Industrial Sensors

Programmable Logic Controllers Industrial Controls

2/11/2003

Sensors are the eyes and ears of the PLC system. Without sensor the PLC has no idea what the current state is of the process it is trying to control.

Overview
Classification of Sensors Sensor Types
Analog Digital

Wiring Example Applications

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There are several ways to classify sensors. Some of these classification schemes will be discussed. The output of a sensor can fall in two different categories. If the sensor senses when its input is above or below a threshold the sensor type is digital or discrete. If the sensor senses a continuum of values, the sensor is analog. Wiring of sensors is shown so that the sensor may be powered and a signal returned. Some typical applications of sensors is discussed at the end of this presentation.

Sensor Types
Contact type must be activated by process being monitored Non-contact type indirectly activated by process being monitored

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Some sensors come in direct contact with the object, whose property it is being detecting. If contact is permissible this is the most common type of sensor used. The primary reason being that cost is the lowest. Examples of contact type sensors are limit switches. When the object is in position the limit switch is energized allowing a voltage to be present or not present on the input modules node. Whether the signal is present or absent when the switch is energized depends on whether the switch is normally-open or normally-closed. Other times it is impossible or to costly to make direct contact with the object. Then the object is monitored in a remote and non-contact way. Often this involves using a transducer. Because of the added transducer the cost of non-contact sensor is usually higher.

Sensor Types
Digital sensors interface with discrete I/O modules on PLC
lowest cost sensor and I/O module only detect discrete state changes

Analog sensors interface to ADC or DAC modules on PLC

An other way to classify sensors is whether the output is a digital level or a continuum of values. In the case of digital sensor the signal is in one of two different states. When the measured parameter is below a specified threshold, the output is false. When it is above that threshold it is true. Many digital sensors have a knob to adjust the threshold level. This can be a blessing and a curse. It is a blessing in that it allows the sensors application to be tailored to the applications needs. The curses is in that threshold may drift or be maliciously changed. This requires the threshold to be set again by a trained and qualified person. Analog sensor produce a current or voltage proportional to the parameter being measures. As an example a thermal couple may be used to measure temperature. This signal may be amplified and applied to an analog in module on the PLC or a special thermocouple/millivolt input module may be used.

Digital Sensors
Optical monitoring
Detectors
Light sensing (light-on) with or without delay Dark sensing (dark-on) with or without delay

Detector and source

Optical sensor are used to monitor the presents or absences of an object between the light source and the detector. A light sensing optical sensor produces a logic-1 our when light is falling on the detector. Their may or may not be a time delay associated with the sensor. With a delay, the sensor will ignore interruptions less than the delay period. Without delay, the sensor output will have 1-0-1 glitches caused by the short interruption in the light path. Dark sensing is the opposite of light sensing in the the output is a logic-1 when the beam is broken and logical-0 when the beam unbroken. Dark sensing device may or may not have a delay. The delay works similar to that of the light sensing devices. When light hits the sensor for short period the output changes quickly from 0 to 1 to 0 when no delay is provided by the device. With the delay the 0-1-0 glitch is masked from the sensor output. Polarized photo sensors have a polarizing filter on the source and the detector. The polarizing filter on the source blocks all light except that that has a given E-H polarization. Lets say horizontal polarization. The sensor has a matching polarizing filter. This only allows light with a horizontal polarization to enter the detector. Stray light source are unlikely to also produce horizontally polarized light. This reduces the chances of noise in the system with sporadic pulses in the sensor output. Retro-reflective sensor have the source and detector in the same package. The light exits the source, travel across the path of object to be detected. The light hits a

Digital Sensors
Optical monitoring
Detector and source
Convergent photo-sensors Fiber-optic sensors Color mark sensor Laser sensor

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Digital Sensors
Optical monitoring
Encoders
Absolute encoders Relative or incremental encoders quadrature tachometer or dingle track

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In principle, absolute encoders are similar to incremental encoders, in that a rotating disk interrupts a photodetector to produce an output signal. However, absolute encoders are different in two very important ways: 1. Every position of an absolute encoder is unique. Unlike an incremental encoder, where position is determined by counting pulses from a zero mark or home base, the absolute encoder reads a system of coded tracks to establish position information. No two positions are alike. 2. Absolute encoders do not lose position when power is removed. Since each position is unique, true position verification is available as soon as power is up. It is not necessary to initialize the system by returning to home base. Photodetector Stationary mask LED Light source Rotating Encoder Disk

Digital Sensors
Non-optical Monitoring
Ultrasonic sensors

Electro-magnetic Monitoring
Inductive sensors or inductive pickup
sensing distance hysteresis

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Ultrasonic sensors are some times used in place of optical sensors. Instead of using an light beam, a high frequency sound wave is used. This sound wave is above normal hearing frequencies and are called ultrasonic. Frequencies around 40 KHz are common. It the device is ferromagnetic and inductive sensor may be used. As the distance to the ferromagnetic changes the inductance in the system changes. If a permanent magnet acts as the source, the flux density will changes which can be detected by a coil. This changing flux density will induce a voltage on the coils. This voltage is then

