both types of research
distinguished in Figure 2.1.

Theory development research

There may be several reasons for starting a theory development research project. One of
these reasons is the existence of gaps in the construction of a theory. A new theory or a
complementary part of the theory needs to be developed. If you are interested in such an
approach, and if you are looking for an appropriate topic, a good strategy to follow may be
to examine the latest developments or some new phenomena in the area studied within your
discipline and which, consequently, has only yet been investigated. by very few people. In
general, when seeking a research objective for this type of research, one might ask
questions such as: What are the blind spots in the theory? On what existing or new
phenomena or developments in the field of study have there been publications? Some
examples of new developments are: teleworking and its consequences for industrial
relations and social aspects of work, the use of genetically modified foods in agriculture,
including ethical and marketing implications, and the effects of Internet use on regulations
government and law enforcement.
Example 'Telematics'

Project context

The development of modern technology in the study of telematics, that is, a combination of
telecommunications and computing, opens new perspectives for the quality of services
offered by government and non-profit organizations. Working from home, using the
Internet, interactive networks and other types of "working outside the office", can be done
more easily than before. To date, very little research has been conducted on the effects of
telematics on the quality of services provided by organizations and companies in terms of
effectiveness and efficiency.

Research objective

The research objective of a dissertation project is to further develop theory on

organizational technology, particularly with respect to the consequences of telematics on
the effectiveness of the service offered by comparing the effectiveness of the service
provided in the administrative processes of banks and banking organizations. insurance.
which have recently introduced telematics, on the one hand, with the efficiency of the
service provided in banks and insurance organizations where telematics has not been
introduced, on the other.

There are other approaches to strategically selecting problems in relation to a theory (Ultee,
1991). The first possibility is that there are theories about new or pre-existing phenomena,
but it is not yet clear whether these theories have proven tenable after being tested with
new, empirical data. In other words, it remains to be seen whether existing theories can be
generally applied to those areas in which new developments have occurred.

A very similar strategy is to look for so-called anomalies, that is, empirical phenomena that
do not behave according to theory. By choosing an anomaly as a starting point for empirical
research, one can achieve the possibility of making a real contribution to the scientific
construction of a theory. Below is an example of an anomaly.

Example 'Autonomy and stress'

Project context

Until now, one of the basic principles in the sociology of work and organization has been
that giving people more control over their own work results in an improvement in the
quality of work. Recent publications, however, have shown that increased autonomy
sometimes creates more stress in the workplace.

Research objective

The aim of the research is to further develop the theory of quality of working life,
particularly as it relates to the relationship between the core concepts of "work autonomy"
and "work stress" by providing insight into the relationship between the nature and the
occurrence of group autonomy. And individual autonomy on the one hand, and the physical
and psychological manifestations of stress on the other, in four different cases.

Theoretical testing research

In Figure 2.1, a distinction is made between theory developing and theory testing research.
In theoretical testing research, existing views are tested, adjusted if necessary, and/or
refined. In this regard, the following types of questions can be asked: Is it possible to
increase the effectiveness of existing theory, for example, by replacing several theories or
hypotheses within a theory with a general theory or hypothesis that explains as much or
perhaps more than the theory? existing theory? What additional requirements must be met
in the acquisition of knowledge that have not (yet) been met by existing theory? Will an
existing theory hold up when compared to the latest advances? What aspects of existing
theories are internally contradictory or inconsistent?

A special case of internal contradiction occurs if one and the same theory contains or
results in two internally conflicting hypotheses. Discovering the source of such conflict can
be a step towards acquiring more knowledge. Possibly, a third hypothesis can be developed
that resolves the conflict, or even makes the two contradictory hypotheses superfluous. Or,
two different hypotheses about one and the same phenomenon give equivalent
explanations. It is possible that a third hypothesis could be derived from the two competing
hypotheses that may explain even more than the original hypotheses because it is more
general.

Another strategy for improving or developing an existing theory is to link certain

phenomena or problems to a general concept. As a consequence, one or more specific
problems may arise from this more general or theoretical problem. This will be studied
later. The following example from Ultee (1991) illustrates the above.

Example ''Income Distribution''

Project context

The topic of income distribution is a topic that has been studied by sociologists and
economists for a long time. It can be considered part of the general problem of the
distribution of scarce goods. A second sub-problem or aspect of this general problem would
be the distribution of professional status. When, while studying the income problem, the
entire scope of the subject is considered to be a coherent monolithic whole, more results
can be obtained than when the sub-problem is studied separately from the surrounding sub-
problems. This is an example of building a theory by abstraction.

