BURKINA FASO

FULFULDE GRAMMAR
 BURKINA FASO
FULFULDE GRAMMAR
Second Edition
 BURKINA FASO
FULFULDE GRAMMAR

Second Edition
January 2008

Editor: Dr. Richard W. Smith

SIM Burkina Faso
Tenkodogo
Burkina Faso Fulfulde Grammar
Second Edition
January 2008

SIM Burkina Faso

Tenkodogo-Ouagadougou

First Edition: March 1995

Second Edition: January 2008

© 2008 Dr. Richard W. Smith

All rights reserved
 FOREWORD

This is the second edition of the Burkina Faso Fulfulde Grammar. This edition
corrects some errors that were found in the first edition and expands some areas that
were a bit vague in the earlier edition.

In particular both new and expanded information is given in the NOUNS & PRONOUNS
section relating to the 24 noun classes used in Burkina Faso. I used my dictionary
data base to generate illustrative word lists to help the language learner get a handle
on what sort of words are categorized in each noun class. Two noun classes were
added to this grammar (ngi & ko2), as well as expanded coverage of augmentation and
diminution. Some notation was also made of the relative occurrence of nouns in the
various noun classes to guide language learners in focusing on the most frequently
used noun classes. The sections on pluralization of nouns (Sections 5-7) are greatly
expanded.

The section on verbs is also greatly expanded. I received more than a few complaints
regarding the technical grammatical terminology used in the verb section of the first
edition of the Burkina Faso Fulfulde Grammar. So in an effort to make this section
more comprehensible, most of that terminology has been dropped. What was referred
to as the Emphatic Incomplete in the first edition is called the General Incomplete in
this edition. The verbs have been categorized in Table 9.1 in a slightly different way
than they had been in Table 7.1 of the first edition. A lot more attention has been paid
to subordination in this edition and the section on subordination (Section 25) is more
comprehensive than that section was in the first edition. A number of tables of
conjugation have been added, especially in the sections on Participles (Section 14) and
the Preterite (Section 23). More attention is paid in this second edition to certain
words triggering specific grammatical constructions.

The section on the adjectives (Section 26) is greatly expanded in this revised edition
of the grammar, with most adjectives being conjugated in reference tables for you.
The section on adverbs (Section 27) is expanded somewhat. A section on prepositions
(Section 29) was added. The section on sentence structure is called Syntax in this
edition (Sections 30 – 32) and contains some new information as well.

A glossary has been added to explain some of the more obtuse grammatical language
for those who are not conversant on such matters. Hopefully it will be a help,
especially as it relates to subordination and the triggering of various grammatical
structures. I have added six appendices at the end of this second grammar. Appendix
A has the details from my research on nouns that do not pluralize as predicted in Table
5.1. Appendix B contains the mind numbing details of the various possible singular-
plural suffix combinations used with nouns. Appendix C shows the data derived from
the dictionary relating to the relative occurrence of nouns by noun class. Appendix D
contains two helpful charts outlining the contracted forms of most personal nouns that
undergo contraction in some dialect areas. Appendix E contains the details of which
infixes have been added to verbs that end with -inde. Also conjugations for the
Stative and/or Progressive verb forms are listed for these verbs. Appendix F is a
quick reference listing full conjugations for most of the verb forms listed in the
grammar in all three voices.
Finally, you will find over 200 footnotes have been added with technical grammatical
information for those who are interested, as well as cross references to allied subjects
in the grammar. Hopefully between the Table of Contents and the footnotes you will
be able to find the information you seek. Occasionally grammatical notes have been
added in the body of the text in small print. Feel free to overlook such information if
you are not overly curious about what is happening in Fulfulde grammar. On the
other hand if you like to know why things are a certain way then hopefully these notes
will be a help to you.

I have learned a tremendous amount in preparing this grammar. It has forced me to

pay attention to things I never paid attention to previously. After 20 years here in
Burkina that is a bit embarrassing to say. Hopefully some of the “mysteries” of
Fulfulde unlocked in this edition of the grammar will keep YOU from going 20 years
without understand how and why these things work.

Dr. Richard W. Smith, Editor

SIM Burkina Faso
Tenkodogo
January 2008
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This is the second edition of the Burkina Faso Fulfulde Grammar. This second edition is based
on the first edition, which was based on a grammar Larry Vanderaa of the Mission Portestante
au Sahel (the Christian Reformed World Mission) prepared in Mali. Larry very graciously
permitted us to take his grammar and make what modifications were necessary so that it
conformed with Burkina Faso Fulfulde. Concepts from René Vallette (SIL) and Sonja Fagerberg-
Diallo (A PRACTICLE GUIDE AND REFERENCE GRAMMAR TO THE FULFULDE OF MAASINA - JCMWA)
were blended into that first grammar. Back in 1994-1995 both George Cail and David
Wilkinson helped with the editing of the first edition.

We are indebted to those who came before us as we continue to build upon the knowledge they
passed on to us. This revision of that first Burkina Faso Grammar is greatly expanded, with a
number of corrections and additions. I have used my dictionary data base to do research on a
variety of topics that were more or less vaguely covered, or not covered at all, in the first edition.
I appreciate Robin Watson’s help with a number of technical matters in preparing this revision,
especially for his revision of Section 3 on the Fulfulde ALPHABET AND PRONUCIAITON
GUIDE.

I want to especially thank Maamuudu Diallo (Djibo) for his help with proof reading and his
input on technical matters in the preparation of this second edition of the grammar.
Maamuudu taught me Fulfulde 20 years ago, so it was special having him at my side working on
this project. Finally, my wife, Karen, again had the onerous task of helping me proof read this
document. I thank her for her astute corrections and insightful input.

Dr. Richard W. Smith, Editor

SIM Burkina Faso
Tenkodogo
January 2008
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1. EXPLANATION OF EDITORIAL CONVENTIONS 1

2. FULFULDE DIALECTS 2
3. FULFULDE ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION GUIDE 2

NOUNS & PRONOUNS

4. NOUN CLASSES 5
A. The Nineteen Singular Noun Classes 7
1.
am 7
2.
um 8
3. ka 8
4. kal 8
5. ki 8
6. ko1 9
7. kol 10
8. nde 10
9. ndi 14
10. ndu 15
11. nga 16
12. ngal 17
13. nge 20
14. ngel 20
15. ngi 21
16. ngo 21
17. ngol 22
18. ngu 23
19. o 26
B. The Five Plural Noun Classes 28
1. e 28
2.
e 28
3.
i 28
4. ko2 29
5. koy 29
Table 4.1: Occurrences of plurals by noun class 30
5. PLURALIZATION: INITIAL CONSONANT CHANGES FOR NOUNS 30
Table 5.1: Initial Consonant Changes of Nouns 31
A. For Normal Nouns with Common Plurals 32
B. For Nouns Derived from Verbs 33
Table 5:2: Tabulation of Research on Non-conforming Nouns 33
C. Exceptions 34
1. Borrowed Words 34
2. Lost Plurals 34
3. Nouns Derived From Another Word 35
4. Augmentation & Diminution 35
6. PLURALIZATION: MULTIPLE SUFFIXES 36
A.
e 36
Table 6.1: Occurrences of suffixes in the e noun class 36

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 B. e 40
Table 6.2: Occurrences of suffixes in the e noun class 40
C. i 42
Table 6.3: Occurrences of suffixes in the i noun class 42
D. Ko2 43
E. Koy 43
7. PLURALIZATION OF COMPOUND WORDS 44
8. PERSONAL, INDEPENDENT AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 45
A. Subject Pronouns 46
Table 8.1: Subject Pronouns 46
B. Long-Form Subject Pronouns 47
Table 8.2A: Long-Form Subject Pronouns 47
Table 8.2B: Mahadaga’s Long-Form Subject Pronouns 48
Table 8.2C: Tenkodogo’s Long-Form Subject Pronouns 48
C. Object Pronouns 49
Table 8.3: Object Pronouns 49
1. With the General Incomplete 50
2. With the Progressive 50
3. With the Subjunctive 51
4. With the Relative 51
Table 8.4: Object Pronouns after e 52
D. Possessive Pronouns 53
Table 8.5: Possessive Pronouns 53
E. Possessive Suffixes 55
Table 8.6: Possessive Suffixes 55
F. Emphatic Pronouns 56
Table 8.7: Emphatic Pronouns 56
G. Demonstrative Pronouns and Locators 58
Table 8.8: Demonstrative Pronouns 58
H. Referential Pronouns 60
Table 8.9: Referential Pronouns 60
I. Indefinite Pronouns 61
J. Interrogative Pronouns 63
K. Relative Pronouns 63

VERBS

9. MASTER VERB CHART 64

Table 9.1: Basic Conjugations of 13 Verb Forms 64
10. VERB ROOT TRANSFORMATIONS 64
A. Initial Consonant Changes 65
Table 10.1: Initial Consonant Changes for Verbs 65
B. Final Consonant Changes 66
11. THE GENERAL 66
Table 11.1: Conjugations of the General Complete & Incomplete 66
A. The General Complete 67
1. Completed events 67
2. First verb in a narrative 68
3. In a subordinate clause 69
a. In conditional clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunction si 70
b. In subordinating clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunction sabo 70
c. In subordinating clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunction faa 72
d. In subordinating clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunctions yalla or salla 72
4. In indirect discourse 73
5. With kori (hopefully) 73

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 B. The General Incomplete 73
1. In uncompleted events 73
2. After a conditional clause 74
a. after a conditional clause with the subordinating conjunction si 74
b. after a conditional clause with the subordinating conjunction fay si 74
3. In subordinating clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunctions yalla or salla 75
4. After adverbs of speculation 75
12. THE NEGATIVE 76
Table 12.1: Conjunctions of the Negative Complete & Incomplete 76
A. The Negative Complete 76
1. Single instance negation to a completed action 76
2. Negatively stated action in a conditional clause 77
3. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunctions yalla or salla 77
4. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunction sabo 77
B. The Negative Incomplete 78
1. Negation of a single instance relating to something incomplete 78
2. Negation of an habitual action or the connotation of refusing to do something 78
3. In the independent clause of a conditional sentence 78
4. In subordinating clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunctions yalla or salla 79
C. Negating Auxiliaries 79
1. Adverbs which intensify the negation 79
2. Indefinite pronouns 80
3. Adverbs which temper the negation 81
4. The conjunctions yalla and salla 81
5. Use of wanaa with a negative verb 81
D. The Negative Stative 81
E. The Negative Imperative 82
F. The Negative Desiderative 82
G. How to Respond to Negative Questions 82
H. Negative Verbs with Positive Pronouns 82
13. THE RELATIVE 83
Table 13.1: Basic Conjugations of Relative Complete & Incomplete 83
Table 13.2: Relative Complete Paradigm 84
A. Focus on the Object or Time 84
Table 13.3: Relative Incomplete Paradigm 85
B. Focus on Narrative 86
C. Focus on Interrogative Pronouns 88
Table 13.4: Interrogative Pronouns 88
D. Focus on Relative Pronouns 91
Table 13.5: Relative Pronouns and Closure Markers 91-92
E. Focus on Subordinate Clauses 94
1. In a conditional clause introduced by the subordinating conjunction fay si 95
2. In a subordinate clause introduced by the subordinate conjunction faa 95
3. In a subordinate clause introduced by the subordinate adverb de which follows the
use of the Emphatic in the independent clause 95
4. In a subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun 96
5. Following a subordinate clause introduced by the subordinating conjunction sabo 97
F. Focus on a clause introduced by the auxiliary verb sanaa 98
14. THE PARTICIPIAL 98
Table 14.1: The Basic Participial Suffixes Compared to the Relative Suffixes 98
Table 14.2: Initial Consonant Changes of Participles 100
Table 14.3: Participial Endings 101
Table 14.4: Participles with the Initial Consonants: b - d - g -j 102
Table 14.5: Participles with the Initial Consonants: f - h - s 103
Table 14.6: Participles with the Initial Consonants: r - w - y 104

