CHAPTER THREE

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES & METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deal with design and construction stage, design considerations for choice of

components and packaging materials, methodology units and how the project implemented to

perform the required functionality

3.2System Design

This project was carried out in four stages. These are as follows and we look at what happens in

each stage.

STAGE ONE: this involves having the schematics of the circuit

STAGE TWO: The circuit is simulated to check for the behavior of each circuit design

procedure

STAGE THREE: At this stage, the implementation of the circuit diagram is

3.2.1 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

This power supply of this project circuit is delivered from a solar panel of 12v. The power supply

circuit is present in figure 3.1 below.

The circuit above presents the 12v solar panel power supply of the project, but because

microcontroller require a stable or regulated +5v power supply of function correctly a +5v

voltage regulated was connected between the 9v battery and the entire circuit of the project.

3.2.2 RECTIFICATION
Rectification is the process of removing the negative part of the alternating current (AC), hence

producing partial DC. This can be achieved by using 4 diodes as shown in figure 3.4. Diode only

allow current to flow in one direction. In the first half cycle of AC Diode, D1 and D3 are forward

biased. This combination convert the positive half cycle into positive

3.2.3 FILTRATION

The output after the rectification is not a proper DC.it is oscillation output and has very high

ripple factor. A filtering capacitor is used to remove the ripple. The capacitor charge till the

waveform goes to its peak and discharge into load circuit when the waveform goes low. The

value of this capacitor can be calculated as.

3.2.4 DIODES

The output after the rectification is not a proper DC. It is oscillation output and has very high

ripple factor. A filtering capacitor is used to remove the ripple. The capacitor charge till the

waveform goes to its peak and discharge into load circuit when the waveform goes low. The

value of this capacitor can be calculated as

3.2.5 DIODES

Diodes are semiconductor devices which might be described as passing current in one direction

only. The latter part of that statement applies equally to vacuum tube diodes. Diodes however are

far more versatile devices than that. They are extremely versatile in fact. Diodes can be used as

voltage regulators, tuning devices in RF tuned circuits. Frequency multiplying devices in RF

circuits, mixing devices in RF circuits. Switching applications or can be used to make logic

decisions in digital circuits. There are also diodes which emit "light", of course these are known

as light-emitting-diodes or LED. Light emitting diodes, commonly called LED's are real unsung
heroes in the electronics world. They do dozens of different jobs and are found in all kinds of

devices. Among other things, they form the numbers on digital clocks, transmit information from

remote controls, light up watches and tell you when your appliances are turned on: Collected

together, they can form images on a jumbo television screen or illuminate a traffic light.

diode

light emitting diode

Fig 3.4: Diode

3.2.6 CAPACITOR
A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of

closely spaced conductors (called 'plates'). When voltage is applied to the capacitor. electric

charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, build up on each plate. Capacitors are used in

electrical circuits as energy-storage devices. Hey can also be used to differentiate between high

frequency and low-frequency signals and this makes them useful in electronic filters. Capacitors

are occasionally referred to as condensers. The capacitor‘s capacitance (C) is a measure of the

amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which

appears between the plates:

C = QN ..................................... 3.0

In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge causes a

Potential difference of one volt across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of

capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (HF), Nan farads (nF) or Pico farads (pF).

Capacitor networks Series or parallel arrangements Capacitors in a parallel configuration have

the same potential difference (voltage). Their total capacitance (C eq) is given by:

Ceq=Cl+C2+...+Cn............................. 3.1

The reason for putting capacitors in parallel is to increase the total amount of charge stored. In

other words. increasing the capacitance also increases the amount of energy that can be stored,

Its expression is:

Estored = l/2CV2 ............................. 3.2

The current through capacitors-in series stays the same, but the voltage across each capacitor can

be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage in parallel

the effective area of the combined capacitor has increased, increasing the overall capacitance.
While in series, the distance between the plates has effectively been increased, reducing the

overall capacitance.