Research objective

The goal of this research project is to improve the theory of unequal income distribution, in
particular with respect to the relationship between "income distribution" and "professional
status" by testing several hypotheses about the possible connection between professional
status and distribution. income inequality. derive from theories about professional status
and social inequality.
So far, several examples of theoretical project contexts have been presented, as well as
options for formulating a research objective.

Assignment

Please read the following text carefully.

Social identification theory

Social Identification Theory is about the way people identify themselves, and how others
identify them, with respect to their position and status in society. Previous research shows
that events and relationships, in small groups in particular, influence these identification
processes. Consider, for example, the influence that relationships and events have on
family, peer groups, and colleagues at work. Organization studies emphasize the
importance of Social Identification Theory. Experts suggest that especially the way team
leaders behave - authoritarian or participative leadership - influences how team members
identify with their position in the organization. Subsequently, the degree to which team
members identify with their work influences how loyal they are to the organization they
work for.

Assignment
to. Formulate the research objective of a theory development research project within the
context of the project described above.
b. Formulate the research objective of a theory testing research project within the context of
the project described above.
c. Indicate the main differences between both research objectives. We will continue to
discuss the project contexts and research objectives for five types of practice-oriented
research (see Figure 2.1).

2.4 Practice-oriented research

As mentioned above, practice-oriented research aims to provide knowledge and

information that can contribute to a successful intervention in order to change an existing
situation. An intervention aims to solve a practical problem. Interventions are carried out
when policies are implemented that have been designed by local, regional, national or
international governments, or by the administration of for-profit and non-profit
organizations.

In most practice-oriented research, the project context consists of a complex problem

encountered by a government organization, an environmental organization, an NGO, a
benefit organization, etc. The first important action necessary to formulate the research
objective of a research project is to identify the person in charge or group of people. This
will determine the nature and extent of the recommendations that the researcher will make,
based on the results of the research. For example, if a municipal council is the board in
charge of an IT-related research project, the members of this council expect the researcher
to make recommendations regarding IT policy in general. However, if the person in charge
is the project manager of this IT research project, he or she expects the researcher to present
concrete recommendations regarding the implementation of this IT project. Therefore, the
first two questions that must be answered when exploring the context of a practice-oriented
research project are: who is the person in charge? What does this person want? This is why
we advise the researcher to explicitly include both the commissioners and the subject of
their recommendations in the research objective of a practice-oriented research project.

Another point of consideration concerns the client's mistaken conviction about the nature
and extent of the problem. This conviction has two facets. The first aspect refers to your
knowledge of the set of problems. They often feel quite sure what the organization's
problem is and what has caused it. However, after further questioning, it often turns out that
it is not entirely clear what the content and cause of this discontent is. Additionally, clients
often present a solution before it is clear what exactly the problem at hand is, and they often
even feel like they know what kind of research is needed.

Example 'Problems with the board of directors'

The president of the board of directors of an organized interest group in the public health
sector contacts you as a researcher with the following message: "We have noticed growing
dissatisfaction among members of the organization with the activities of the board of
directors. It is rumored that we, the board, do not sufficiently protect the interests of our
members, which, of course, is not true. It's a matter of lack of communication. Could you
send a questionnaire about the lack of communication between the board and members of
the organization to everyone? The president's request is clear, but its implications are not!
The commissioning organization requires that a questionnaire be used as a particular data
collection technique, although the conceptual design of the research project is still unclear.
What exactly is the communication problem? Whose problem is it? What actions are being
considered? How could empirical research contribute to the new plan to solve the problem?
It is not clear what knowledge is necessary or useful to carry out the plan, much less that a
decision can be made about the appropriate method of data generation, as the client had
already done. In short, if the researcher carries out the client's request without further study,
the research project will not have a solid foundation.

Generally speaking, a researcher should always be very reluctant to accept the feelings of
conviction of the commissioning organization. Needless to say, a beginning researcher may
ask for support from the project supervisor or mentor against strong pressure from the
client.

A second aspect of misplaced client trust concerns the assumption that you, in your
capacity as an investigator, can solve the problem in its entirety. Two comments can be
made in this regard. First, as we explained above, generally only a small part of the
problem can be studied in a research project. For example, it is unlikely that the problem a
government organization has regarding the implementation of recent road safety regulations
can be completely solved in a single research project. Therefore, the researcher must make
a clear distinction between the objectives of the client, on the one hand, and the objective of
the research project, on the other.

A second, more fundamental explanation for exaggerated customer expectations is the

aforementioned erroneous notion that research is an instrument for problem solving.
Research is a tool to create valid knowledge. Ideally, this knowledge will be used by
professionals, and in most cases, not by researchers, to initiate an intervention, that is, a
certain policy or strategy that focuses on solution or reduction. of the problem in question.
In this sense, you must be aware of your role as a researcher and avoid a role as a policy
maker or manager. It is also very important that the client knows the distinction between
the two roles.