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15. THE EMPHATIC 105
Table 15.1: Conjugations of the Emphatic 105
16. THE STATIVE 106
Table 16.1: Conjugations of the Stative 106
Table 16.2: Long-Form Subject Pronouns 107
Table 16.3: Long-Form Subject Pronouns used in Moosiire 107
Table 16.4: Long-Form Subject Pronouns used in Mahadaga 107
A. Stative Indicates State of Being 108
B. Stative used with Locators 109
C. In Subordinate Clauses 110
D. Negative Stative 110
17. THE PROGRESSIVE (HABITUAL) 111
Table 17.1: Conjugations of the Progressive 111
A. Used in Ongoing Action 111
B. Used for Habitual Actions 112
C. Use of Participial as Substitute for the Progressive 112
D. In Sentences with Subordinate Clauses 113
1. Following conditional si clauses 113
2. Following conditional fay si clauses 113
3. In subordinating clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunctions yalla or salla 114
a. Yalla or salla mean “whether or not” 114
b. Yalla or salla meaning “so that” or “in order that” 114
18. THE SUBJUNCTIVE 115
Table 18.1: Basic Conjugations of the Subjunctive 115
Table 18.2: Full Subjunctive Paradigm 115
A. After Verbs of Obligation 116
B. After faa 117
C. In Indirect Discourse 117
D. After yiude 117
E. After an Imperative 118
F. Used with Polite Commands 118
G. After the Relative Pronoun ko 118
H. With a Series of Verbs 119
19. THE INFINITIVE 120
Table 19.1: Conjugations of First & Second Infinitive Forms 120
A. As Second Verb 120
B. With Auxiliary Verbs 121
Table 19.2: Auxiliary Verbs 121
C. Infinitives with fadde 122
D. Infinitives as Nouns 122
E. Forming Nouns from Verbs 123
Table 19.3: Suffixes Added to Verb Root to Create Nouns 123
20. THE IMPERATIVE 124
Table 20.1: Conjugations of Imperative Form 124
A. In Urgent Commands 124
B. The Polite Imperative 125
Table 20.2: Full Conjugations for Polite Imperative Form (Subjunctive) 125
C. Two Imperatives Used Together 126
D. The Negative Imperative 127
E. A Third Person Imperative 127
21. THE DESIDERATIVE 127
Table 21.1: Basic Desiderative Conjugations 128
A. In Expressions of Blessing and Godspeed 128
B. The Desiderative Negative 129
22. THE PASSIVE VOICE 130

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23. The PRETERITE 131
Table 23.1: Basic Conjugations for the Preterite 131
A. The Preterite with the General 132
B. The Preterite with the Negative 132
C. The Preterite with the Relative 133
Table 23.2: The Relative Complete with & without the Preterite 134
Table 23.3: The Relative Incomplete with & without the Preterite 136
D. The Preterite and the Emphatic 138
E. The Preterite with the Stative and Progressive 138
Table 23.4: The Preterite with the Stative 139
Table 23.5: The Preterite with the Negative Stative 139
Table 23.6: The Preterite with the Progressive 139
F. The Preterite in Sequencing 140
G. The Preterite with a Noun 140
24. INFIXES 140
A. -an- 141
B. -d-/-id- (e) 141
C. -
-/-i
- 141
D. -n-/-in- 142
E. -inkin- 142
F. -r-/-ir-/-or- 142
G. -t-/-it-/-tin-/-tind- 143
H. -ondir-/-undur- 144
I. -ow-/-oy- 144
J. Multiple Infixes on One Verb Root 144
25. SUBORDINATION 145
Table 25.1: Common Subordinators Used in Fulfulde 146
A. Subordinating Conjunctions 147
B. Subordination with Subordinating Adverbs 148
C. Subordination with Relative Pronouns 149

ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS & PREPOSITIONS

26. ADJECTIVES 150

A. The Use of the Particle na 150
B. Participles 150
C. Real Adjectives 150
1. Invariable adjectives 150
2. Conjugatable adjectives 150
3. Cardinal numbers 151
a. cardinal numbers used with
e and
i 151
b. cardinal numbers used with e and ko2 151
c. cardinal numbers used with koy 151
4. Ordinal numbers 151
D. Adjectives Derived from Other Parts of Speech 153
1. Adjectives formed from verbs 153
2. Interrogative pronouns 154
3. Miscellaneous adjectives 154
Table 26:1: Initial Consonant Changes of Adjectives 155
Table 26.2: Conjugation of Adjectives From:
hesiinde, heyinde, hiinude, hiude, famude, mawnude 157
Table 26.3: Conjugation of Adjectives From:
okkiinde, fahude, muumude, huggiinde, guddiinde, rainnde 158
Table 26.4: Conjugation of Adjectives From:
laaude, furude, geetiinde, lobbude, waggiinde 159

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 Table 26.5: Conjugation of Adjectives From:
olude, wootude, woude, wonude 160
Table 26.6: Conjugation of Adjectives From:
awlude, rawnude, woude, oolude, wuunude, siiude 161
Table 26.7: Conjugation of Adjectives From:
bulude, hecciinde, feere, arande 162
Table 26.8: Conjugation of Adjectives From:
daakiinde, waagiinde, dargiinde, herude, noorude, siiwude 163
Table 26.9: Conjugation of Adjectives From:
jamolinde, sayude, saygiinde, helliinde, solude, malliinde 164
Table 26.10: Conjugations of Adjectives From:
hakkunde, ii, goonude, rewude, worude, maaninde 165
27. AVERBS 167
28. CONJUNCTIONS 170
29. PREPOSITIONS 172
30. SYNTAX 174
A. Verb Forms 174
1. In direct and indirect discourse 174
2. With the conditional conjunction si 174
B. Turning Points 175
C. Pronouns 175
D. Response 175
31. DIRECT & INDIRECT DISCOURSE 176
32. QUESTIONS 177
A. Interrogative Pronouns 177
B. Use of naa 177
C. Voice Intonation 178
D. Use of kori 178

GLOSSARY 179

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Nouns Whose Initial Consonants Do Not Conform to Table 5.1 187
Appendix B: Singular-Plural Suffix Combinations 195
Appendix C: Relative Occurrence of Nouns by Noun Class in Fulfulde 205
Appendix D: Contracted Possessive Forms 206
Appendix E: Words employing with the suffixes -inde or -idde 207
Appendix F: Full Conjugations of Fulfulde Verbs 221

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 INTRODUCTION

1. EXPLANATION OF EDITORIAL CONVENTIONS

Just a word about a few editorial conventions employed throughout this grammar.
As mention in the Foreword, I received more than a few complaints regarding some of
the technical grammatical terminology used in the verb section of the first edition of
the Burkina Faso Fulfulde Grammar. In particular the discussion of moods was
incomprehensible to some. So in an effort to make this section more understandable,
most of that terminology has been dropped. However, this is a grammar, and it is hard
to speak about grammatical things without using some grammatical terminology.
I hope this second edition will prove more user friendly, but it would be wise to
consult the glossary (page 179 ff.) if you encounter unfamiliar terms. English words
which are discussed in the glossary are indicated by SMALL CAPS throughout the
grammar. The term TENSE, which we are used to using in English and French, is not
totally applicable in Fulfulde (see TENSE in the Glossary for a discussion of why that
is). So rather than employ the term verb TENSE, I use the term verb FORM. So when
you see the word FORM in small caps recognize I am speaking about various verb
“tenses.” If you see the word form in normal case letters then the word is being used
in its normal generic sense. Fulfulde phrases and words are in italics when standing
alone, or when occurring in an English sentence. Generally, the key explaining the
highlighting of examples with bold or italics type, or with underlining, is placed just
prior to the examples.

One of the noun class markers making its first appearance in this grammar is the
plural noun class ko in Group III (see page 29 for a discussion of this marker and page
31 for a discussion of Groups). Because there is also a singular ko in Group I, the
singular ko is represented as ko1 throughout this grammar (and the dictionary for that
matter). The plural ko in Group III is represented as ko2. Understand, this is just for
the sake of clarity. When you actually use either of these in your writing do not use
the subscripted numbers!

This edition of the Fulfulde grammar is divided into 32 sections. A glance at the
Table of Contents at the beginning of the grammar will give one a bird’s eye view of
the grammar’s overall structure. Additionally footnotes will point the reader to
sections related to the one in consideration. When referred to in this specific way the
word “section” will be capitalized; e.g. Section 1 is a discussion of editorial
conventions employed in the preparation of this grammar. Likewise, when referring
to the various verb FORMs covered by this grammar, the names of the FORMs will be
capitalized; e.g. General Complete.

Periodically the grammar refers to the stem or the root of a word. This might be a
noun or a verb. Sometime the root symbol (√) will be used with a root; e.g. √janng-.

Common abreviations used in this grammar include:

adj. – adjective ff. – and following
adv. – adverb interj. - interjection
conj. – conjunction interrog. - interrogative
e.g. – for example p. - page
i.e. – in other words pp. - pages
cf. – cross reference

1
2. FULFULDE DIALECTS

In Fulfulde there are eight major dialects:

Fuuta Toro - northern Senegal
Fulakunda - southern Senegal, Guinea Bissau
Fuuta Jalon - Guinea
Maasina - Mali, Burkina Faso
Sokoto - Niger, northwestern Nigeria, southeastern Burkina Faso
Borgu - Benin
Bororo - central Niger
Adamawa - eastern Nigeria, Cameroon

It is said that as one travels from west to east across the Sahel, there is a high degree
of intelligibility between the different dialects of Fulfulde. However, if one travels
south into Guinea or Benin, intelligibility drops considerably. A speaker of the
Maasina dialect will find that communication with Fuuta Jalon is difficult but
considerably easier with Fulakunda and Fuuta Toro; Liptaako in northeastern Burkina
is quite workable but there are some difficulties; Borgu in Benin is difficult to
understand.

Here in Burkina Faso we know of eleven “minor” dialects:

Baniire – Yako region
Boobalaare - Barani-Nouna region
Foynankoore - Ouahigouya region
Gaawoore - Déou area (originating in Gao, Mali)
Gurmaare - Gourma dominated region
Jelgoore - Djibo region
Liptaakuure - Dori region
Moosiire - Mossi dominated central plateau
Nommaare - Fada region
Yaagaare - Sebba region
Yaangaare - Komin-Yanga region and south

3. FULFULDE ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION GUIDE

Pronunciation is an important part of language learning. Speaking correctly is not just

about using the right words but also pronouncing those words correctly. The good
news is that Fulfulde is not a tonal language. There are a few sounds that will sound
different from English or French sounds. Listen for anything that sounds different,
note it, and practice trying to reproduce it the way a Pullo says it.

The vowels in Fulfulde are a, e, i, o, u. The “i” and “e” are formed in the front part
of the mouth, the “a” in the central area, and the “o” and “u” at the back. The “i” is
just like the English vowel found in “ship,” “sheep,” “dip” or “deep”; the Ful
e don’t
distinguish between these two “i” sounds (which are both close front vowels - the
tongue being close to roof of the mouth.)

