General Mathematics

LOGIC Notation: Variables are used to represent propositions. The most common
variables used are p, q, and r. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true, which
Logic has been studied since the classical Greek period (600 – 300 BC). The is denoted by T; otherwise, its true value is false, which is denoted by F.
Greeks, most notably Thales, were the first to formally analyze the reasoning process.
Aristotle (384 – 322BC), the “father of logic”, and many other Greeks searched for
universal truths that were irrefutable. A second great period for logic came with the EXAMPLES: Determine whether this sentence answerable by True or False.
use of symbols to simplify complicated logical arguments. George Boole (1815 – 1. Department of Education announces this school year class start on August
1864) is considered the “father of symbolic logic”. He developed logic as an abstract 24.
mathematical system consisting of defined terms (propositions), operations 2. May 30, 2021 will be the last day of school.
(conjunction, disjunction, and negation), and rules for using the operations. 3. When will you allowed to go to school?
4. Answer pages 5 to 15 of this module.
5. 6 + 4 = 10

In the Activity, sentences 1, 2 and 5 are proportions. The truth or falsity of each
can be determined by a direct check. However, sentence 3 and 4 cannot be answered
Sentences classified according to the purpose of the speaker or writer: as being true or false. Sentence 3 is a question (interrogative sentence) and sentence 4
1. Declarative Sentence makes a statement and give information that is a command (imperative sentence).
normally end with a full – stop/period.
2. Interrogative Sentence ask a question of something or some There are some sentences that are not propositions.
information and always end with a question mark. 1. “Do you want to go to the movies?” Since a question is not a declarative
3. Imperative Sentence give a command telling someone to do sentence, it fails to be a proposition.
something and end with a full-stop/period or exclamation mark/point. 2. “Clean up your room.” Likewise, an imperative is not a declarative
4. Exclamative Sentence express strong emotion/surprise – an sentence; hence, fails to be a proposition.
exclamation – and always end with an exclamation mark/point. 3. “2x = 2 + x.” This is a declarative sentence, but unless x is assigned a
ACTIVITY 1: Identify and label each sentence as declarative, interrogative, value or is otherwise prescribed, the sentence neither true nor false, hence,
imperative, or exclamatory. not a proposition.
4. “this sentence is false.” What happens if you assume this statement is true?
1. Frontlines are considered heroes during COVID–19 pandemic. False? This example is called a paradox and is not a proposition, because it
2. Stop COVID-19! is neither true nor false.
3. Why does it spread that fast?
4. Have you heard of the good news?
5. Please stay home
ACTIVITY 2: Decide whether each of the following is a proposition or is not a
proposition.
1 A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.
 1. Rudrego R. Dutente is the president of the Philippines.
2. 6 x 6 = 36
3. The number 4 is even and less than 12
4. Ouch!
5. What time is it?
6. x + 2 = 4 Conjunction
7. Joan’s solution is incorrect. If two simple propositions p and q are connected by the word ‘and’, then the resulting
8. Open your eyes. compound proposition “p and q” is called a conjunction of p and q and is written in
9. Malolos is the capital of Bulacan. symbolic form as “p ˄ q”.
10. How old are you?
Example: Form the conjunction of the following simple propositions:
p: Jethro is a boy.
Simple Proposition – a proposition that conveys one thought with no connecting q: He is a grade 5 pupil.
words.
Solution: The conjunction of the proposition p and q is given by
Example: p ˄ q: Jethro is a boy and he is a grade 5 pupil.
“2 is an even number”
“A square has all its sides equal”
Disjunction
Compound Proposition – contains two or more simple propositions that are put If two simple propositions p and q are connected by the word ‘or’, then the resulting
together using connective words. compound proposition “p or q” is called a disjunction of p and q and is written in
Example: symbolic form as “p ˅ q”.
“11 is both an odd and prime number” can be broken into two
propositions. Example: Form the disjunction of the following simple propositions:
“11 is an odd number” and “11 is a prime number” so it is a p: Joyce will pass all her subject.
compound statement. q: She will be retained

Simple proposition can be combined to form compound propositions by using Solution: The disjunction of the proposition p and q is given by
logical connectives or simply, connectives. Words such as and, or, nor and if… then p ˅ q: Joyce will pass all her subject or she will be
are example of connectives. retained.