The above leads to the conclusion that we need to explore the project context before
starting the research project. During the project, the researcher will examine the situation in
detail to define the client's problem and decide which part of the problem we will study as
an external objective of the research.

Exploring the project context could be difficult, and using an instrument or heuristic can be
helpful. This support can be provided using the so-called intervention cycle model. The
intervention cycle is a set of predefined steps to reach a solution related to operational
problems. Please note that the intervention cycle is not a model for conducting empirical
research, but rather for solving a practical problem. In practice-oriented research, the
intervention cycle offers the researcher a useful instrument to formulate the objective of the
research. In general, we can distinguish five steps or stages:

1. Problem analysis

At the beginning of an intervention, it is often necessary to draw the attention of

stakeholders to the problem. This is called 'agenda setting'. Initially, only a few people
know that something is wrong. The initial stage of the intervention cycle generally involves
ensuring that the problem itself is brought to light so that it is transparent and can be
discussed by all stakeholders. At this stage, you need to clarify what the exact problem is,
why it is a problem, and whose problem it is. The question "why is this a problem?" It can
be answered by pointing out the gap between the existing situation and the general norms,
values and ideals of a desired situation, and/or the likely unintended and negative
consequences of the situation.

2. Diagnosis After the problem has been identified and recognized by all stakeholders, in
the diagnosis stage the background and causes of the identified problem can be examined.
By understanding the reason for the problem, you can often determine a course of action to
take to find a solution.

3. Design After carrying out the analysis and diagnosis of the problem, an intervention plan
can be developed to find a solution to the problem. For example, a design can be configured
for a local government information campaign or a new production structure.
4. Intervention/change The problem cannot be solved by setting up a plan or design for
the intervention, as this will need to be carried out first. In other words, a course of
intervention or change must be put in place.

5. Evaluation Finally, it is useful to verify if the implemented changes have really solved
the problem. The problem will often prove to have been partially resolved or new problems
may have arisen. The steps described above will have to be repeated from the beginning.
That's why we call this process an intervention cycle.

Practice-oriented research can contribute to each of these five steps. Therefore, there are
five types of practice-oriented research that run in parallel to the stages of the intervention
cycle. The most important, but not necessarily the easiest, question you will need to answer
when exploring a practice-oriented project context is this: In which of the five steps of the
intervention can the problem be found? The answer to this question determines which of
these types of research you will opt for. When answering this question, you must be very
critical, because stakeholders often tend to skip the early phases of the intervention cycle,
as noted above.

The reader is recommended to pay attention to the following reflection. The most important
element of intervention is solving the problem. From this point of view, Phase 3 - carrying
out an intervention design - is by far the most important. However, this should not be a
reason to automatically choose to develop a design-oriented research project, although
many beginning researchers tend to do this. It is important not to follow that impulse. First,
the decision to develop design-oriented research may be premature. In many cases, it is
important to analyze and describe the problem first - Phase 1. Only when it has become
perfectly clear what the problem is, why it is a problem, and for whom it is a problem, can
one successfully begin a diagnostic project? Phase 2, in which the researcher analyzes the
possible antecedents, antecedents and causes of the problem. This information is essential
to begin the design of the solution - Phase 3. As we know, a sustainable solution to a
problem often consists of a well-thought-out intervention related to the causes of this
problem. It is also possible that the research project contributes to a situation where the
solution design has already been decided. The research supports the policy that aims to
implement the chosen redesign. It helps the implementation go in the right direction. The
investigation can also, if necessary, adjust the course of implementation within a public or
private organization. We call this monitoring - Phase 4. By continuously collecting and
analyzing a stream of data and information, the researcher can contribute to the
implementation of the project as planned. Finally, if a policy or strategy has been
implemented before, a researcher can contribute to its success by carrying out an ex post
evaluation of the implementation - Phase 5. By pointing out the weak aspects of this
implementation, recommendations can be made to improve future policies or strategies.

Below, we will address the five types of practice-oriented research separately. For each
individual type, the context of the project and its subsequent research objective are
discussed and illustrated with an example.

Problem analysis research

In most cases, a policy problem or an organizational problem can be defined as the tension
between the current situation and the desired one. The problem analysis phase aims to
create a consensus among all stakeholders regarding the exact description of the situation
that they explicitly or implicitly want. A desired situation can be formulated in terms of
standards and criteria to be met, or tasks to be performed within an overall framework. As
said before, from these implicit or explicit standards, criteria, and functional requirements,
it should be clear why something is a problem. In the problem analysis stage, the researcher
should focus on both the current and desirable sides: What are the facts and why are they
problematic? In summary: the analysis of research problems serves to indicate that a certain
factor is a problem, what exactly the problem entails, why it is a problem, and what the
exact nature of the problem is. The goal is to raise awareness to set the agenda or reach
consensus.