2
The “e” sound is as found in “bed.” Fulfulde words can end in this sound, unlike
English which would glide onto a “y” sound (e.g. when one says “cafe” one does not
use the vowel used in “fed,” one tends to say “kafey.” Get used to hearing and
pronouncing this vowel at the end of a word).

The “a” sound. If you say “ah” the tongue is relaxed not trying to move forward or
back. For British/Australian English, as in “hut” (Note: NOT as in “hat” which is a
fronted “a.” The same goes for “Ouaga” – NOT as in “wag” but as in “wah”).
For some American speakers this “a” is as found in “hot” (whereas British etc. tend to
round lips in this word “hot.” The Fulfulde “a” is not made with lip rounding).

The “o” sound IS made with lip rounding. For British/Aussie speakers this is like the
vowel in “or,” “ought” and “awe.” For most American speakers this is like the first
part of “or” – and note how the tongue is further back and higher for “or” than it is
for “aah” (the latter being the way some U.S dialects pronounce “awe”).

The “u” sound is also made with rounded lips. If you pronounce an English “w” and
hold it, you’ll basically have this “u” – the tongue is well back and high in the mouth.
So if you see the word “buguuru” you will NOT pronounce it like the English word
“bug.”

Vowel length – all these vowels can be short or long and are shown as such by writing
one vowel for short vowels and two vowels for long. Note the word “buguuru” in the
above paragraph. The middle part “guu” is the same sound, but the vowel is held for
twice as long. (Note: English has long and short vowels but it’s not reflected in the
spelling; the “e” in ferry is short while the same “e” sound in “fairy” is long.)

When a vowel is followed by a “w” or a “y” the effect is that of a diphthong or

glided vowel. For example “mawri” (next year) sounds pretty much like the English
word “maori.” NOTE: be mindful of the fact that Fulfulde words and letters are
always pronounced as written, unlike English. For example “jaw” (an intensifier for
“hot”) is not ever pronounced like the English word “jaw,” but as in “jah” which then
glides onto a “w” (similar to “jowl” but without the “l”). So the Fulfulde vowel
retains its sound (as described above), then glides on to “w” or “y.” Hence “fey”
(meaning “nothing at all”) sounds for the “fe” portion like the first part of “fed,” then
the tongue glides to the “y” position.

The consonants are: b,
, c, d, , f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ŋ, p, r, s, t w, y, ’. There are also

nasalized consonants: mb, nd, ng, nj, and ny.

The letters “
,” “,” and “” are implosives. The “
” corresponds to “b” and the “”
to “d,” but air passes into the mouth instead of out. The “” is made further back
than the “d.” Feel with your tongue the part of the mouth where “ch” and “j” and
made. The broad central area of the tongue comes down from that front part of the
palate to make the “” sound.

The ’ is a glottal stop. This marks a place where one briefly stops the flow of air.
This is a regular feature in Fulfulde. For example in “go’o” (one), the flow of air is
stopped between the first and second “o.”

3
The “g” is always hard as in “got.” The “j” is similar to the “j” in “joy.” The “c” is
similar to the “ch” in “cheap.” The “s” is always unvoiced. There is no “z” apart
from the rare borrowed word - “z” is the voiced equivalent of “s.” There is no “v”
(except for some dialects of Fulfulde in Eastern Niger and Nigeria).

The “ŋ” represents the sound “ng” as in “sing.” In Fulfulde this can occur at the start
of the word. Try saying “singing,” then drop the “s” to give “inging,” then drop the
first i to give “nging” – this would be written “ŋiŋ” in Fulfulde. Well, “ŋiŋ” is not a
word, but ŋoŋi (sleepy) is.

Consonants, like vowels, can also be lengthened. Hence feli (blamed) is pronounced
differently than felli (exploded), the latter having the “l” held for twice as long – OR
think of it as saying “fel” then “li.” Often one sees a double “ll” (or other consonant)
in English with no lengthening intended at all (e.g. “falling,” “toll,” “mutter,”
“possum”). But just occasionally, even in English, this lengthening of consonants can
be seen reflected in writing – consider the “n” in “lioness,” and compare it to the
“nn” in “brokenness.” One tends to lengthen the “n” in the latter, since one finishes
“broken” before progressing to “ness.”

Intonation: It’s good to listen to the way a Pullo speaks. Often with question
sentences the intonation goes up at the end of the phrase, which is somewhat like
English. It can be good to listen to recordings of native speakers and note the
differences between questions and statements and commands on a variety of topics.

Consonant/vowel patterns: Fulfulde has cvc, cvvc and cvcc patterns.

CVC: examples: war-

won-
fin-

CVVC: examples: hiir-

waal-
yaar-

CVCC: examples: hawr-

jowt-
hokk-

The word order for declarative sentences is generally similar to English, that is:
Subject-Verb-Object. For example:

Burayma jowti kam.

Burayma greeted me.

4
 NOUNS & PRONOUNS

Nouns in Fulfulde are derived from three sources. There are some nouns which are
native to Fulfulde and which are not derived from a verb. Others are native to
Fulfulde, but are derived from a verb. Still others are borrowed words from other
languages. All of these nouns fall into one of 24 noun classes. These noun classes not
only categorize the nouns, but the noun class “markers” themselves are used
extensively as various pronouns in Fulfulde grammar.

4. NOUN CLASSES

One of the difficult things for Anglophones is the noun class system in Fulfulde.
We have nothing like this in English. If the le, la and les of French is a headache for
Anglophones, then the Fulfulde system of noun classes is a nightmare. The Fulfulde
of Burkina Faso uses 24 noun classes to classify its nouns. Nineteen of these 24 noun
classes are used with singular forms of nouns, leaving five noun classes which are
used with plural forms of nouns.

Perhaps it would be helpful to bear in mind that Fulfulde has a tendency to rhyme
nouns and pronouns. For most nouns native to Fulfulde, the sound at the end of the
word determines what noun class that word is in. Often, certain sorts of nouns are
grouped together by the use of a common ending. A good example of this would be
nouns referring to liquids, which fall in the
am noun class. These words have
endings that rhyme with
am, e.g. ndiyam (water), kosam (milk), nebbam (oil).
See below for a fuller discussion of what sort of nouns are grouped into each noun
class.

The Fule in Burkina Faso have 24 different sounds they make at the end of their
nouns, hence the 24 different noun classes. Sometimes, however, this rhyming
mechanism breaks down with nouns that have been borrowed from other languages.
Many of these borrowed words have been lumped together in the o noun class used for
persons.

However, often inexplicably, some borrowed words have been “Fulfuldasized” and
then integrated into a noun class that would rhyme with the sound at the end of the
word. Here are couple of examples: the word for “table,” coming to Fulfulde via the
French la table, is rendered taabawal ngal in Jelgoore and Yaagaare, and taabal ngal
in Moosiire and Gurmaare. The word for “letter,” coming to Fulfulde from the
French la lettre, is rendered leetere nde in Fulfulde. Note in each case, the way the
Fule transformed the word when they borrowed it automatically caused it to fall into
one of the noun classes. In the case of taabawal or taabal the noun class that rhymes
is ngal. Because of the form of the French word table, and because tables are often
made of wood, it makes some sense that this word has been placed into the ngal noun
class. In the case of leetere the noun class that rhymes is nde. Because the form of
the French word lettre, and because leetere is a “bookish” sort of word, one can see
how it got put into the nde noun class. Note that it is not always clear to an
Anglophone why a certain word was placed into particular noun class. See A. The
Nineteen Singular Noun Classes beginning on page 7 for details about categories of
words placed in each noun class.

5
For words borrowed from French that begin with a vowel, often the article is included
into the Fulfulde version of the word. For example, the word for “school,” coming
from the French word l’école, is lakkol ngol in Fulfulde. The word for “tax,” coming
from the French word l’impôt, is lampo ngo in Fulfulde. Again the sound at the end
of these transformed words determines which noun class the word would be placed in.
In these two cases how the Fule heard these words being pronounced by the French
lent to their being placed into the ngol and ngo noun classes respectively.

As mentioned above, many of the noun classes seem to focus on a particular feature of
the words in that noun class. Two particular features which should be mention are
“smallness” and “largeness.” Singular nouns used in a diminutive sense are placed
into the kal, ngel and ngu noun classes, while plural diminutives are found in the koy
noun class (actually words in the kal class tend not to form plurals). Singular nouns
used in an augmentative sense can be placed into either the kol, nga, ngal, or ngi noun
class, while the plural forms of these augmentative words (excepting kol) are placed
into the ko2 noun class. This plural noun class will be identified as ko2 because there
is a singular noun class ko as well (which will be referred to as ko1). Note that nouns
can be either diminished or augmented by manipulating the endings in a predictable
way. These manipulated words then fall into the appropriate noun class. For example:

nagge nge (the cow) → na’i
i (the cows)

naggel ngel (the small cow) → na’oy koy (the small cows)
naggu ngu (the small cow) → na’oy koy (the small cows)
nagga nga (the big cow) → na’o ko2 (the big cows)
naggal ngal (the big cow) → na’o ko2 (the big cows)
naggi ngi (the big cow) → na’o ko2 (the big cows)

nyale nge (the heifer) → nyalbi
i (the heifers)

nyalahel ngel (the small heifer) → nyalahoy koy (the small heifers)
nyalohol kol (the big heifer) → nyalbi
i (the big heifers)

The other feature of these noun classes is that the first letter of singular nouns may
undergo a change when the noun is diminished, augmented or pluralized. This is fully
explained in Section 5, on page 30, but I mention it here because there are predictable
patterns of how most native Fulfulde words are transformed. For most dialects here in
Burkina Faso this results in the noun classes falling into three groups. Group one
includes the singular noun classes ko1, nde, ndu, nge, and ngo, as well as the plural
noun class e. Group two includes the singular noun classes
um, kal, kol, ngal, ngel,
ngol, and o, as well as the plural noun classes
e and
i. Group three includes the
singular noun classes
am, ka, ki, ndi, nga, ngi, and ngu, as well as the plural noun
classes ko2 and koy. It would be a good idea for the beginning student to start thinking
of these various noun classes as being members of these three groups from the very
beginning of one’s studies. These words, making up the 24 noun classes, are called
noun class “markers.” As you will see in the section on pronouns below, these noun
class “markers” are very important components of the Fulfulde nominal grammatical
structure.

6
 A. The Nineteen Singular Noun Classes:

1.
am class (Group III): Nouns in the
am noun class make up only
1.5% of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary.1

This is the noun class for liquids. For example:

iam/i

am yitere/hitere (eye ball) lammu
am (sour milk)
cayam (rain water) lempam or lommbam (vaginal fluid)
cemmbam (ginger drink) lootam (water to wash millet)

aanii
am (sour milk, yogurt) mbubbam (rain water)
ilam (spring or flood) mbusam (bone marrow)
njaretee
am/njaram (drinkable liquid) ndiyam (water)
kaa
am (yogurt) ndufam (semen)
kaynaa
am (cooked butter) nebbam (oil)
kammbulam (the water used in washing millet) njunkumajam (rain water)
keefam (bile) cabijam (local wine)
kenkenam (rain with gale force winds) tuam (blood from nose bleed)
kosam (milk) iiam (blood)
li’am (ingredient for making sauce)

However, many abstract things are also included in this noun class.
For example:
bumndam (blindness)
en
am (solidarity)
kaccam (the limit of one’s vision, the horizon)
kiram (jealousy)
kisindam (salvation)
kuyam (joy, happiness)
ndakam (sweet, pleasant)
nguurndam (life)
njaynam (light)
puuyndam (folly)
toowndam (height)
yaynam (light)

There are also a few miscellaneous concrete nouns in this class.