Analog Sensors
Accuracy -- refers to the fixed amount a sensor reading deviates from a known or calibrated input. Precision -- refers to the ability of the sensor to replicate is measurement. Repeatability -- can measurement be repeated to within specified accuracy and precision
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Accuracy relates to the difference between the reading and the know true value. If the output is within say 3 microvolts of 320 millivolts and the known true value is 322 millivolts, this sensor is accurate. If instead the output is within say 3 microvolts of 320 millivolts and the known true value is 567 millivolts, this sensor is inaccurate. Precision relates to the repeatability of the sensor. If the true value is 678 millvolts and the sensor reading is 677 millivolts 89 millivolts the sensor is imprecise but accurate. This is because precision relates the deviations about the mean. A sensor with high repeatability must have high accuracy and high precision.

Precision Error
Precision error is always present when successive measurements of an unchanging quantity yield different numerical values
Reading True Value Time

Imprecise but may be accurate

The figure above indicates that precision is a statistical property of the sensor. Since the mean is close to the true value the accuracy is high. But since the variance is high the sensor is imprecise. Precision relates to the variance or distance squared from the mean of each reading. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

Accuracy Error
Accuracy error is always present when the numerical average of successive reading deviates from the known correct reading and continues to deviate no matter how many readings are made. Reading True Value

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Precise but may be inaccurate

Time
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The figure above indicates that accuracy is a statistical property of the sensor. Since the mean is far from the true value the accuracy is low. But since the variance is low the sensor is precise.

Analog Sensors
Thermocouples
Seebeck thermoelectric effect Most often Peltier style Not Thomas style See text for lettered types

RTD (Resistive Temperature Device)

In early 1820, Seebeck searched experimentally for a relation between electricity and heat. In 1821, he joined two wires of dissimilar metals (copper wire and bismuth wire) to form a loop or circuit. Two junctions were formed by connecting the ends of the wires to each other. He then accidentally discovered that if he heated one junction to a high temperature, and the other junction remained at a cooler temperature a magnetic field was observed around the circuit of different temperatures. He did not recognize, believe, or report that an electrical current was being generated when heat was applied to one junction of the two metals. He used the term thermomagnetic currents or thermomagnetism to express his discovery. During the following two years, 1822-1823, he reports on his continuing observations to the Prussian Academy of Sciences, where he describes this observation as "the magnetic polarization of metals and ores produced by a temperature difference. The basic concept behind thermoelectric modules (TEMs) is the Peltier effect which was discovered in 1834. The Peltier effect occurs whenever current passes through the circuit of two dissimilar conductors; depending on the current direction, the junction of the two conductors will either absorb or release heat. The amount of heat pumped is in direct proportion to the current supplied. The Peltier effect is utilized to its maximum when thermocouples are made of material of different conductivity. Today Kryotherm primarily uses Bismuth Telluride doped with Selenium and Antimony as semiconductor material. Thoroughly refined ingredients are alloyed together to result in polycrystalline semiconductor material with anisotropic properties. Kryotherm vast experience in this field allows us to obtain high-quality thermoelectric material which greatly contributes to our products reliability. Ingots

Analog Sensors
Thermistor
semiconductor devices negative temperature coefficient

IC Temperature Sensor
uses PN junction voltage or current proportional to temperature

Hall effect sensors

A thermistor is a metal oxide semiconductor whose resistance varies with temperature. For a conductor, as its temperature is increased, its resistance will increase. However, the resistance of a semiconductor will decrease with an increase in temperature. Over a wide range of temperature, this change in resistance is very non-linear. However, in a restricted range of 10EC or less, it may appear fairly linear. Because of this, thermistors are employed in a wide range of applications as temperature sensors. The basic physical principle underlying the Hall effect is the Lorentz force. When an electron moves along a direction perpendicular to an applied magnetic field, it experiences a force acting normal to both directions and moves in response to this force and the force effected by the internal electric field. For an n-type, bar-shaped semiconductor, the carriers are predominately electrons of bulk density n. We assume that a constant current I flows along the x-axis from left to right in the presence of a z-directed magnetic field. Electrons subject to the Lorentz force initially drift away from the current line toward the negative y-axis, resulting in an excess surface electrical charge on the side of the sample. This charge results in the Hall voltage, a potential drop across the two sides of the sample. (Note that the force on holes is toward the same side because of their opposite velocity and positive charge.) This transverse voltage is the Hall voltage VH and its magnitude is equal to IB/qnd, where I is the current, B is the magnetic field, d is the sample thickness, and q (1.602 x 10-19 C) is the elementary charge. In some cases, it is

Analog Sensors
Strain Gage
used in bridge configuration compensate for temperature

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The gage is made of a special alloy which changes resistance with strain. This change in resistance is greater than that caused by changes in diameter of the gage components. A standard ohmmeter is not sufficient to measure the small changes in resistance developed in the gage. In order to detect such small resistance changes, the gage is made an arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. Output voltage from the Wheatstone bridge are interpreted as strains in the specimen.