Example "multifunctional complex"

Project context

Local authorities and several multinationals in a certain region have designed a plan to
build a large multifunctional complex. The complex will host soccer games and other
sporting events, art events and concerts. However, 'Green is ours', an alliance made up of
several environmental organizations in the region, believes that not enough attention is
being paid to environmental problems such as noise nuisance, air and soil pollution and
damage to the biosphere. 'Green is Ours' intends to ensure that these environmental issues
are brought to the forefront in the next decision-making process. The president of the
'Green is Ours' alliance commissions a research project with the following objective.

Objective of the research The objective of the research is to make recommendations to the
president of "Green is Ours" to develop a communication policy that can help put
environmental issues on the agenda during the political decision-making process about the
multifunctional complex through mapping the points of view held by groups in the region
concerning the environmental aspects of the multifunctional complex.

It is often attractive, especially for students preparing their master's or doctoral thesis, to
opt for problem analysis research, as this involves roughly describing the true nature of the
problem. As we emphasized previously, the first phase of an intervention generally contains
the most decisive part, but also the most forgotten. Furthermore, problem analysis research
offers a good opportunity for a relatively small research project, such as a master's thesis, to
make a realistic and useful contribution to the solution of a particular problem. However,
for most people, such as the problem owner and the organization in charge, this option
means having to let go of their natural preference to solve the problem immediately. As the
French say 'reculer pour mieux sauter' (take a step back to increase your speed before
jumping).

In addition to this fundamental argument, there are other, more pragmatic considerations
that can be presented in favor of choosing a research project to analyze a problem. The plan
to find a solution, that is, the design of an intervention and the implementation of this plan,
the intervention itself, often involves political and emotional problems. In the case of
design-oriented research, the student runs the risk of becoming involved in the interaction
of opposing forces, which could delay the research project. By placing the research project
in the problem analysis stage, one can avoid many problems. However, we realize that this
argument is more important for a master's or doctoral student than for a hired researcher.

There are also several practical arguments in favor of opting for a problem analysis type of
research. First, organizations often struggle to answer the question 'What is the real
problem?' We cannot emphasize enough that in answering this question, the researcher's
contribution to solving the problem can be of paramount importance. Second, you generally
won't have any problems getting the right data for this type of research project. Most people
are willing to contribute to the solution of a problem, and at this point, there is no need for
people to determine their positions yet. Third, these research projects can usually be kept
within achievable limits, since the researcher does not even propose an intervention. For
stakeholders, this means there is no time or money involved yet. However, there is an
obvious hurdle ahead: you have to convince the client, who owns the problem, that a
problem analysis project is very important. After all, customers tend to immediately place
the problem in the problem-solving (design) stage.

Assignment

Please read the following text carefully.

'Problems with the Board of Directors'

An organized interest group in the public health sector contacts you with the following
problem. Members complain that the board of directors does not sufficiently protect their
interests, and as a result there is growing dissatisfaction among members of the
organization. To verify these statements, and to specify the nature of these complaints, the
board of directors asks you to carry out an investigation project. In particular, they ask you
to pay attention to internal communication between the board and members of the
organization.

The task is clear, but you must convince the president of the need to check whether there
may be non-communication problems that cause dissatisfaction among members. Perhaps
members are unhappy with the council's lack of oversight regarding social developments in
healthcare. Members may have the impression that board policy focuses too much on
internal issues and too little on what happens outside the organization. Perhaps only a few
members have voiced these complaints, while the silent majority of members support the
board's policy. In general, the problem needs to be explored further.

Assignment

Formulate the research objective of a problem analysis research project within the context
of the project described above.

Diagnostic investigation
Only when the problem has been correctly identified and the operational problem has been
clearly formulated and accepted by the stakeholders, can you begin the diagnosis stage?
However, be aware of the consequences if this is not the case. In such a situation, there is a
good chance that you will start analyzing the background and reasons for the wrong
problem. During each of the following phases of the research project, the researcher will
observe that it is still unclear exactly what the problem is, why it is a problem, and for
whom it is a problem. This will lead to confusion, irritation and wasted time. Therefore, the
need to establish a problem analysis research project should always be considered before
starting a diagnostic project.

If you plan to carry out a diagnostic research project, you should first try to get a sense of
the relevant background and relationships of the problem at hand.