For example:
anndujam (leprosy)
baridam (a horse race)
lam
am (salt)
Note that none of these words has a plural form in Fulfulde.

1
The dictionary referred to throughout this grammar is the second edition of the Burkina Faso Fulfulde/English-
English/Fulfulde Dictionary. There are 3,609 listings for singular Fulfulde nouns in that dictionary. 53 of these
singular nouns are in the
am noun class. See Appendix C for a complete listing of how many nouns are in the
dictionary for each of the singular noun classes, and the what is the percentage of the total for each class.
Mentioning the number of nouns per noun class listed in the dictionary is not meant to imply either a definitive or
exhaustive listing of these nouns, but rather to give the student a relative idea of the occurrence of nouns in that
class, and as such the relative importance of that noun class in the over all scheme of the Fulfulde nominal
system.

7
 2.
um class (Group II): There are only four words in the
um noun class
listed in the dictionary.

Things of an indefinite nature are grouped in this noun class.

For example:

umaanin (something)
go

um (something)

This class is often used to create nouns (actually participles) out of

verb roots, which is why there are so few entries in the dictionary.
See page 98 ff. on how participles are formed. For example:
bel
um (something sweet, good) from welude
bul
um (something hot) from wulude
bon
um (something bad) from bonude
garoojum (the future) from warude

3. ka class (Group III): Nouns in the ka noun class make up 1.6% of the
singular nouns listed in the dictionary. There are no particular
categories of nouns in this class. Examples:

omka (thirst)
laana (canoe)
haala (word)
saaya (man’s robe)

4. kal class (Group II): It is one of two noun classes used to signify the
diminution of a normal noun. Nouns in this class refer to a small
amount of something. These nouns can be taken from other noun
classes and the ending changed to signify a small amount of that
thing.2 For example:
lam
am (salt)
am → lamkal (a little salt) kal
see
a (a little bit) → see
akal (a little tiny bit) kal
ndiyam (water)
am → dihal (a little water) kal
kosam (milk)
am → kosal (a little milk) kal

Nouns in the kal class generally do not have plural forms, but in the
rare case where there is a plural koy is used.3

5. ki class (Group III): Nouns in the ki noun class make up only 4.6% of
the singular nouns listed in the dictionary.

This is the class that trees and bushes are placed in.
For example:
alluki (Acacia sieberana)
basi (medicines made from trees)
okki (baobab tree - Adansonia digitata)
lekki (tree, medicine made from a tree)
manngoroohi (mango tree - Mangifera indica)
mbamambi (milk weed like shrub - Calotropis procera)

2
There is only one noun in the kal noun class listed in the dictionary (dihal).
3
kosal kal (a little milk) → kosoy koy (For example different dishes that each only have a little milk.)
8
 Other concrete things are also placed in the ki noun class, especially
weapons with blades, such as knives and swords.
For example:
ataaki (letter) lai (knife)
cuurki (smoke or steam) kaafaahi (sword)
danki (hanger) karantiihi (machete)
laasi (tail) ngarjaahi (serrated knife)
nawki (arm pit)
tasbiihi or taybiihi (rosary beads)

Additionally there are a number of abstract terms found in this noun

class. Note the SUFFIXes “-eefi” “-eeki” or “-uki” are often added to
verb roots to form a noun. Because ki rhymes with these SUFFIXes,
these words fall into the ki noun class.
ooyeefi (duration, length of time)
utti
eefi (thickness)

eppeefi (width or breadth)

oogi or
owki (shade)
luggeefi (depth)
mouki (goodness, kindness)
ari (beauty)
ngarki (the arrival)
nguli (heat, sweat)
njaajeefi (width)
njaaweeki (speed)
njuuteefi (length)
piilki (environment)
rafi (lack, failure)
teddeefi (weight)
tekkeefi (thickness)
yonki (soul, life)

6. ko1 class (Group I): Nouns in the ko1 noun class make up only 1.1% of
the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. As mentioned in the
introduction there is a singular ko (ko1), and a plural ko (ko2), which is
used with augmented nouns.

Many plants, parts of plants, and grasses are grouped into this noun
class. For example:
bogodollo (grass - Pennisetum pedicellatum)
okko (bark of baobab tree)
doobu or dumo (bran)
haabu (cotton)
haako (a leaf)
hoy, li'o, lu'o or takay (sauce - often made from baobab leaves)
hu
o (grass)
hufo (seed coat)
luuro (hollow in a tree)
There are also a few miscellaneous words in this noun class, most of
which refer to either noise, or hair on one’s head.
For example:
duko (noise) sumsumko (mustache)
hunnduko (mouth) waywayko (eyebrow)
olko (noise) wuyko (hair)

9
7. kol noun class (Group II): There are only seven nouns listed in the
dictionary which are found in the kol noun class. Only one of these is
not an augmentation of another noun or an avoidance of a sexual
innuendo – kaakol kol! It is one of four noun classes used to signify
the augmentation of a normal noun. However, unlike with nga, ngal,
and ngi, which are the other noun classes used for augmentation, not
just any word can be transformed by manipulating its ending using
kol. Very few words are augmented using kol. Here are the ones we
know of:
nyale (heifer) nge → nyalahol (large heifer) kol
dammuccere (sheep or goat) nde → dammuhol (large sheep or goat) kol

Kol is also used instead of ngu by some speakers to avoid any sexual
innuendos (see discussion on this on page 24 under the ngu class).
For example:
puccu (horse) ngu → puccu kol
mbaalu (sheep) ngu → mbaalu kol
nguru (skin) ngu → nguru kol

Note: the plural noun class of kol is not ko2 but rather either
e or
i.

8. nde noun class (Group I): Nouns in the nde noun class make up 21%
of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. Several categories stand
out in this large noun class. Two categories of words frequently
found in this noun class are words related to space and time.
For example:

Space
aade (courtyard)
baneere, deende (neighborhood)
batirde (meeting place)
bawlirde, fiilorde (place to urniate)
ooltannde (abrasion)
debeere (village of blacks)
defirde, haatande (kitchen)
dellitorde, jippitorde, juunnitorde, tellitorde, wudditoroonde (side of mountain)
feenaare, huumaare, waalaare (place to burn bush)
gere, joonnde, lunnde, nokkuure (place)
ho
orde, winnde (place to summer)
hueere (village with brick homes)
hurfaare, moonnde (salt lick)
juulirde, misiide, rewrude (place of Muslim prayer)
juurdude, regorde (access point to water)
kanngeere, tiggere (hitching post)
laamorde (throne, kingdom)
ladde (the bush)
lokoere (sub-cardinal direction – such as southwest)
lootorde (place to bathe)
nyallirde (place to pass afternoon)
nyomre (grassy place)
saabeere, ufirde, yanaande (grave)
seende (sandy area)
sokkirde, arorde (threshing area)
taliyaare, tariyaare (open space, yard)

10
 toggere (forest)
tummbere (vacant lot)
waalirde (resting place)
yaayre (flood plain)

Time
aawre (planting time)
asayre or aseere (week)
dabbunde (cold season)
hankin (last night)
hannden (today)
hejjere (night)
hikka (this year)
hitaande (year)
hokkere (time without rain during summer)
jaango (tomorrow)
je

iire (week)
keean, kiyam (yesterday)
rawanin/rowanin (last year)
rawtanin (two years ago)
wal
ere (one day)
aamnde (autumn)
yamnde, yannde (hour)
yontere (week or year)

There are several nouns having to do with “bookish” things.

For example:
aayaare (verse - from Arabic) soorte (chapter)
dewtere (book) sottinere (copy)
harfeere (word – from Arabic) tindinoore (explanation)
jande (study) tummbitere (pages of book)

Names of languages are often in the nde class because of the tendency
to use the SUFFIXes -aare, -iire, -uure, -nkoore for languages other
than Fulfulde. Examples:
Faransiire (French) Jelgoore
Finisinkoore (Phoenician) Lenyaare (Bissa)

The names of various animals, birds, and bugs are also in the nde
class. For example:
amre or huunyaare (tortoise) jigaare (hooded vulture)
benngaare (honey bee) korikoriyaare (hyena)
biibinoore (assassin bug) lingolinngoore (centipede)
boroore, kunkiriire, kuriire (turtle) malaganndiire (genet)
dagammeere, gaynaare (badger) ngooaare, zuuriire (owl)
giisoore, siigaare (ground squirrel) saalde, sangalde (porcupine)
borgaare, hampurde, hanfurde (duiker) siilde (kite, hawk, eagle)
gangaare, ngangaare (termite) silgaare (black kite)
fooskere (carpet viper) somre (cricket)
hobbere, hoowonndoroore (dung beetle) wojere (rabbit)
huunde (an animal) yaare (scorpion)
jabaare, joboore (oribi) yalaare (cockroach)

11
 And things to do with teeth! Examples:
gaggitere, gawuure, nga (molar)
hooreere, musinirde (incissor)
nyiinde (tooth)
rawaanduure, sakkitirde, yareere (canine tooth)
appere, elde, nyelde (missing teeth)

One of the main categories for words in the nde noun class would be
things that are “roundish.” For example:

albaccere (onion – from Arabic) joorde, saadaare, oolde (pile, mound)

ernde (heart) jorfoorde (noose)
occoonde (egg, testicle) kakoore (coconut)
odde (clump of dirt, pill) kundiire, toojoore,
uugoode (hump of cow)
ollere (welt) lokuure (calabash used to draw water)
ooyre (kidney) lonngere (lump of food)
oyre (fruit of baobab) loonde, yuuguure (clay water pot)
uusoonde, hirihiroonde (head of femur) luggere (hole in the ground)
ulirde (hole with water seeping out) lukaare (granary)
uure (ulcer) malfaare, tenngaare (grass hat)
buyakkaare (guava fruit – from Moré) malmalluure, maramalluure (hail stone)
cenaare (black cakes used to make sauce) manngoroore (mango)

aalde (welt) morreere, yabere, yebere (bullet)
deneere, ruunde, tummbere (island) mudde, wurduunde (ball of millet flour)
jooniire, ndoosaare (seed pod of P. biglobosa) muddiire (scoop, measure)
durdude, waynaare (omasum) mumnande, tammbannde (fist)

uulde, yennoore (lymph node) nyabaare, wannjalde (wart, mole)

uurude (soft spot on baby’s head) nyegeere (toilet)
fe
oode (button or snap) rendere (watermelon)
fellere (a spot) sappaare (cap with a bill)
feraare (squash or pumpkin) seedeere (large bead)
fergere (stumbling stone) seedere (cowrie shell)
fimre, fiwre (knot) sitoroore (lemon or lime)
fiyaare, hootonnde, tuggere (ring) taarde (ring of palm leaves)
fontere, fooroonde (testicle) tamaatiire (tomato)
funkere, futtere (blister) tefaare, tepaare, tuntere (large rock)
fuyre (nodule, pimple) teeleende (bald spot)
galwagadoore, henndure (unfertilized egg) teppere (heel)
bokkoore, juuruure, wulaare (bundle of millet) tiilde, tilolde, tonolde (hill)
giriire, yiriire (chick pea) tiinde (forehead)
guylaare, tammere (bulb of water lily) toere (dot, drop)
haareere, holoore (shea nut) tummbude (calabash)
handeere (woven basket) uugorde, woogirde (pumice stone)
hanhande (gall bladder) waadere (drop)
harmajolloore, hononde (Adam’s apple) waalde (bead)
hayre (rock, bead) waamnde (hill, mountain)
hiinyalde (gizzard) waande (termite hill)
hippoode, ommboode, uddoode (lid) wawaade (sheild, buckler)
hitere, yitere (eye) wawlaare (pillow)
honndolde, horondolde (ant hill) wayre (dug out pool)
hoodere (star) wudde, yulde (hole)
hoore (head) yelleere (palm fruit)
horde (scoop or cup) yeyre (udder)
horitande, kaataare, saabunnde (soap) ibbere (fruit of fig tree)
faannde, fayannde, fotiire (cooking pot) ugoore, uugoode (hump of camel)
jaawleere (Guinea fowl egg) uulde (lump or bump)
12
 Several diseases are in the nde group. For example:
uure (sore)
fettennde (abscess in arm pit)
fooroonde (swollen testicle)
fuukoode, yookoode (goiter)
fuskere, sehere, temmeere (abscess on foot)
heende, raaynde, seyre, (actinobacillosis)
jontere (fever, malaria)
layre (lameness)
sa
awere (rash)
sigiire, wilsere (trypanosomiasis)
suyre (pulled muscle)
woongere (craving, addiction)

