Chapter 18/19 bio review

● 6 kingdom system and 3 domains

● Evolutionary trees and cladograms
● Traditional and modern classification
● Adaptive radiation
● Convergent evolution (with examples)
● Cladistic analysis
● Mass extinction
● Earth’s early atmosphere (what it was made of and how it changed)
● Endosymbiotic theory
● Where genetic diversity come from
● How sexual reproduction adds to genetic diversity
● Organization of species, in order of largest to smallest
● Rules of writing genus and species
● Element used for radioactive dating
● Macro vs microevolution
● dichotomous keys
● Linnaeus and his system and how it was updated
● Fossil records
● Half-lives
● Index fossils
● Plate tectonics and their role in speciation
● Binomial nomenclature
● Naming of organisms and characteristics involved
● Use of systematics
● Molecular clocks
● DNA and its role in classifying organisms
● Equilibrium

Taxonomy:
Kingdom Animalia includes 36 phyla (will investigate the 9 most common phyla)
Starting from the most basic (Porifera) to the most advanced (chordates)
Phyla covered include 1: porifera, cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Mollusca, Annelida,
Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Chordata) Will also look at subphyla and classes in Chordata
(Tunicata, Cephalochordata, hemichordata, Vertebrata, agnatha, chondrichthys, osteichthyes,
amphibia, reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia)

Symmetry: means of external characterization = organization

1: radial = can be divided into multiple equal portions (starfish, sponges, etc)
2: bilateral = can be divided into 2 equal halves (humans, dogs, etc)
3: asymmetrical = no symmetry (most sponges)

Dorsal (back) vs ventral (stomach)

Anterior (head side) vs posterior (back side)
Medial = in the middle (ACL/MCL in knee median in the road)
Lateral = off to the side (LCL)
Proximal (near origin) vs distal (away from the origin)
Superior (above) vs inferior (below)

Phylum: Porifera (Latin for “pore bearer”) = sponges

Porifera are the most basic animals and are traditionally considered plants, some have a
symbiotic relationship with algae. Most are saltwater sponges and can be radial or
asymmetrical. Have suspension/filter feeders and a central hollow core called the osculum
Amoebocytes: produce spicules (skeleton-like material composed of minerals/flexible spongin)
that transport food throughout the animals. Choanocytes have flagella that move water

Phylum: Cnidaria (Coelenterata): Stinging cell animals, all have cnidocytes (stingers)
Includes jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals and have radial symmetry but some are bilateral
2 body forms, polyps (ex: hydra) or medusa (ex: jellyfish) They’re carnivorous and have
incomplete digestion (have a gastrovascular cavity, food moves in, digests, then waste moves
back out of mouth)

Phylum: Platyhelminthes (flatworms): over 20,000 species and have bilateral symmetry
Also, have incomplete gastrovascular activity and have no acoelomate
3 classes: turbellaria (planarians), free-living and non-parasitic” Trematoda (flukes) and
Cestoda (tapeworms) are parasitic)

Phylum: nematoda (roundworms): they are covered by a cuticle (nonliving tissue that resists
drying) and have complete digestive tracts (mouths and anus). They have a pseudo coelom
body cavity and are among the most numerous in number and species. 90,000 known species
but low bodies form diversity. They act as decomposers and parasites (much research done on
roundworms (Caenorhabditis elegans) contains only 1000 cells and are easy to do gene
research on)

Phylum: Mollusca: high diversity of species (150,000+). Includes snails, slugs, bivalves,
octopuses, squid, tusk shells, chitons, nautilus, etc. Have a complete digestive tract (tube within
a tube body plan) and most have shells and radulas (teeth-like structures). They have soft
tissues that include feet, visceral masses (organs), and mantle. There are separate sexes but
some are intersex. Classes include: gastropods (gaster = belly and pous = foot), pelecypods
aka Bivalvia (bi = two and valva = leaf), and cephalopods (kephale = head and pous = foot and
includes squid and octopi)