Diagnostic research is often applied in practice-oriented research. There are many different
types of diagnostic investigation. In this book we will develop the most common types.
First, we will present the background analysis. Sometimes the researcher needs to study a
problem that is relatively new or quite complex. Existing theories and customer knowledge
cannot adequately indicate which of the many possible factors have influenced this
problem. Sometimes the investigator does not know whether particular factors have caused
the entire problem or just a specific part of it. Or the researcher does not know which
reasons for the problem are the most relevant or important. In each of these cases, research
is useful to clarify the relevant background and reasons for the problem.

Background analysis "Electoral disaster"

Project context

Political Party A was defeated on election day and the loss was much greater than expected.
The party leadership had no idea which of the many possible factors could have caused this
defeat. Was it the party leader's lack of charisma, an unappealing electoral campaign, or the
strong appeal of the competing parties' programs? Or were the results influenced by trivial
factors, such as weather conditions on election day and major league football competition?
The party administration wants to know more about what may have contributed to the
electoral defeat.

Research objective

The objective of the research is to make recommendations to the party administration to

improve the party's image in future campaigns by offering an overview of the factors that
explain electoral losses.

Another type of diagnostic research that we often encounter is opinion research. Sometimes
it is less important to indicate the exact causes of a problem than to learn more about the
opinions shared by different stakeholders regarding the background and causes of the
problem. In these cases, ideas about opinions and perceptions are more important than
objective knowledge of a problem. Take, for example, a research project that aims to gain a
better understanding of the background to frequent conflicts between ethnic subgroups in
European cities. To reach a solution to this problem, it is important to know the perceptions
of the interested parties about the reasons for these conflicts, justified or not, in addition to
a neutral and impartial analysis of these causes.

Opinion Research ''Information and communication technologies (ICT) in relation to

human resources management (HRM)”

Project context

These are turbulent times for ICT companies. Customers are adopting an increasingly
critical attitude. They are demanding adequate support from ICT experts to develop and
implement new ICT systems. As a result, great demands are being placed on the skills and
flexibility of ICT experts and, consequently, on the human resource management of these
companies, particularly in the training, coaching and supervision of ICT experts. The
Director of the Human Resources Management Department of one of the leading ICT
companies in the US. USA It plans to improve the HRM policy, based on an inventory of
the necessary skills.

Research objective

The objective of the research project is to make recommendations to the Director of the
Human Resources Department to improve the human resource management policy with
respect to the training, coaching and supervision of ICT experts by providing information
on the opinions of stakeholders (management of client organizations, ICT experts and
HRM staff) regarding the effectiveness of tailored training programs to improve the service
skills of ICT employees.

A third type of frequently applied diagnostic research is gap analysis. Suppose a local
broadcasting company wants to increase the number of people who will choose to tune in to
its programs. Note the assumption that communication theory indicates that the most
important condition for such an increase is to identify a well-defined and clearly
demarcated target group of viewers. However, the broadcasting company does not focus on
locating a target group. Instead, he focuses on purchasing a very expensive television
series. In this case, there are two gaps between the desired situation and the current state of
affairs. First, there is a gap between the desired and current situation in relation to the
organization's problem: the relatively small group of existing viewers versus the desired
increase in the number of viewers. Secondly, there is a gap between the desired and current
situation regarding the assumed cause of this problem and subsequently the solution of this
problem. Communication theory suggests that the decline in viewers is due to a lack of
concentration on the target group, while the broadcasting company has tried to increase the
number of viewers by offering more expensive television series. Below is another example
of a diagnostic gap analysis.

'Merger and market orientation' gap analysis

Project context Organizations

A and B both offer specialized psychiatric treatment. They decide to merge and become
organization C to improve their market position for psychiatric treatment. To succeed in the
competitive market, the new organization C has to develop a so-called active market-
oriented strategy. Previous research indicates that organizations characterized by a non-
hierarchical organizational structure and a cooperative organizational culture are more
likely to implement an active market-oriented strategy than other organizations.

Research objective

The objective of the research is to make recommendations to the management of

organization C on how to improve the organization's policy regarding organizational
structure, culture and strategy by doing a diagnostic gap analysis in which the
characteristics of current organizational structures , as well as the organizational cultures
and strategies of A and B will be compared with the structural, cultural and strategic
characteristics required for the successful implementation of a market-oriented strategy.

Assignment

Read carefully the following text.

Company Medical Officers In organization B, HRM manager A has had considerable

problems regarding the role that company medical officers play in work-related disputes.
Employees often consult company medical officers when they suffer from illnesses that are
obviously related to conflicts between employees and their superiors. The company's
medical officers find that their loyalty to the organization conflicts with their care for
patients. What would be the best role for company medical officers in trying to help resolve
these conflicts?