Words to do to with the escape of gas from the human body are
generally placed into this noun class. For example:
fuytere, suytere (flatulence)
gaatere (burp)
likkiinde, liikude, liitidde (hiccup)

The nde noun class is also the depository for many abstract nouns.
For example:

ernde, hirnyere, hukkere, tikkere (anger) moere (grace, kindness)

bonnde, fankarde (evil) munaafikaare, waccoore (slander, gossip)

aayre, tannyaare, wannyaare (ugliness) muurtere (rebellion)
dabare ( magic, sorcery) aarnde, nyaagunde, rore (solicitation)
darnde (height) nantaare (self control)

owtaare, leyinaare (humility) newaare (ease, comfort)
edaare (modesty) nimre, niwre (darkness)
fayde (fatness) nyaa
ere (harshness, severity)
feeteende (bravery, courage) nyare (betrayal)
feloore, nyioore (blame, fault) nyokkitaare, ukkinaare (pride)
fem
ere (coordination) reentaare (prudence, sensibility)
ferwere (solitude, isolation) seenaare (joy)
fewre (lie) senaare (holiness)
fikitaare, sankitaare (chaos) sulaare (drunkenness)
fodoore (promise) surande (moral support)
fooyre, iilde (glow, radiance) suroore (pardon)
furkaare, fuunyaare (recklessness) wajoore, yennoore (insult)
fuuyre (foolishness) wanyanere (jealousy)
habisaare, habisere (greed) wattinkinaare (hypocrisy)
halkere, lallere (damnation, lostness) wattitaare (redemption)
hoolaare (faith trust) weltaare (rejoicing)
hunayeere (oath) woofannde, woowre (mistake, error)
huyfere (laziness, lightness) yaalaare (misery)
lammere (sourness, shamelessness) yankere (profanity)
maayde (death) yeeweende (loneliness)
majjere (ignorance, lostness) yettoore (praise)
manoore (reputation, fame) oyre (discernment)
mantaare (conceit) ukkinaare (arrogance)
mawnitaare (boasting) yurmeende (mercy, compassion)
meere (worthlessness)

13
 9. ndi noun class (Group III): Nouns in the ndi noun class make up 4.4%
of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary.

This noun class contains many mass nouns where many small things,
or a number of individual objects, are grouped together to form a
whole. For example:

conndi (flour) njaareendi (sand)

gawri, muutiri, yoyiiri (millet) njobdi (pay, wages)
jawdi (livestock, wealth) njooaari (provisions for trip)
lacciri, lakkiri (steamed millet) njuumndi (honey)
leydi (earth, land, country) njuyudi (table of contents, index)
kamanaari (corn) nyaamri (food)
keefudi (scraps) nyiiri (millet porridge)
mbayeeri (sorghum) pagguri (grass seed)
mbuuduuri, uwdi (race, lineage) pinndi (flower)
mumuri, muuri (roasted grain) puddi (henna powder)
namtiiri, siiliiri (sesame) puundi (decay, rust, mold)
ndoondi (ashes) sa'iiri (barley)
nganyaandi (hatred, enmity) tuundi (dirt, sin, worms)
ngenndi, njenndi (town) ulndi (soot)

The names of most male animals are in the ndi noun class.
For example:
ujiri, ujiri (steer)
cukuuri, culkuuri (billy goat)

aanndi (tame bull used to ride)
ginndoori, mboygoori, ndamndi (male goat)
kalahaldi (large bull)
layyaari (sacrificial goat or sheep)
ndontoori (rooster)
ngaari (bull)
ngurgurtiri (young bull)
njawdiri (ram)

Some snakes fall into this noun class as well. For example:
mboddi (snake)
mbosiri, mo
oori (rock python)
nyaanndi, nyangoori (puff adder)

Some metals are also in this noun class. For example:

cardi (silver)
ciiwdi, taaynaandi (molten metal)
njamndi (metal/iron)
njamndi mbo
eeri (brass)

14
10. ndu noun class (Group I): Nouns in the ndu noun class make up 5.9%
of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary.

Some animals and birds are found in this noun class.

For example:
oosaaru, rawaandu (dog)
buuru, fowru, leeyndu (hyena)
buubabaheeru, lohuru, santingaaru, wersawersaandu (long-tailed dove)
cawcawuuru, hoobalaaru (vitelline masked weaver)
ceegaaru, heegaaru, seeniiru (parrot)
cirgu, colu, omngu (leopard)
daamihoonyoldu, jamhoonyoldu, yerganaaru (snail)
doomaaru (ground hog)
doomburu (mouse)
eleleldu (monitor lizard)
faamburu (frog, toad)
fallaandu (lizard)
foondu (bird)
gusuuru, raygooru, saayogooru (rat)
houru, jumbaliiru (village weaver)
huutooru (iguana)
janjannguuru (bell bat)
joldu, zazammbaaru (flying squirrel)
junkuuru, wewbaagaaru (Fennec fox)
keleweleeru (swift)
kotooru, pataaru (baboon)
kurkuruuru, ngiroowu, njiroowu (pig)
laayooru (red monkey)
laddeeru, muusuuru ladde, rawaandu ladde, rawaandu (lion)
lantaaru, lantigaaru, lolongaaru (Senegal bushbaby)
muusuuru, uusuuru (cat)
ndolu, suundu, woybaagaaru (jackal)
sabboondu (Vieillot’s black weaver)
samsammoondu (hedgehog)
siisaandu (glossy-backed drongo)
soltooru (ground squirrel)
soppanataaru (woodpecker)
waandu (monkey)
wilwilndu (bat)
woyoondu (weavers)
wuugaandu (dove)
yeendu (aardvark)

The names of many kinds of houses are in this noun class.

For example:
bombooru, kunnguuru, loofeeru (round mud brick hut)
buguuru, hu
ooru, sukkuuru (grass hut)
fitiiru, kurukuru (hen house)
nyallirdu, worwordu (man’s house)
suudu (house)
winndeeru (vacant house)
wortaldu (bachelor’s house)

15
 The names of many musical instruments are in the ndu noun class.
For example:
duuliyaaru, dullaaru, seeseeru, sereendu (flute)
geegeeru, googineeru, yeegineeru (fiddle)
hoddu (guitar)
bentigaaru, bukkooru, kurkutu, lonngaaru, lungaaru,
mbaggu, ndondoloowu (drums)

Most of the names denoting demons are in this noun class.

For example:
foondu, ginnaaru, henndu, jinnaaru, nginnaawu (demon)
tooru (idol)

Because the Fule use a lunar calandar, the word for month is the
same as the word for moon. Not surprisingly the name of five of the
months also fall into the ndu noun class. Some of these names are
derived from Arabic.
lewru (moon, month) Suumayeeru (9th month)
Hoddaaru (5th month) Juuldaandu (10th month)
Raajibimawndu (7th month) Siiwtaraandu (11th month)

11. nga noun class (Group III): Nouns in the nga noun class make up
2.4% of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. This noun class
is called the a class in the Bakuure region (north of N’Dali, Benin).
The influence of Benin Fulfulde is evident in the Mahadaga region as
often the nasalized consonant groups are not nasalized. Thus rather
than saying nga they would say ga. This carries over to words
beginning with the “ng” sound as well. For example, rather than
saying ngesa (field) they would say gesa. In Maasina Fulfulde this
noun class is represented by ba rather than nga. Vanderaa reports
that other dialects use mba for this noun class’ marker.
As mentioned in the introductory remarks, this is one of the four
singular augmentative noun classes. In fact many of the things
found in this noun class are big.

Many large animals are placed into this noun class.

For example:
alam baanaa, allum mbaana, araawa mbaaneewa (zebra)
araawa, dakiya (donkey)
daada, ndaada (water buck)
eda (African buffalo)
gorba, ngorba (male donkey)
jabaciiwa, njabaciiwa (bushbuck)
jeelooba, ngeelooba, njeelooba, njoolooba (camel)
jeelooba ladde, njoolooba ladde, tireewa (giraffe)
kooba (roan antelope)
lella, lewla (antelope)
mbilla (kob)
mola (donkey foal)
njuura (hyena)
noowra, tola (crocodile)
nyiiwa (elephant)
tefeewa (female donkey)

16
 Big birds:
ceda, kaciiguwa (tawny eagle)
dawwa, ndawu (ostrich)
polaala (glossy-backed drango)

Big (or really dangerous) snakes:

mbarulla, mbolla, mborga (rock python)
ngajama (puff adder)
ngoowla (cobra)

Big bugs:
bammbowa jahe, mbamboowa jahe, njaabaja (scorpion horse spider)
aancuwa (locust)

Nouns from other noun classes can be taken and transformed to

denote bigness. This is especially true of large domestic animals:
mbaalu (sheep) ngu → mbaala (big sheep) nga
mbewa (goat) nga → mbe'a (large goat) nga
nagge (cow) nge → nagga (big cow) nga
ngari (bull) ndi → nga'a (large bull) nga
njawdiri (ram) ndi → njawga (large ram) nga
gorko (man) o → ngora (large man) nga4

In some areas of the Moosiire dialect area, e.g. Tenkodogo, they

have solved the problem of avoiding sexual innuendos (see
discussion under ngu) by reclassifying animals into the nga noun
class from the ngu noun class, and changing the ending. This does
not imply bigness!
mbaalu (sheep) ngu → mbaala nga
liingu (fish) ngu → liinga nga
owngu (mosquito) ngu → ownga nga

12. ngal noun class (Group II): Nouns in the ngal noun class make up
10% of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. In Mahadaga this
marker would be denasalized to gal. Ngal is one of the four singular
augmentative noun classes. It is possible to take words from other
noun classes, transform them, and place them into the ngal class to
denote largeness. For example:
nagge (cow) nge → naggal (big cow) ngal
mbaalu (sheep) ngu → baalal (big sheep) ngal5
mbaala (sheep) nga → baalal (big sheep) ngal5
mbeewa (goat) nga → be’al (big goat) ngal5
suka (child) o → cukalal (big child) ngal6
gorko (man) o → goral (big man) ngal
suudu (house) ndu → cuugal (big house) ngal6