3.2.7 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A Voltage Regulator (also called a "regulator") has only three legs and appears to be a

comparatively simple device but it is actually a very complex integrated circuit. A regulator

converts varying input voltage and produces a constant "regulated" output voltage. Voltage

regulators are available in a variety of outputs, typically volts, 9 volts and 12 volts. The last two

digits in the name indicate the output voltage. The "LM7805" series of voltage regulators are

designed for positive input.

F ig 3.6: Voltage Regulator

Voltage regulator

A voltage regulator LM 7805 is used to provide a regulated +Sv DC. Input voltage of the

regulator should be 2V more than the rated output voltage for proper working of regulator. (BL

Thereja, 2005). Output voltage of voltage regulator is given by

Vout: Vin -2V

Where 2v is the voltage consumed by the internal circuitry of the voltage regulator

Therefore Vin = 5+2 = 7v

3.2.8 RESISTORS

Figure 3.7: Resistor

Resistance is the property of a component which restrict c s the flow of electric current. Energy

is used up as the voltage across the component drives the current through it and this energy

appears as heat in the component. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an

omega | is qullc small for electronics so resistances are often given in k and M. The film resistor

thew resistor are made from metal oxide or small rods of ceramic-codcd metal. These are similar

t0 carbon film resistor and their resistivity is controlled by thickness of the coating layer. The

property like reliability, accuracy and stability are considerably better for these resistors. These

resistors can be obtained in wide range of resistance values (from a new ohm to millions of

ohms).

3.3.2 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (1602)

The liquid crystal display (LCD) is used as a kind of interactive screen that helps guide delegates

through the voting process. It serves as the display unit for the user interface.
Though there are different sizes of LCD’s and different methods for interfacing it with the

Arduino board, the 1602LCD compatible withHitachiHD44780 controller that uses blue

backlight was chosen because of the ease of connecting it with Arduino boards, very low

purchasing price and availability. An Inter Integrated circuit (I2C) interface was also soldered to

the LCD connector pins to reduce the number of jumper wires needed to interface the LCD to

the board from twelve (12) to four (4). With this method, we also eliminate the need to use a

potentiometer or trim pot for character contrast control.

The 1602LCD has two (2) rows of sixteen (16) characters each capable of displaying alphabets,

numbers, smiley’s or any other symbols.

3.2.9 ARDUINO UNO

It is the most flexible hardware platform used based on ATmega328P which can be programmed

according to the function where it is to be used. It has 6 analogue inputs, [4 digital input/output

pins (6 pins of these can be used as PWM outputs), a USB connection, a 16 MHz quartz crystal,

SPI, serial interface, a reset button. A power jack and an ICSP header as shown below.
 Fig 3.8:Arduino UNO

The Arduino microcontroller is not only for technical audience but is intended for Designers and

artists well because of its focus to usability base its design which helps to achieve the intended

goal (Diakopoulos, D. & Kapur. A. 2011) it is the primary component of the framework. In

‘“which n, it is an open source microcontroller device with easily accessible software/hardware

perform and is compatible with many sensors available. Everything needed for its working is

present on the board we only require a USB cable to directly connect it to the computer or give

Power using battery source or AC to DC adapter to get started. Also, it is not expensive and can

be assessed with free authoring software i.e. ID (integrated development environment). With the

availability of a large number of source codes over the internet, the programming of Arduino

becomes easy

3.2.10 SOLAR PANEL

Solar panels are those devices which are used to absorb the sun's rays and convert them into

electricity or heat.
 A solar panel is actually a collection of solar (or photovoltaic) cells, which can be used to

generate electricity through photovoltaic effect. These cells are arranged in a grid-like pattern on

the surface of solar panels.

Thus, it may also be described as a set of photovoltaic modules, mounted on a structure

supporting it. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged and connected assembly of 6×10 solar

cells.

When it comes to wear-and-tear, these panels are very hardy. Solar panels wear out extremely

slow. In a year, their effectiveness decreases only about one to two per cent (at times, even

lesser).
Fig 3.2 pictorial diagram of 12v solar Panel

3.2.11 LEDs (Light Emitting Diode)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when current flows

through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the

form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is

determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor.