Assignment

to. Formulate the research objective of a diagnostic research project, type of background
analysis, within the context of the project described above. Suppose there is very little prior
knowledge about the relationship between work-related conflicts, illnesses, and the role that
company medical officials play in trying to help resolve these conflicts.

b. Formulate the research objective of a diagnostic research project, such as opinion

research, within the context of the project described above. Suppose there is prior
knowledge about the relationship between work-related conflicts, illness, and the role that
company medical officials play in trying to help resolve these conflicts.

c. Formulate the research objective of a diagnostic research project - type gap analysis -
within the context of the project described above. Assume that there is prior knowledge
about the relationship between work-related conflicts, illness, and the role that company
medical officers play in trying to help resolve these conflicts.

d. Indicate the main differences between these three research objectives.

Design-oriented research
Another possibility is to carry out a design project. To carry out this type of research
successfully, the following conditions must be met: The problem must be properly
identified and defined, and it must be diagnosed in advance. This information has emerged
from previous research or you can set it at 'face value' during further exploration of the
project context. In particular, possessing knowledge related to the historical roots of how a
problem developed is often an important link in finding a solution. The conditions
mentioned above indicate that this type of research project requires caution. One can easily
bite off more than one can chew. The safest way is to formulate recommendations for a
design, based on a problem analysis, a diagnosis and an evaluation of a first prototype of
the design.

Example 'Flexitas'

Project context

Flexitas is a medium-sized furniture manufacturer that produces tables and chairs in various
designs for the middle-class market segment. Until now, furniture production has been
organized in a functional and specialized way: one department produces the legs, another
table tops, other seats, etc. Finally, the various parts are assembled in the meeting room.
Previous research showed that this production method was unsatisfactory. Errors were
made in the sequencing of orders, there was little coordination between the production
activities of the various departments, and there was no room for improvement in the quality
of the products. The goal is to design a new production structure in which a particular
department takes care of all necessary operations, from partial production to assembly and
shipping. This means that all specialized departments will have to be closed and experts
will have to work together in so-called integrated teams. The organization commissions a
consulting company A. This firm develops a large-scale reorganization plan, which
includes the design of a new production structure. As a researcher, you have been asked to
back up this design with relevant knowledge.

Research objective

The objective of the research project is to make recommendations to consultant A on the

design of a new production structure by comparing a preliminary version of the new
production design and the conditions of a successful implementation of this design with
existing workflows, expected order employee flows and skills.

When the researcher decides to develop a design-oriented research project, he or she needs
to distinguish between four different types of requirements: functional requirements,
contextual requirements, user requirements and structural requirements. Functional
requirements are the functions that the intervention or artifact that must be produced must
fulfill. In the case of problem-solving interventions, these requirements mostly consist of
the conditions that stakeholders believe will be necessary for successful implementation of
the design. For example, in the case of an object such as a computer software program, a
new type of grass, a new type of air pollution sensor, the functional requirements determine
the performance of this object. These requirements can be formulated in detail as a result of
an empirical research project.
As can be deduced from the word itself, contextual requirements are requirements that
derive from the environment where the object will be installed and used. We can
distinguish between the requirements of the political, economic, social and transactional
context. User requirements refer to the wishes and demands of the people who will use the
object in the future. Finally, there are also structural requirements. These are the material
and intangible characteristics of the policy, strategy or intended object, which are necessary
to meet functional, contextual and user requirements. Therefore, the structural requirements
can be deduced from the other three sets of requirements.

Therefore, a design-oriented research project involves both the collection and analysis of
empirical data with respect to functional, contextual and user requirements, as well as
structural requirements that can be deduced from the other requirements.

Assignment

Read carefully the following text.

The 'Green Heart'

A central committee made up of high-ranking officials, responsible for the spatial planning
of three connected counties, is tasked with designing a "Green Heart" for the region. The
Green Heart is the name given to a vast area covering parts of all three counties, and which
will have a rural and recreational designation. All committee members support the creation
of such an area. However, the three county governments have different opinions regarding
the development of this area. Do we need more recreation in this area? Will we accept
roads and railways in the 'Green Heart'? Under what conditions will we allow large-scale
agricultural activities?

The differences between opinions are enormous. County governments have different views
on overall policy, and officials differ in their opinions on how best to implement the 'Green
Heart'. Additionally, there are several environmental organizations that have their own
ideas on these issues. Due to the major implications of the implementation of the different
proposals, the three counties recently carried out a large-scale investigation in order to
gather the opinions of all stakeholders involved. Subsequently, the central committee
commissioned a consulting company specializing in environmental issues to design a
spatial planning plan regarding the implementation of the 'Green Heart'. The goal is to
develop a plan that can be accepted by all three counties.