4
Note how goora was transformed when augmented. The first consonant is nasalized as nga is in Group III
(see Table 5.1).
5
To understand why mbaalu ngu becomes baala ngal one must study Table 5.1, bearing in mind the three groups
of noun class markers mentioned above. Because ngu (and nga) fall in Group III, the initial consonant of mbaalu,
mbaala, or mbeewa is nasalized (except in Mahadaga region). But when the augmentative form ngal is used to
transform the word, the word changes from Group III (ngu or nga) to Group II (ngal). So the initial nasal “mb”
becomes a plosive “b.”
6
Perhaps one could say suka o is “irregular” in as much as one would expect the word to begin with a “c” as it is
in the o noun class, falling into Group II. Despite this, when the noun is transformed, undergoing augmentation
into the ngal noun class, which is also in Group II, the first consonant is transformed as predicted to “c” from
“s.” The same thing happens with suudu ndu when augmented. It become cuugal ngal.
17
Additionally, many birds are found in this noun class:
balaalawal, ciicibalawal (glossy-backed drongo)
caacaa, hamma keekawal (abyssinian roller)
caygal (knob-billed goose)
coloncokkuwal, kilkokkowal (hornbill)
ciliiliwal, killiwal (white-faced tree duck)
cofal, gertogal (chicken)
coo
al (great white egret)
daawuwal, dowdaakal, kankarawal (pied crow)

apo
appongal, labal (night jar)
doggaoowal, kuyyal (grey plover)
doobal (Denham's bustard)
dugu
okkal, dum
okkal (hammerkop)
dutal (Ruppell's Griffon vulture)
gerral (various francolins or quail)
jaawngal (Guinea-fowl)
killiliyal (grey heron)
kumbaareyal (crowned crane)
ladawal, padaladawal, tonkonowal (duck)
nyaabal (pigeon)
nyaalal (cattle egret)

Things made of wood – note that many of these might also be classed
as tools:
adakaal, keesuwal (trunk)
akalal, akalaal akalawal, jarnirgal, yarnirgal (trough)
alluwal (wooden slate)
aworgal, cummbirgal, kaaleyal, lummbirgal (paddle)
baafal, gampuwal, ommbirgal (door)
bannjaruwal, denndeeruwal (forked log)
buruugal (mixing stick)
buuwtorgal, doonyirgal, kaasorgal (wood used to scrape)
camirgal, tappirgal (wooden tamper)
canyorgal (loom)
ceal, koalawal (bark)
ceekal, leggal, peccal (piece of wood)
coccorgal, kosorgal (toothbrush)
doccal, duncirgal (torch)
duncirgal, eggirgal, tutorgal (poker)
gaawal (short spear)
girbal, jirbal, kurbirgal, laaruwal (spoon)
joo
orgal (chair)
juggal (hitching post)
kalasal (shaft of spear)
kalawal (bow)
kukuruwal (short handle)
kuluwal (long handle)
kural (arrow)
le'al (wooden bowl)
liwtorgal (shepherd’s crook)
nyaamnirgal (manger)
nyaamrugal (bowl)
taabawal (table)
tuugorgal (cane, staff)
undugal (pestle)
18
 A few musical instruments appear in the ngal noun class:
barguwal, luwal (horn)
boobiliyal (small flute)

Tools are often placed into the ngal noun class.

awnorgal (binoculars)
baatal, battal, mesalal (needle)
basirgal, lukkuwal, sulunguwal (digging tool)
bedorgal, kusal (trap)
bifirgal, biwrugal, puufirgal, jugorgal (fan, bellows)
binndirgal (pencil, pen)
boggirgal, kirowal (file)
boogirgal (pumice stone)
caasorgal, cancorgal, kaasorgal (comb)
cendal (hair pick)
cettirgal (peeler, sharpener)
cokirgal, kufal, ommbirgal, omtirgal, ontirgal (lock & key)
coppirgal (axe, scythe)
daandorgal, ndanndorgal (mirror)
dobirgal, dokkirgal, jokkirgal, nannginirgal (clasp)
jabbirgal (planting hoe)
kaasorgal (rake, comb)
kaitirgal (set of tools)
keefirgal (plane)
laytal (flashlight)
paasorgal (iron for cloths)
pikkaal (fan)
taasawal (metal dish)
tangarawal, teelorgal, eenrugal (ladder)

There are also a number of more abstract nouns in the ngal class:

anndal (knowledge) jeydal (kinship)

ural (superiority) kial (perfection)
caral (discernment) korngal, tiimngal (devination)
cellal (health) kuuwgal (curse)
ciinal (determination) laaal (cleanliness, purity, clarity)
cuusal (courage) malal (fault, deformity)
dewal (faithfulness, piety) munyal (patience)
dewral (peace) pinal (experience)

uu
al (abundance) potal (agreement)
eelgal (greed, covetousness) tabital (fulfillment)
gondal (togetherness) tannyoral, taoral (certainty)
goon
inal (faith) teddeengal (glory, honor)
gullal (speed)

Words relating to marriage are also often in the ngal class:

angal, dewgal, koowgal (wedding)
ceergal (divorce)
kaal (engagement)

19
13. nge noun class (Group I): There are only 15 nouns in the nge noun
class listed in the dictionary, but all of them refer to either the sun,
fire or cows. In Mahadaga this would be denasalized to ge.

Sun
hakkunde naange (noon)
janal naange (sunset)
naange (sun)

Fire
hiite & yiite

Cows
haange (heifer)
hakkundeeye (avg. size cow)
hoowruge (bride price from cow)
nagge (cow)
nagge ladde (African buffalo)
nyale (heifer)
rimare (steril cow)
soggaange, suddaareewe (gift cow)
soaange, suraange (cow left behind)
wiige (heifer)

14. ngel noun class (Group II): Nouns in the ngel noun class make up
2.4% of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. Ngel is one of
the three diminutive noun classes. Normal nouns can be
transformed by changing the ending to convey smallness of size.
In referring to people, the diminutive is usually used with children
and is a term of endearment. For example, dewel am, in that context,
could be translated “my little lady.” In Mahadaga this marker would
be denasalize to gel.

i

o (son/daughter) o → inngel (little son/daughter) ngel

suka (child) o → cukalel (little child) ngel
gorko (man) o → gorel (little man-refers to a child) ngel
debbo (woman) o → dewel (little lady-refers to a child) ngel
suudu (house) ndu → cuurel (small house) ngel
lekki (tree) ki → leggel (small tree) ngel

20
15. ngi noun class (Group III): There are only eight nouns in the ngi
noun class listed in the dictionary. However, as with the other
augmentative noun classes, one can manipulate many nouns by
adding this ending. In Mahadaga this marker would be denasalized
to gi. Examples:

mbaalu (sheep) ngu → mbaali (large sheep) ngi

mbewa (goat ) nga → mbe’i (large goat) ngi
nagge (cow) nge → naggi (large cow) ngi
ndamndi (buck) ndi → ndamngi (large buck) ngi
ngaari (bull) ndi → nga’i (large bull) ngi
njawdiri (ram) ndi → njawgi (large ram) ngi

gorko (man) o → ngori (large man) ngi

suudu (house) ndu → cuugi (large house) ngi
jalo (hoe) ngo → njali (large hoe) ngi

16. ngo noun class (Group I): Nouns in the ngo noun class make up 3.2%
of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. In Mahadaga this
marker would be denasalized to go.

This is the noun class where many mats and beds are listed.
For example:
booyoowo, deeleewo (thick grass mat)
cakaawo, dimbaawo, ficco, ngado,
ommbeewo (millet stalk mat)
daago (palm leaf mat)
dambugaawo, fe
o (large mat over bed)
hurgo, kuurgal, soorowal (shelter made of mats to make mats under)
juuldugo (prayer mat)
leeso (bed)
ommboogo (mat used as door)
sagargaawo (bed made of millet stalks)
sekko (thin grass mat)

There are a number of words having to do with sounds and noises in

the ngo class:
duumbo (faint sound of people talking)
felnyaango, haaango, riggaango (thunder)
fijo, hiiro (a party)
halaango (cry, scream)
hoolo, koolol, nootitaango (echo)
huunaango (cow’s mooing)
iido (steady noise as with motor)
jaleengo (laughter)
noddaango (to call someone)
saao (soft noise as when wind blows)
siikaango, sirkaango (shrill cry, a shriek, screech)
sonnyo (rustling noise)
umsaango (groaning)
wullaango (weeping)
yewto (discussion)

21
 And there are some common miscellaneous words in the ngo class.
For example:
fa
o (shoe)
hakkillo, haillo, hiilngo (intelligence)
hoggo (corral)
hulgo (sheath)
labbo (spear)
luumo (market)
maaro (rice)
maayo (river, large lake, sea)
ndolo (hope)
rafo, weelo (hunger, famine)
sago, yelaango (wish, desire)
seyo (happiness, joy)
wuro (household, village, city)
yeeso (face, front)
yooro (drought)

A few body parts are in the ngo class too:

aawo (back, rectum)
fuudo (rectum)
junngo (hand, arm)
walbo (shoulder)

17. ngol noun class (Group II): Nouns in the ngol noun class make up
5.3% of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. Often these
words refer to objects that are longer than they are wide.
In Mahadaga this marker would be denasalize to gol. Examples:
arsuwol, guurtol, orol, toogol (row of crops)
oggol, da
orgol, teppol, tonngoode, tonngorgol (rope)
boololol, daamarawol, guylaare (water lily)
orowol, gaarawol (cotton thread)
bubbinirgol, dogginirgol, ilaa'irgol (rivulet)
bubbol, celol, gooruwol, pogowol (stream)
buuwaangol, balangol, cuppol, dartiingol, laawol,
mbedda, poocciingol (road)
callalol (chain, cable)
ceelol (strip of rawhide)
ceerol (boundry, border)
coddungol,
a
ol, giinawol (Achilles tendon)
collol, ko
ol (necklace)
coortol, corfol, goppol, gotol, guurtol (path)

a
ol (root, artery, vein, nerve, tendon)
dewoowol (route)
diggol (plait of hair)
diidol (a line)
dorrol (whip)
gaasol (string on instrument, long hair)
galmol, kubbol, tampaanuwol (furrow)
giinawol (tendon)
gurunfuntuwol (long valley, crevasse)
humparawol, parawol (rope halter)
kaorgol, kumorgol, tunndorgol (belt)
karbajuruwol (rein)
kokuwol (wall)

22
 kommbol, koonorgol, kunndol (edge of mat, hem)
konongol (windpipe)
koool (drool)
ku
ol (straw)
kumol (amunition belt)
lacol (tail)
leembol (hair or feather)
lefol (strip of cloth)
loosol (long stick for stripping leaves)
mamaruwol (hook and line for fishing)
meetalol, mellol, mukkol (man’s head wrap)
nawkowol (underarm hair)
pattawol (jugular vein)
ponndol (measuring tape or stick)
sigiwol (leather halter)
sollewol (bolt of cloth)
tekotol, tetekol (section of intestine)

There are some common miscellaneous words in the ngol class.

For example:
balnol, banndol, pannjamol (parable, proverb) konngol (words, message)
uuol, jaangol (cold) koy
ol (dream)
baytuwol (poem) kulol (fear)
fillawol, taalol (a story, tale, fable) lenyol (lineage, genealogy)
jayngol (light) soortewol (chapter, lesson)
jimol (song)

18. ngu noun class (Group III): Nouns in the ngu noun class make up
6.7% of the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. The ngu noun
class can also be used in some areas in a diminutive sense.
Nearly any noun can be diminished by reconfiguring it in the ngu
noun class. For example:

nagge (cow) nge → naggu (small cow) ngu

gorko (man) o → ngoru (small man) ngu
suka (child) o → cukaawu (small child) ngu
suudu (house) ndu → cuuru (small house) ngu

Things that are already found in the ngu class are diminished by using ngel.
For example:

puccu (horse) ngu → puccel (little horse) ngel

mbaalu (sheep) ngu → baalel (little sheep) ngel
owngu (mosquito) ngu → owngel (little mosquito) ngel

23
 Note in some areas (e.g. Sebba, Tenkodogo) people may associate
ngu with sex and so they would avoid using ngu. Rather than use
ngu they would use kol. In the Maasina dialect ngungu is a word for
sex, thus use of words in the ngu class causes one to periodically
remind one’s listeners of sex, so that the Maasina dialect has put all
ngu class words in the catch-all o class (thus puccu o, mbaalu o,
ndunngu o). In Djibo the word ngungu is not known and using ngu
is not a problem. Check on this in your area! In Mahadaga this
marker would be denasalized to gu.