Conditional
Basic Logical Connectives If two simple propositions p and q are joined by a connectivity ‘if then’, then the
resulting compound proposition “if p then q” is called a conditional proposition or an
If the proposition is compound, then 2it must be one of the following:
conjunction, disjunction, conditional, biconditional, or negation.
 ⇒
implication and is written in symbolic form as “p → q” or “p ❑ q”. Here, p is called ~p: School year 2020 – 2021 will not start on June 1.
hypothesis (or antecedent) and q is called conclusion (or consequent) of the or
⇒ ~p: It is not the case that the school year 2020 – 2021 will start on June 1.
conditional proposition (p ❑ q). The conditional p →q may also be read “p implies
or
q”. ~p: It is false that the school year 2020 – 2021 will start on June 1.

Examples: Negation of the Disjunction p or q

1. If Ariel work hard then he will be successful. ~ (p ˅ q) means ~ p ˄ ~ q
2. If you eat more then you lost your diet.
3. If ABC is a triangle, then ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180ᵒ. Negation of the Disjunction p or q
4. If Jonathan is in Grade 11, then he is a Senior High School student ~ (p ˄ q) means ~ p ˅ ~ q

Biconditional Example: Let p represent the proposition “Bang is beautiful”, and

If two proposition p and q are connected by the connective ‘if and only if” then the Let q represent the proposition “Joan is cute”.
resulting compound proposition “p if and only if q” is called a biconditional of p and
q and is written in symbolic form as p ↔ q. The proposition may also be written as “p 1. Write the following in symbols and then in words.
iff q”. The propositions p and q are the components of the biconditional. a. The conjunction of the negation of p and q

Examples: Solution:
1. “Two sides of a triangle are congruent if and only if two angles opposite In symbol: ~ p ˄ ~ q.
them are congruent. In words: Bang is not beautiful, and Joan is not cute.
2. Larseny is a STEM student if and only if she likes Science.
b. The disjunction of the negation of p and q
Negation Solution:
An assertion that a statement fails, or denial of a statement is called the negation of In symbol: ~ p ˅ ~ q.
the statement. The negative of a statement is generally formed by introducing the word In words: Either Bang is not beautiful, or Joan is not cute.
“not” at some proper place in the statement or by prefixing the statement with “it is
not the case that” or “It is false that”. The negation of a statement p in symbolic form c. The negation of the conjunction of p and q
is written as “~p”. Solution:
In symbol: ~ (p ˄ q).
In words: It is not the case that Bang is beautiful and Joan is cute.

Example: Write the negation of the statement. d. The negation of the disjunction of p and q
p: School year 2020 – 2021 will start on June 1. Solution:
In symbol: ~ (p ˅ q).
Solution: The negation of p is given by In words: It is not the case that either Bang is beautiful, or Joan is cute.
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Symbols Let p represent the proposition “Facebook is a source of
information.”
If x and y are the frequently used letters in algebra, the letters p, q, or r are often used q represent the proposition “Social Media spread fake news.”
to represent propositions in logic. The table below shows the several symbols for
connectives, together with the respective types of compound proposition. a. Facebook is a source of information and social media spread fake news.

Table 1: Types of compound proposition b. Facebook is not a source of information or social media do not spread fake
news.
c. It is not the case that social media spread fake news and Facebook is a
Connective Symbol Type of Statement
source of information.
and ˄ Conjunction
d. If Facebook is a source of information, then social media spread fake
or ˅ Disjunction news.
not ~ Negation e. Social Media spread fake news if and only if Facebook is a source of
If … then → Conditional information.
If and only if ↔ Biconditional
(iff) ACTIVITY 5: Let p represent the proposition “Television network remains shut
down” and q represent the proposition “The network paid their
ACTIVITY 3: Classify each proposition as simple or compound. Classify each taxes”. Write each symbolic statement in words.
compound proposition as conjunction, disjunction, conditional, or biconditional, and
negation. a. p ˅ q

1. My daughter will take a nursing course. b. ~q ˄ p

2. His uncle’s name is not Manny.
3. A positive integers n is divisible by 3, if and only if, the sum of the digits c. p→q
of n is divisible by 3.
4. Either Hazel wants to go to Davao or she wants to visit her mother in d. ~ (p ˄ q)
Misamis Oriental.
5. Mich is diligent and intelligent student. e. ~ (q ˅ p)
6. My friend took his master's degree in Spain.
7. You are entitled to a 30% discount if and only if you are a member.
8. Amy is not a volleyball player.
9. Either he watches a movie or dines with his friends.
10. If it is an acute angle, then it has less than 90 degrees.

ACTIVITY 4: Convert each compound proposition into symbols.

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