Assignment

Formulate the research objective of a design-oriented research project within the context of
the project described above.

Intervention-oriented research

The initial project context may encompass an existing plan to solve the problem that has
not yet been implemented in the organization. It's also possible that the rollout has just
begun. In that case, you may consider conducting an intervention-oriented research project
with the goal of providing data that the company can use to successfully implement an
intervention plan. This type of research is known as a monitoring or change-oriented
project. The person carrying out the project gathers a constant flow of data regarding the
execution of the intervention plan. Based on this data, the person or department that has to
solve the problem can determine if everything is progressing according to plan. He or she
should monitor bottlenecks that may occur and parts of the plan that may need to be
corrected. After all, no matter how well formulated the problem analysis, diagnosis, and
design plan is, the implementation stage could still involve countless factors that can make
it difficult to find a satisfactory solution to the problem.

Intervention-oriented research "Hostel Korteweg"

Project context

Hostel Korteweg is an insurance broker that acts as an intermediary for the insurance of
exceptionally large projects, such as drilling rigs, a visit of the Pope or an exhibition. The
organization wishes to improve the relationship with its customers and has established a
'Relationship Management' project. The project involves training staff to serve customers in
a more customer-friendly manner and informing customers about the new customer-
oriented policy. The project manager is concerned about the success of the project and has
implemented a support team to channel the changes. An organizational research project
intends to contribute to this support.

Research objective

The objective of the research is to make recommendations to the project manager of the
'Relationship Management' project on improving the implementation of the project by
closely monitoring and describing the implementation of the various steps of the project,
resulting in an updated overview of possible problems. implementation (monitoring).

Assignment

Please read the following text carefully.

The 'sound proof barrier'

Because many citizens complained, the city government developed a policy regarding
soundproof barriers. The policy consists of a set of regulations that allow citizens in certain
clearly demarcated areas of the city to apply for a subsidy to install soundproofing material
outside their homes. The municipal environmental planning department, however, has
foreseen problems related to the implementation of this policy.

Assignment

Formulate the research objective of an implementation-oriented research project within the

context of the project described above. Present an integral part (b) in which you indicate the
information, knowledge and ideas that the research project will produce.
Evaluation research

After implementing an intervention, the next and final question for now is: To what extent
has the intervention been successful? This involves ex-post evaluation research. In general,
we can distinguish between three types of ex post evaluation, depending on the objective of
the research: plan, process and product evaluation. Has the plan proven to be feasible and
desirable (plan evaluation), has it been well implemented (process evaluation), and are the
results satisfactory (product evaluation)?

Evaluation research often resembles problem analysis research. In both cases, one
compares a current situation with a desired situation. The difference is that, in the case of
problem analysis, the research takes place before the intervention and in the second case
after the intervention. In both types of research, the project designer selects or designs a set
of criteria, norms and standards that he compares with the current situation. It is clear that
the results of evaluation research can contribute to solving problems. This contribution can
be made in the form of suggestions to improve existing policy, strategic management and
interventions in the future.

Example 'Project management systems'

Project context

For several years, the Ministry of the Interior in the Netherlands has struggled to support
municipalities in implementing the computerized MPA system (MPA stands for 'Municipal
Population Administration'). Two years ago, the project manager, whose job was to
implement the government policy improvement plan MPA, implemented a new Y project
management method in order to support the implementation of the AMP in a number of
large municipalities. The question, however, is whether this Y project management method
has been successful. This is the topic of a public management evaluation research project.

Research objective

The objective of the research is to make recommendations to the improvement MPA

project manager regarding the improvement of AMP project management by conducting an
evaluation of the evaluation of the evaluation of the effectiveness of the improvement
MPA, based on an evaluation of the cost control and time management and internal
communication regarding AMP projects in four large municipalities by adopting the Y
project management method.

In policy studies, evaluation research is by far the most common type of practice-oriented
research. In the case of ex-post evaluation, the intervention has already taken place, which
means that the controversial problems have been resolved. However, stakeholders have
expectations regarding the results. The evaluation researcher can evaluate whether these
expectations have been met and whether or not the cause of the errors has been determined.
He or she can also suggest how the situation can be improved in the future. This type of
evaluation research is ideal for a master's thesis or doctoral project because the researcher is
not likely to have a stake in the outcome. This allows the researcher to remain independent
and concentrate fully on his or her task of producing relevant knowledge, insight and
information.

Assignment

Read carefully the following text.

'Traffic and transportation policy'

A few years ago, the Provincial Executive developed a new plan on traffic and
transportation. This plan consists of the provincial policy regarding traffic and
transportation within the province. The plan was intended to reduce traffic jams by
stimulating public transportation. The plan was extensive and consisted of both the details
of the target figures as well as the implementation strategy and project organization. The
question that must be answered is whether the plan was successful. You are tasked by the
Provincial Executive to carry out an all-inclusive ex post evaluation research project,
focusing on the evaluation of products, plans and processes.