Here are the words for reproductive organs that have given this noun
class an X rating in some areas:

kottu, kuungu, nyammu, sau (vagina or vulva)

jofolaaku, nguppaaku (uncircumcision)
muru, jofolooru (foreskin)
ngorgu (penis, courage, determination)

The SUFFIXes -aaku, -aagu refer to the essence of something, or to a

particular attribute. They are all found in the ngu class.
For example:

almaamaaku (priesthood) ndewaaku (femininity)

amiiraaku, kaanankaaku (royalty) ndimaaku (nobility)
annabaaku (prophethood) ndundaraaku (obstinacy)
cawraagu (tolerance) ne'aaku, ne

aaku (propriety)
cukaaku (childhood) ngootummbaaku (aloneness)
nden
iraagu (cousinhood) ngoraaku (masculinity)
goongalaaku (truthfulness) njaahilaaku (wickedness)
haasidaaku, keedaraaku (selfishness) njokollaaku (youthfulness)
hakkilantaaku (acumen) nyaanko'aaku (bad luck)
iimaanaaku, liimaanaaku (sincerity toward God) pahaaku (deafness)
njulaaku (commerce) pulaaku (essence of being a Pullo)
keccoraaku (jealousy) ri'aaku, yiingaaku (boasting)
lokkaaku (weakness) safiyaaku (foolishness)
maccungaaku (slavery) sakiraagu (siblinghood)
manngaaku (largeness, importance, superiority) seedaaku, seedaagu (testimony)
mawniraagu (birthright) sukunyaaku (sorcery)
muncaraaku (impatience) talkaaku (poverty)
muuyantaaku (desire) tomottaaku (humanness)
nanaraaku, neetaraaku (brashness) woykuuraaku (prostitution)
ndaggadaaku (ability to tell future) yigoraaku (friendship)
ndeereeraaku (gluttony) yogumburaaku (procrastination)

24
A number of animals are placed in the ngu noun class.
As mentioned above, some areas, to avoid using ngu,
will change both the ending of the word and its noun class,
e.g. mbaalu ngu → mbaala nga. Others will avoid using this noun
class by simply using a different noun class without changing the
spelling of the word, e.g. puccu ngu → puccu kol; mbaalu ngu →
mbaalu o; cirgu ngu → cirgu ndu. This sacrifices the rhyming
character of these words, but preserves them from embarrassment of
uttering anything that might be considered a sexual innuendo.
Examples of animals (or animal byproducts) in the ngu class:

basu, mbarallaawu, mbasu (leather bag)

mbortu (female lamb)
caaju (horse with white blaze)
cirgu, colu, omngu (leopard)
ngiroowu, kurkuruuru, njiroowu (pig)
kerenngeesu (gecko)
liingu (fish)
mbaalu (sheep)
mbawlu (leather pillow)
mboonaawu (eel)
molu (foal)
ndawu (ostrich)
ngabbu (hippopotamus)
nguru (skin, leather)
puccu (horse)
teewu (flesh, meat)
tefeewu (mare)

There are also quite a few bugs and parasites found in the ngu class:

ellellu, ellellu, kootu (tick)

mbinu (egg of louse)
owngu (mosquito)
mburuutu (Guinea worm)
mbuubu (fly)
mbuubuudu, njabbattu (wasp)
mbuuduulu (gnat)
cootu, cuncu, sootu (firefly)

aaloolu, konndollu, mettellu, nyuunyu (ant)
mbuu, nguu (wood borer)
njalu, ngilngu (intestinal worm)
ngilngu, njilngu (caterpillar, maggot)
kurbaanaanu, yeebiiwu (winged termite)
mbaattu, ngurnyaawu, tamminyoonaawu (grasshopper)
mbalku (leech)
ngurnyaawu, tamminyoonaawu (locust)
nuguuru (ant lion)
nyaaku, urkeewu (bee)
nyapilegew (tapeworm)
peecu, peeku, peesu (tsetse fly)
pee
eengu (cicada)
tenngu (louse)

25
 There are also a number of abstract words in this noun class:

allaaru, laru, sokottu (fault, sin, disease) laamu, ndewgu (kingdom, rule)
mbeelu (ghost) mbaansu (ugliness)
caahu (hospitality) mursu (loss)
coggu (the price) nayeewu (old age)
cunu (depression) ndaaoowu (plague)
cuubu (folly) ndeenaagu (peace)
ndongu (inheritance) ngalu (wealth)
faamu, paamu (understanding) nginnaawu (demon)
nge
u, nje
u (part of) njangu (theft)
njinngu (love) nyawu (sickness)
kauko'u (worry) riiku (blessing)
kamaalu (conceit) tagu (custom)
kammu (sky, heaven) waaju (preaching)
kawgu (victory)

Here are some miscellaneous common concrete nouns, including

several types of drums that are found in the ngu class:
bentigaaru, kurkutu, mbaggu, mbinderew, ngangariiwu,
ndondoloowu (drums)
eyngu (posterity, children)
mbuu
u (5 cfa)
cee
u, kee
u (hot season)
haamu, kaamu, kuu (humidity)
ndunngu (rainy season)
konu (raiding)
mbe
u (trivet)
ngeeu (seed)
ngiriiwu (chick pea)

19. o noun class (Group II): Nouns in the o noun class make up 29% of
the singular nouns listed in the dictionary. This is the noun class of
human beings and of borrowed words. Most of the words for
humans rhyme with o. For example:

i

o o (child)
baabiraa
o o (father, uncle – modification of Arabic baaba)
gorko o (man)
debbo o (woman)
ne

o o (person)

However, even some of the words for humans do not rhyme with o.
That is because while rhyming with o is the main paradigm for
dealing with people, there are several other paradigms.
For example:

baaba (father) suka (child)

baaligi (adult from Arabic) tomette, tomotte (human)

26
 Because all sorts of borrowed words have been put into this class,
most of them do not rhyme with o. For example:
abajadda (alphabet from Arabic)
barga (chicken pox from Moré)
barma (cooking pot from Bambara)
caaku (sack from French)
daama (peace from Gourmanchema)
denjigi (prostitute from Bambara)
haaju (need from Arabic)
jaba (oinon from Bambara)
kabaaru (news from Arabic)
kakaduru (ginger from Hausa)
karanji (kerosene from English)
satalla (plastic teapot from Hausa)
teme (sieve from French)
woroni (baboon from Bambara)
zomkoom (ginger drink from Moré)

There are also plenty of words that end with “o,” but which do not
refer to a human being. Some of them are obviously borrowed
words, some of them are obviously native to Fulfulde, and some one
wonders about. For example:

cappalo (local drink) montoro (watch, clock)

cunaawo (ravine) niizonndo, nujondo (night blindness)
fiifo (genet) nyoodo (profit)
futuro (sundown) poso (poison)
forgo (shirt) saawto (faint noise)
fulunfuudo (lungs) safoko (evening)
guudo (mold) sikkoro (sugar)
iroiro (moth) sooro (tower)
jaabo (response) sooso (sprinkle of rain)
jangoro (local pain) suno (depression, grief)
jongomo (fire wall) tokoo (whooping cough)
kolokolo (turkey) tonoo (barrel)
looloo (slippery, muddy terrain) tuumo (accusation)
marto (hammer) wujo (clam)
miliyo (million) yaaoro (bottom of foot)
misooro (woman’s head wrap) yommbo (braid of hair)

27
 B. The Five Plural Noun Classes

1. e noun class (Group I): This plural noun class is only used for
humans.7 The many borrowed words in the o noun class would use
either
e or
i as their plurals.

i

o (child) o → ie (children) e

baabiraa
o (father, uncle) o → baabiraae (uncles) e
gorko (man) o → wore e8
debbo (woman) o → rewue (women) e9
go

o (person) o → woe (someones) e8

2.
e noun class (Group II): This plural noun class is used for nearly half
of the non-personal nouns. In particular the singular noun classes ki,
nde, and ngal tend to use the
e class to form their plurals (see Table
4.1 on page 30 for details). For example:

lekki (tree) ki → le

e (trees)
e

dewtere (book) nde → dewte (books)
e
cofal (chicken) ngal → cofe (chickens)
e

Of the 926 nouns listed in the Appendix B with a plural in the
e noun
class, 383 (41%) have plurals ending with the SUFFIXes -aaje, -eeje,
-iije, -ooje, or -uuje. These ending are used for mass nouns and
borrowed words in the
e noun class. However, even with words
native to Fulfulde that have rarely used plurals there is a tendancy for
younger Fule to use these mass noun endings as they forget the
original plural forms.10

3.
i noun class (II): This plural noun class is used for almost half of the
non-personal nouns. In particular ka, ko1, ndi, ndu, nga, nge, ngo,
ngu, and o classes tend to use the
i class to form their plurals (see
Table 4.1 on page 30 for details). For example:

haala (word) ka → haalaaji
i

hu
o (grass) ko → ku
ooli
i
ngaari (bull) ndi → ga’i
i
suudu (house) ndu → cuu
i
i
nyiiwa (elephant) nga → nyiibi
i
nagge (cow) nge → na’i
i
felnyaango (thunder clap) ngo → pelnyaali
i

7
The only exception I have found is ie ladde e for lions.
8
Why is gorko transformed to wore in the plural? If you consult Table 5.1, Initial Consonant Changes of Nouns,
on page 31, you will notice that the o class is in Group II, and e class is in Group I. You will also notice that
there are three “g’s” under the Group II heading. The first “g” remains “g” when moving to Group I. The
second “g” is transformed to “w” in Group I – this is the case with gorko. This is also the case with go

o
transforming to woe. The third “g” is transformed to “y” in Group I.
9
Why is the initial “d” transformed to “r” in the plural? Table 5.1 on page 31 tells us why. There are two “d’s”
in Group II’s column (the column where o is located). The first one remains “d” in Group I (the column where
the plural e is located) and the second one is transformed to “r” in the Group I column – which is the case with
debbo.
10
For example, I have met a number of people who do not know that the plural of wolde (war) nde is bolwole
(wars)
e. Rather they think it is woldeeje
e.