Phylum: Annelida (from latin anellus = ring) segmented worms allow for flexibility. Other
segmented phyla include arthropods. They have a complete digestive tract (tube within a tube
body plan) and have a true coelom. 3 main classes include oligochaeta (earthworms) that can
process lots of soil, polychaeta (polychaetes/bristle worms/x-mas tree worms), and hirudinea
(leeches) - blood suckers that release anticoagulants and anesthetic and are also used for
medicinal purposes.
Phylum: arthropoda: have a jointed exoskeleton (composed of chitin + protein = can molt, ex:
soft shell crab, tarantula exoskeleton) Estimated to be 10^18 in the world and the most
numerous phyla in terms of number, diversity, and distribution = most successful phylum on
earth, partly due to coevolution with plants. Classes include Merostomata (horseshoe crab),
crustacea (lobsters, crayfish, crabs, and shrimp), Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites),
Diplopoda (millipedes), Chilopoda (centipedes), and Insecta (grasshoppers, butterflies, beetles,
bees/wasps, etc). Insects have been around for 400 million years and most live in most
terrestrial, air, or freshwater habitats, but are rare in marine. They have heads, thorax, and
abdomen and have 3 pairs of legs and 1-2 pairs of wings. They are the most diverse class and it
includes 26 orders, including Coleoptera (beetles), the most diverse. Metamorphosis
(incomplete = larvae look like an adult or complete = larvae DO NOT look like an adult)

Phylum: Echinodermata: includes sand dollars, sea stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.
Have radial symmetry as adults but larvae are bilateral. They are advanced organisms with hard
endoskeletons. They have a collection of tube feet (water vascular system) that is used for
feeding and movement) Over 7,000 species with true coelom (body cavity) and have similar
coelom development to lancelets (chordates)

Phylum: Chordata: Every organism has the following traits and some only as embryos. They
have dorsal, hollow nerve cords (spinal cord, branching nerves that connect to organs) and
notochords (the long supportive rod that runs through the body, usually only found in embryos).
They also have pharyngeal gill slits (in pharynx) and the presence of a post-anal tail (which
turns into a tailbone). This phylum includes 4 subphyla (3 ⁄ 4 are invertebrates) 1:
Hemichordata: They are very similar to echinoderms, have gill slits, and are thought to be the
missing link to invertebrates and vertebrates. (ex: acorn worms)
2: Tunicata (ex: tunicates/sea squirts): They are suspension feeders that lack notochords,
nerve cords, and tails but they have prominent gill slits. Larvae have notochords, nerve cords,
and tails.
3: Cephalochordata (have cephalization/head, ex: lancelet). They have all 4 chordate features
and segmentation and this makes them the closest relative to subphylum vertebrata. They have
a blade-like shape and are suspension feeders like Tunicata.
4: Vertebrata: Vertebrates have segmented vertebrae and a skull, it also includes 7 classes.
1: class agnatha (jawless fish, ex: lampreys) 35 species with a cartilaginous skeleton
2: class chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish with cartilaginous skeletons) Includes 750 species
that include sharks, rays, and skates. They have gills and paired forefins and hindfins and have
lateral lines (sensitivity to changes in water pressure) They must swim to oxygenate their gills,
have sharp vision, and are small, also streamlined.
3: class Osteichthyes (bony fish = fish with bones) 30,000 species include perch and sea
horses. Skeletons are reinforced with a matrix of calcium phosphate and have an operculum
(gill flaps that allow protection are able to breathe w/o swimming). Swim bladders help them
remain buoyant and have lateral lines. Many have scales and have good eyesight and a sense
of smell
4: class amphibia (includes frogs, toads, and salamanders) Rapid decline in diversity due to
pollution and pathogens. They require aquatic and terrestrial adaptations They lay their eggs in
water and are the 1st terrestrial vertebrates (from lungfish crawling onto land)
5: class reptilia (includes lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodiles, and alligators, 6500 species). They
have adaptations that amphibians don’t have, scalded skin, shelled eggs, amniotic eggs (self-
contained), and ectothermic (cold-blooded, using an external heating mechanism).
6: class aves (birds) 8,600 species and fossil evidence suggest that they evolved from reptiles.
They have amniotic eggs, scales, on feet, body form, keratin in nails, and feathers that are
derived from reptile scales. They also have flight adaptations (lack teeth, feathers with hollow
shafts, tail supported by a few vertebrae, porous bones, large muscles, airfoil wing shape, high
metabolism, endothermic (warm-blooded), good vision, and efficient circulatory and respiratory
systems).
7: class mammalia: evolved from reptiles 220 mya. They are endothermic with hair/mammary
glands 3 groups: monotremes = egg layers (platypus) 2: marsupials = birth, use pouches and
placental tissues, and 3: eutherians (us) with placental tissues.