[5] White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-

emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device

3.2.1 Design Calculations

Design of the power supply unit

Design of the Sensors using the relation

1.44

F = (R)a+2Rb)ct

Where Ra = changing resistor (timing resistor)

Rb = discharging resistor

ct = timing capacitor

F = — = frequency of oscillation
 t

lett = 0.5 s, Ra = 1m, Rb = l0KΩ

1.44t 1.44 x 0.5 0.72 x 10-6

ct = (Ra + 2Rb) = 10-6f = 0.68µf/16ⱴ

= 0.68 x 10~6f = 0.68fif/16v

Design of the biasing resistor, Q1 Q2 – Rb

Design of the source resistor, Rs1 –Rs14 in the display unit.

Vf 5−2 3
Rs=Vcm− ¿ = = x 103 ¿
If 20 mA 20

=0.15x103

=150Ω

Design of the electromagnetic relay, rl,

rl = minimum coilresistance

rl = vcc = 12v = 0.12 x 103 = 120Ω(min) (Sandra Kay Miller 1996).

Ic 100MA

The consumed power of the system is

= 0.1Amp

Design Calculations
From Fig. 2: R1 and R2 form a potential divider, to reduce the unregulated voltage to a low

voltage of less than 5V. At 220V ac input let VR2 = 1.5V Where VR 2 is the drop across R2 and

V+ is the unregulated voltage. From

R1 = R2 = 8.3kΩ

Req. = 8.3 KΩ + 8.3Ω

= 16.6 KΩ

VO = VRT

Where VO is the voltage across the base-emitter junction of the transistor, and

VREQ is the voltage drop across the equivalent resistors.

VRT = VCC − VREQ

Req
VREQ = × V CC
Req + RT

20.1
= ×5
20.1+ 0.1

= 4.95V

VO = VRT = 5 – 4.95

= 0.5V
Thus;

20.1
VREQ = ×5
20.1+ 30

= 2.5V

But2.5Vis greater than 0.5V so the transistor will be saturated.

To calculate for the base resistor RB;

IBsat = 200mA,

Where VBE is base-emitter voltage,

RB1 is the base limiting current resistor and

VO is the collector voltage.

VO =2.5V, VBE = 0.7V, IRB1 = 4.5mA (chosen)

VO = VRB1 + VBE

VRB1 = VO − VBE

= 2.0 – 0.7

= 1.3V

Therefore

1
X=
2 π ƒC 3
 1
C OSC =
2 πƒ X

1
C OSC = 6
2 π × 900 ×10 × 8.038

C OSC =C 22 pF

T h ecollectorvoltageiscalculatedbelow

V CC =V CE + I C RC

V CC
V CE =
2

12
V CE = = 6V
2

For a collector current I C =5 mA of transistor (BC548)

V CC −V CE
RC =
IC

12−6
RC = −3
5 ×10

RC =R 4=1 KΩwasc h osen ¿

V out =12V dc =V L

I OUT =143.06 mA =I 2
 V 2=220 /240V ac

The diode selected for the rectification is IN4001. This is adequate since the PIV is less than the

breakdown Voltage of IN4001 (50V)

Filter Capacitor

The riffle factor γ is given by

1
γ=
4 √ 3 FC R L

(For bridge rectifier)

V2
R L=
IS

12
R L= −3
143.93 ×10

R L=¿ ¿83.374Ω

But,

Ripple Factor

rmsvalueofcomponent
γ=
dcvalueofloadvoltage

Since the ripple factor is inversely proportional to the dc value of load voltage and the goal of

any power supply is to reduce the ripple as much as possible, or at least to a point where the

load circuit will not be adversely affected by the remaining ac ripple voltage, a very low ripple

factor will be selected.