Analog Sensors
Linear Variable Displacement Transformer (LVDT)
additive or series adding connection differential or series opposing connection

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The main advantage of the LVDT transducer over other types of displacement transducer is their high degree of robustness. This is derived from their very principle in which there is no physical contact across the sensing element and so there is zero wear in the sensing element. This also means that RDP Electronics LVDTs can be made waterproof and in a format suitable for the most arduous applications. The LVDT principle of measurement is based on magnetic transfer which also means that the resolution of LVDT transducers is infinite. The smallest fraction of movement can be detected by suitable signal conditioning electronics. The combination of these two factors plus other factors such as accuracy and repeatability has ensured that this technology is still at the forefront of displacement measurement after over 90 years. An LVDT comprises a coil former or bobbin onto which three coils are wound. The first coil, the primary is excited with an a.c. current, normally in the region of 1 to 10kHz at 0.5 to 10V rms. The other two coils, the secondaries are wound such that when a ferrite core is in the central linear position, an equal voltage is induced into each coil. However, the secondaries are connected in opposition so that in the central position the outputs of the two secondaries cancel each other out.

Analog Sensors
Resolvers
based on transformer coupling uses special I/O modules

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Synchros and resolvers, World War II-era technology, still are widely used in modern-day electronic motion-control applications. Essentially, they are transformers. Just like a traditional transformer, they have a primary winding and multiple secondary windings. And just like a transformer, their primary is driven by an AC signal. Synchros and resolvers are very similar; however, there are some differences. As shown in Left Figure (above) a synchro has one primary winding and three secondary windings, with each secondary winding mechanically oriented 120 apart. In contrast, as shown in Right Figure (above) a resolver has two primary windings and two secondary windings oriented at 90 to each other. While a synchro and a resolver are electrically very similar to a transformer, they are mechanically more like a motor. The primary winding in a synchro or a resolver can be physically rotated with respect to the secondary windings. For this reason, the primary winding is called the rotor. The secondary windings, which are fixed, are called stators. Synchros are often used to track the rotary output angle of a closed-loop system, which uses feedback to achieve accuracy and repeatability. A synchro can be turned continuously and, since its secondary winding outputs are analog signals, provide infinite resolution output. As the shaft of a synchro turns, the angular position of its rotor winding changes with respect to its secondary (stator) windings. The relative amplitude of the resulting AC output signals from the secondary windings indicates the rotary

Analog Sensors
Pressure Sensors
based on many technologies measure pressure difference

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Pressure Sensors are based on many technologies and are used to measure pressure difference. If one side is vented to the ambient, the gage measure relative pressure called the gage pressure. The other side of the gage is connected to a chamber whose pressure you are trying to measure. If the one side is not vented to the ambient, the gage is measuring absolute pressure.

Wiring
Load powered sensors 2-wire
Sensor Load or PLC input

Line powered sensor 3-wire

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Some sensor are passive, such as RTD, and you are only measuring and electrical parameter, resistance, that varies with the physical parameter, temperature, that you are measuring. This can be done with two wires. Other sensors are active and require their own power sources. This is a three or four wire sensors. A three wire sensor shares the power supply ground and the sensor signal ground. With a four wire sensor the grounds are not common and often lead to a sensor signal that is not corrupted by supply ground noise.

Wiring
V

PNP or Sourcing

PLC

Sensor V PLC

NPN or Sinking

Sensor

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PLC can have sinking or sourcing inputs. Allen Bradley and most other P{LC manufactures us the sinking approach for inputs and sourcing for outputs. With sinking inputs the two wire sensor is placed between the power rail and the PLC input node. The sensor must then change from a high resistance to a low resistance. For a three or four wire sensor the sensor signal output is attached to the PLC input node. The signal ground is then attached to the PLCs common node for the input module.

Wiring
V

PNP or Sourcing
PLC Sensor V PLC Sensor

NPN or Sinking

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Sourcing PLC required sourcing or PNP type sensors. The term PNP comes from the fact that the PLC input node would most likely be connected to the base of a PNP bipolar junction transistor. When the sensor is in its low resistance state the base of the transistor is grounded. This causes the pnp transistor to turn on which the PLC sees as a logic one. NPN sensor work in a complementary manner. The PLCs input node is assumed to be an npn BJT and the low resistance sensor pulls the base high and the BJT turns on. This is detected as a 1 by the PLC.

Wiring
Consideration
dont confuse wiring circuits mount to protect measurement surface

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Don't confuse the sensor signal and the power supply lead. Interchanging leads more often then not cause the electronics in the sensor to be partially destroyed. Mount so the the surface that is making the measurement is protected. Also Protect the rest of the sensor.

Examples
Packaging system Monitoring station

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