Assignment

Formulate the research objective of:

to. An ex post evaluation investigation within the context of the project described above,
focusing on the evaluation of the product;
b. An ex-post evaluation investigation within the context of the project described above,
focusing on the evaluation of the plan;
c. An ex post evaluation research project within the context of the project described above,
focusing on process evaluation.

At the end of this chapter, we present a step-by-step approach that will be useful to a
researcher who wants to design a suitable research objective for his or her research project.

A step-by-step approach based on an example

By following the six steps below, the reader can make an effective formulation of the
project context and objective of a research project.

Research objective
1. Determine whether you will opt for a theory-oriented or practice-oriented research
project.
2. Explore the context of the project based on the questions on page 34. Determine who will
be the person in charge.
3. Determine which of the two types of theory-oriented research, or which of the five types
of practice-oriented research, you will choose, based on your exploration of the project
context.
4. Formulate the research objective of the research.
5. Verify the objective of the research in its form and content. The form should be: The
objective of the research project is... (a). upon realizing... (b) ... (see page 38), The content
must meet the criteria of usefulness, feasibility and clarity, and must be informative. Where
appropriate, adjust your research objective.
6. Examine whether the research objective requires reorientation. If so, carry out the
reorientation and see if the research objective needs to be adjusted (iteration).

Using this step-by-step approach in the case of "Providence & Prudence", as

described in the introduction to this chapter, yields the following result.
Step 1: Project Type
In view of the nature of the problem and the expectations people have, opt for a practice-
oriented project.
Step 2: Project Context:
-What are the problems within the context of the project? - How do people perceive these
problems?

The 'Providence & Prudence' management team anticipates problems in configuring and
implementing the reorganization and computerization plan. Some animosity can be felt
towards these changes. Some employees fear that their jobs will change dramatically.

What is the background of these problems?

The management team of "Providence & Prudence" believes that the problems stem from
the various negative experiences that staff members have encountered during the previous
reorganization process. Generally, they expect things to go wrong again. People in the
organization have different views on why the previous project failed. Some blame the IT
department for not paying enough attention to user interests. Others blame management for
having a passive attitude. Others distrust the project and consider it a hidden way to reduce
labor.

- Where are the people looking for possible solutions?

Management has elected to call in an independent consulting firm to support the project.
This firm has presented a proposal that consists of different stages. The reader will
recognize four stages of the intervention cycle:
• Stage 1: make a list of the main problems related to the reorganization (problem analysis
and diagnosis);
• Stage 2: develop a plan for the complete redesign of the organization (design);
• Stage 3: draw up a plan for the introduction and implementation of the reorganization
(implementation);
• Stage 4: carry out an ex post evaluation of the reorganization (evaluation).

- Who is commissioning the project?

The project will be carried out by a member of the consulting firm 'Mulder'.
Recommendations will be offered to lead consultant A, who has responsibility for the
project as a whole.

Step 3: Type of Investigation Recently, the consulting firm conducted a problem analysis
investigation that resulted in a clear description of the anticipated problems. This allows the
researcher to design diagnostic investigations. More specifically, he or she decides to
design an opinion research project.

Step 4: objective of the research The objective of the research in the master's thesis is to
make recommendations to the main advisor A of the consulting firm 'Mulder', on how to
improve the implementation plan of an organizational redesign of 'Providence & Prudence'
by providing a overview of the opinions, expectations and evaluations of the various groups
of interested employees regarding the bottlenecks they anticipated during the planned
reorganization and regarding possible solutions for these bottlenecks.

Step 5: Quality Control

To form
When formulating the research objective of Step 4 above, the structure should be: 'achieve
(a) by realizing (b)', that is, ... improve implementation plan (a) ... providing an overview of
. .. (second).

Content
The usefulness of the research objective can be derived directly from the contribution that
the research project has made to Stage 1 of the project. It is a feasible research objective,
based on a project that could take up to six months. It is plausible that the opinion summary
as well as the corresponding report can be carried out within this time (see also Chapter 8).
This is a clear research objective since the results of the project are predictable. Naturally,
there are other possible types of research objectives. Within the framework of Stage 1, the
research project could comprise, for example, a study of the weaknesses and strengths
found in the organizational structure and corporate culture of "Providence & Prudence".
This would also form a clear research objective.

The research objective would also provide a lot of information, and general indications can
be given as to what information is useful in achieving the research objective.

Step 6: Iteration In this example, there is no reason to reorient the project context.