 Therefore 3.5% ripple factor is selected, because the standard selection of ripple factor

ranges from 1% ¿10 % . any value selected above this can cause problem to the regulator.

Taking γ =3.5%=0.035

1 1
C= =
4 √ 3 Fγ R L 4 √ 3 × 50× 83.374 × 0.035

C=9.8926×10−4 F (100 µFPreferred ¿

Allowances are made (when choosing capacitor voltage) for dc voltage rise due to transformer

regulations in practice, it should be rated to at least 2times the average of load voltage.

2 V max
Averagevalueofloadvoltage=
П

But,

V max =√ 2× V rms

2
Averagevalueoft h eloadvoltage= × √ 2× 12
π

Average value of the load voltage =12.8V

3.1.1 Power supply unit

The single phase ac voltage, typically 230V is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage

down to 12v. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a

simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains
the same dc value even if the input dc voltage varies. This voltage regulation is usually obtained using

one of the popular voltage or IC 7805. The same 220v supply is given to heater

Figure 3: power supply circuit

The 240V a.c is stepped down to 12V a.c using a transformer

Vpeak = √2 × Vrms

Vpeak= √2 × 12V = 16.97V

3.1.1.1 Rectification

The full wave rectifier (Center tap) :- (12VAC to 12VDC)

A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage, using both half

12V cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which one conducts during one half cycle while

the other conducts during the other half cycle of the applied.

Figure 4: Full wave bridge rectifier circuit

A full wave bridge rectifier of 5A is chosen for the capacity to a load up to 2A using IN4001

diodes.

Vdc = 2/π × Vpeak

Vdc = 2/π × 16.97

Vdc = 10.80V

Vmax= 2Vmin/π

Vmax= 13.4*π/2 = 14.8v

Therefore a I5v, 1000mA transformer can be use.

Transformer secondary rating

14.88*1= 14.88VA
Voltage ratio

=240/14.88

=16.129

Is(rms) =14.88/24

=0.062A

3.1.1.2Regulation

Voltage regulator (IC LM7805) :- (12VDC to 5VDC)

The voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level, where they stabilize

the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.

 Figure 5: Regulation Circuit

As a result of the +5, -5, and 12volts requirement of the circuit components used, it is sufficient

to use a 5V and 12V regulators.

LM7805 was choose because they can provide up to 1A load current and have in the chips a

circuit to prevent damage in the overheating and or excess handling capacity of the chips, and

is attached to a heat sink to conduct generated heat away from them, improving their working

condition.

While, in the filtering part, it is preferable to choose a filtering capacitor that will hold the

peak-to-peak ripples at approximately 10% of the peak voltage. Therefore;

Vripple = 0.1Vpeak

Vripple = 0.1 × 16.97

Vripple = 1.697V

But also

Vripple = I/2FC for full wave

Where;

I = current taken by the load

F = frequency of supply

C = filtering capacitor

C = I /2FVripple
 C = 0.17/( 2 × 50 × 1.697)

C = 1002.4µF

From this calculation, a standard value of capacitor of 2200µF was chosen.

The power supply units of the 5V and 12V were tested for the voltage output under no-load

and full load conditions.

At no-load, the voltage of the 5V supply section was measure to be 5.02V while that of the 12V

supply section was measured to be 12.01V. At full load, the respective corresponding voltages

were measure as 4.95V and 11.97V for the 5V and 12V.

The percentage voltage regulation VR is given as

VNL−VFL
VR= ×100 %
VNL

VNL = no load voltage

VFL = full load voltage

For the 5V supply

5. 02−4 . 95
×100=1. 4 %
VR = 5. 02

For The 12V Supply

The test was done on power supply and the result was obtain below;

Vcc1= 5.00v
 Vcc2= 5.21v

3.2.2 choice of components

3.2.3 Design and Simulations

The system simulation

 Fig 3.1 system simulation

3.3 COMPONENTS/MATERIAL USED

3.3.3 List of Components/Materials Required for The Construction

S/N NAME OF COMPONENTS VALUES QUANTITY

1 Transistor IRF3205 2

2 Fans Drivers LN4994n 1

3 Temperature & humidity Sensor DHT11 1

 4 Voltage Regulator 7812 1

5 Diode Rectifier diode 4

6 Arduino Uno Atmega328p 1

7 Resistor 1kohm 5

8 Transformer 230v/12v 1

9 Capacitor Electrolytic 10mF 2

10 Liquid Crystal Display (16*2) 12C connector type 1

11 Light Emitting Diode Blue LED/red 8

12 Vero board Dot type 2

fig 3.2 Component Requirements

1. Power supply 5v battery

2. Arduino uno atmega328

3. Infrared Sensors (IR) sensors.

4. LED indicators

5. Buzzer

6. Resistor

7. Capacitor

8. Voltage regulator

9.
3.3.4 Breadboard Layout

Fig 3.3.2 Breadboard Layout

3.3.5 PCB/Vero board Layout and soldering

Fig 3.3.3 Veroboard Layout

3.3.4 System Assembly and Casing

fig 3.3 System assembly and Casing

3.4 System Operational Principle

the project ‘design and construction of automatic air cooler using Arduino and dht’ works by

measuring the surrounding temperature, when the temperature is more than certain values, the

micro-controller (Arduino) will switch on or off the relays depending on the input values of the
sensor. The system consists of power supply which uses a transformer o step down the 230v Ac

to 24v, a rectifier diode was the used to converts the Ac voltage back to Dc voltage and a voltage

regulator of 5v was used to converts the 24vDC to standard 5v to power the whole system.
 CHAPTER FOUR: TESTS, RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Projects especially those that involve the use of soldering need to undergo some certain tests and

series of check to endure all the component are working. This chapter examine the various

necessary checks and test carry out, the overall system performance based on the result obtained

4.1.2 SYSTEM TEST

Test were conducted both when component was laid on the breadboard and Vero board. But the

final test conducted after the soldering of component (on Vero board) below are outline of

various conducted.

4.2.3 CONTINUITY TEST

this is conducted to ensure free flow of current, In accordance with the system requirement. The

continuity test was conducted in order to ensure that there is no any short circuit or open circuit

in any of the circuit.

4.2.4 OVERHEAT TEST

This is carried out to ensure that all the Micro controllers and other integrated circuits are not

over heating due to the high switching cycle and to maintain constant temperature for good

working of the ICs

4.3 RESULT OBTAINED

By plugging the power cable into the DC from the battery and switch on the power switch.

The table below illustrates the results obtained.

4.2 System Tests

The table below illustrates the results obtained.

S/N Tests Method of testing Expected outcome

1 Power Supply Test Using Digital Multimeter 5.0vDC

2 Continuity test Using Multimeter .all components

should be reading

1500 resistance

between each

power rails.

3 System Tests Test were conducted both

The circuit is
when component was laid
expected to power
on the breadboard and
one when its
Vero board. But the final
connected to a
test conducted after the
power supply.
soldering of component (on

Vero board) below are

outline of various

conducted.
4 Short-circuit tests
The system is
 Using Multimeter expected not to

show any short

circuit reading.

Table 2 testing method and result

4.3 Results

By plugging the power cable and switch turns ON the power switch. The following result was

obtained.

S/N NAME OF TESTS RESULT OBTAINED

1 Power Supply test The Obtained result is

5.14VDC and the expected

was 5vDC

2 All the components are

Continuity test
reading around 1,400 in a

continuity mode tests

3 Whole system Test The system powered on

instantly when the power is

 connected

4.4 Discussion of Result

After the power code is connected to the main 230V from our home outlet, the above results

were obtained. When the system is powered On, the system behaves just as expected. It starts

working and the sensor(dht11) keep updating the data. The short circuit test was done using a

multimeter, the multimeter is set to continuity mode and the leads are connected to the leads of

the light emitting diode and measured the leads resistance. After all the tests, the results is then

obtained and its corresponded to that of expected output.