28
 Of the 859 nouns listed in the Appendix B with a plural in the
i noun
class, 540 (63%) have plurals ending with the SUFFIXes -aaji, -eeji, -
iiji, -ooji, or -uuji. These ending are used for mass nouns and
borrowed words in the
i noun class. In particular, if a word is
borrowed from another language, more than likely its plural form
will fall in the
i noun class. However, even with words native to
Fulfulde that have rarely used plurals there is a tendancy for younger
Fule to use these mass endings as they forget the older plural
forms.11

4. ko2 noun class: This is a rarely used plural noun class for the singular
noun classes nga, ngal and ngi when they are used in a augmentative
sense. Vanderaa reports that at one time there was an e noun class in
the Maasina dialect which served as a plural augmentative in the same
way that ko2 does in Burkina. Examples of ko2:

nagge (cow) nge → na’i (cows)
i

nagga (big cow) nga → na’o (big cows) ko

naggal (big cow) ngal → na’o (big cows) ko
naggi (big cow) ngi → na’o (big cows) ko

suudu (house) ndu → cuu
i (houses)
i

cuural (big house) ngal → cuuro (big houses) ko

ngora (big man) nga → ngoro (big men) ko

5. koy noun class: This is the plural noun class corresponding to the
singular diminutive noun classes ngel and ngu. Note, it is possible
that ngel not be used in a diminutive sense,12 but of 88 listings
corresponding to ngel in the dictionary, 72 (82%) use the plural koy
(see Table 4.1 below). For example:

inngel (small child) ngel → ikkoy (small children) koy

ciitel (little finger) ngel → ciitoy (small fingers) koy
porgitel (gecko) ngel → porgitoy (geckos) koy

11
For example, many do not know that the plural of aaru (quiver) ndu is aari
i not aaruuji
i!
12
For example: cofel (chick) ngel → coffi
i; kankanngel (gall bladder) ngel → kaankaane
e; kibel (flea) ngel →
kibi
i; laccel (mongoose) ngel → laccel'en
e; silaalayel (swift) ngel → silaalaaji
i
29
 Table 4.1
Occurrences of plurals by noun class13
e i ko koy
am 3 4 0 0
um 0 0 0 0
ka 3 39 0 0
kal 0 0 0 0
ki 133 11 0 0
ko1 3 28 0 0
kol 1 6 0 0
nde 561 32 0 0
ndi 29 68 0 0
ndu 2 192 0 0
nga 11 65 12 0
ngal 306 7 8 0
nge 0 13 0 0
ngel 0 6 0 72
ngi 0 0 7 0
ngo 33 62 0 0
ngol 7 162 0 0
ngu 6 156 0 0
o 22 251 0 0
Totals 1,120 1,102 27 72

5. PLURALIZATION: INITIAL CONSONANT CHANGES FOR NOUNS

In Fulfulde there is a system of initial consonant changes for both nouns and verbs.
The system of initial consonant changes for the verbs is actually much less
complicated than the system for the nouns and is discussed in Section 10.A, page 65.
The system for the nouns also applies to participles and adjectives created from verbs
(for the discussion of the Participial verb FORM see Section 14, page 98 ff., and for the
discussion of adjectives see Section 26, page 150 ff.).

In Fulfulde, with regard to the initial consonant change of nouns, including participles
and adjectives formed from verbs, it is simplest to think of the consonants as falling
into two categories. The first category is composed of those consonants which never
alternate regardless of the class of the noun or whether the noun is singular or plural.
These are
, , l, m, n, , t, and . The second category is composed of consonants
which do alternate. These are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, mb, nd, ng, nj, p, r, s, w and y. It is
with these consonants, when they occur as the initial consonant of a noun, and the
changes they tend to undergo, that we need to concern ourselves.

Perhaps the key phrase here is “tend to undergo,” as the initial consonant changes for
nouns are nowhere near as regular as the changes which occur with verbs. Table 5.1,
below, is an attempt to show the general rules of how the initial consonants change.
The various consonants which undergo change, mentioned above, are all listed in

13
This data is from the second edition of the Burkina Faso Fulfulde/English-English/Fulfulde Dictionary.
It should be noted that it is not unusual for different dialects of Fulfulde to have different plurals and thus
different noun class markers. Furthermore, nouns in the
am,
um and kal classes tend not to form plurals.
Also some singular nouns in the remaining 17 singular noun classes do not have a plural form. The reason the
totals are not the same as given on pages 28 and 29 is that those numbers are derived from Appendix B.
In preparing Appendix B the denasalize Gurmaare denasalized versions of nouns were excluded, while they are
included in the stats in shown in Table 4.1.
30
Table 5.1. Note at the top of Table 5.1 that the 24 noun classes have been divided into
three groups. These three groups represent what “normally” happens to nouns that are
native to Fulfulde or to those derived from Fulfulde verbs.14 Note that Group III tends
to nasalize the initial consonant. Also note that there are three patterns of changes
that take place between the groups. B, D, G, and J stay the same for groups one and
two, but are nasalized with Group III nouns. F, H, and S change to P, K, C with
Groups II and III and there is no nasalization in Group III. R,W, and Y are different
in each of the three groups, and they nasalize with Group III nouns. Note also that W
and Y have two different patterns of change!

Table 5.1 Initial Consonant Changes of Nouns

Initial GROUP I GROUP II GROUP III
Consonant of
e, ko1, nde, ndu, e, i, um, kal, kol, ngal, am, ka, ki, ko2, koy,
Verb Root* nge, ngo ngel, ngol, o ndi, nga, ngi, ngu
b b b mb
d d d nd
g g g ng
j j j nj
f f p p
h h k k
s s c c
r r d nd
w w b mb
w w g ng
y y j nj
y y15 g15 ng15

*This information only pertains to the 4% of Fulfulde nouns that are derived from verbs.

Another way to explain pluralization or to read Table 5.1 is as follows:

All the human o class nouns move over one column to the left to form the
plural.

The non-human o class nouns remain in the middle column to form the plural.

The bulk of other classes stay or move into the middle column to form the
plural.

14
In doing a survey of the nouns in the dictionary I found that 82% do conform to this pattern! See Table 5.2, p. 33.
The only initial consonant changes I have been able to find between y → g relate to nouns not derived from verbs:
15

e.g. yeeso (face) ngo → geese
e; yiite (fire) nge → giiteeli
i; yitere (eye) nde → gite
e; yeyre (udder) nde →
geese/jehe
e. Hypothetically if one of these nouns was diminished the plural form would fall in Group III: e.g.
yeyre (udder) nde → geyrel ngel → ngeesoy koy.
31
 Examples:
o Class People Plurals Most Other Plurals
debbo d→r rewe rawaandu ndu r→d dawaa
i
i
baaw
o b→w waawe wojere nde w→b boje
e
gorko g→w wore wabbere nde w→g gabbe
e
ji
o j→y yie yabbere nde y→j jabbe
e
gi
o g→y yie yitere nde y→g gite
e
Pullo p→f Fule foondu ndu f→p pooli
i
ko
o k→h hoe hinere nde h→k kine
e
Ce

o c→s See suudu ndu s→c cuu
i
i
ngaari ndi ng → g ga'i
i
njamndi ndi nj → j jam
e
e
mbaalu ngu mb → b baali
i
ndamndi ndi nd → d dam
i
i

Table 5.1 can be used as follows:

A. For Normal Nouns with Common Plurals:

For those nouns which are native to Fulfulde, are not derived
from a verb, and whose plural is a commonly used word, the sole
change which occurs is a change in the initial consonant between the
singular and plural forms. This change is dependent upon the
respective noun classes that the singular and the plural forms of the
noun belong to. Table 5.1 shows what this change will generally be.
To use the table, find the noun class group that the singular form of
the noun is in, and locate the initial consonant of the noun in
question. The initial consonant of the plural will generally be the
same as the consonant indicated in the table under the group heading
for the noun class of the plural; i.e. e,
e,
i, ko2, or koy.

Examples:

rendere (watermelon) nde → dene (watermelons)
e

For the word rendere find the column that the nde class is in, which
is Group I. Find the “r.” Slide over one column to the Group II
noun classes where the plural class
e is located, and you can see
that the “normal” initial consonant should be “d,” which is what it
is.

jawgel (a male lamb) ngel → njawkoy koy

For the word jawgel find the column that the ngel class is in, which
is Group II. Find the “j.” Slide over one column to the the Group
III noun classes where the plural class koy is found, and you can see
that the “expected” initial consonant would be “nj,” which it is.

32
 mbaalu (sheep) ngu → baali
i

For the word mbaalu first find the column that the ngu class is in,
which is the third column. Find the “mb.” Then slide over to the
Group II noun classes where the plural class
i is found, and you can
see that the “usual” consonant would be “b,” which it is.

gertogal (chicken) ngal → gertoo
e
e

For the word gertogal, first find the column that the ngal class is in,
which is the second group. In this case the plural
e is also in the
second group so you would not expect an initial consonant change,
and it does not change.

B. For Nouns Derived from Verbs:

If the noun was derived from a verb, as is the case for many
non-borrowed nouns, most adverbs, and all participles, and the initial
consonant is one that may involve changes (i.e. b, d, f, g, h, j, r, s, w,
and y), the initial consonant for the verb root can be located in the left
column of Table 5.1, and the singular and plural initial consonants for
the nouns derived from that verb can be determined by reading across
to the column containing the appropriate noun class. Examples:
warude → warooe e (GI) → garoowo o (GII) → garal ngal (GII)
yahude → yaadu ndu (GI) → yahooe e (GI) → jahoowo o (GII)
sawrude → sawrooe e (GI) → cawroowo o (GII)
remude → remooe e (GI) → demoowo o (GII) → ndemri ndi (GIII)
wallude → wallue e (GI) → ballu
o o (GII)
wujjude → wuye e (GI) → gujjo o (GII) → nguyka ka (GIII)

Table 5.2 Tabulation of Research on Non-conforming Nouns16

B D F G H J Mb Nd Ng Nj R S W Y Total
Total Nouns 281 213 110 144 187 144 81 48 67 53 43 222 112 111 1,816
Non-confoming Nouns 6 5 32 6 60 5 5 4 4 3 16 119 27 35 327
% of total 2% 2% 29% 4% 35% 3% 6% 8% 6% 6% 37% 54% 24% 31% 18%
Borrowed Words 2 9 2 20 1 1 8 36 7 6 92
Borrowed Words? 4 3 14 2 7 1 2 4 2 44 3 9 95
Lost Plural? 5 12 21 10 9 57
Derived From Another Word 2 4 2 21 3 3 3 3 6 15 7 10 79
Diminished 3 1 4

16
See Appendix A for the details!
33
 C. Exceptions:
1. Borrowed words: A survey of 1,816 nouns in the dictionary17
discloses that 82% of the time nouns conform to the patterns
expressed in Table 5.1.18 Broadly speaking, the remaining 18% of
nouns that do not conform to these patterns relating to their initial
consonant can be grouped into four categories. The largest of these
categories would be borrowed words. In Table 5.2 above
distinguishes between known borrowed words (28% of non-
conforming nouns), and those which are suspected of having
originally been borrowed from another language (29% of non-
conforming nouns).19 Many, but not all, of these words’ singular
forms are placed in the o noun class. Some words, because of the
way they end, or because of what they represent, are put into a
noun class other than the o class. When the Fule borrow words
they bring them in, more or less as they are, with only minor
modifications. More is done to tamper with the ending of borrowed
words than is done with the initial consonants. So these nouns get
put in a variety of noun classes without any thought of their
conforming to the initial consonant rules. Occasionally, by
happenstance, a borrowed word’s initial consonant will conform to
the pattern in Table 5.1, either in its singular or its plural form, but
most often they do not conform in either form. Nor do the Fule
generally make any effort to change the initial consonant when
pluralizing borrowed words. So whatever the initial consonant of
the singular form is, that will generally be the same for the plural
form. See Appendix A for a listing of examples.

2. Lost plurals: The second category is of those words which may

have lost their original plural form. These account for 17% of the
non-conforming nouns. These are words whose singular forms
conform to the expected pattern, but whose plural forms do not
conform. Most of these do not undergo an initial consonant change
when pluralized. I suspect that at one time some of these words
had plural forms which conformed to the expected initial consonant
changes, but because these plurals were so seldom used they have
been lost. Some of these words maybe never had a clear cut plural
form, because the Fule don’t seem to think of certain things in a
plural sense. This seems strange to us as Anglophones, but many
times over the years, especially while working on the dictionary, I
have inquired after the plural form of a noun only to get a blank

17
The number of total nouns dealt with in this table excludes nouns which have no singular form, proper names for
places, people, titles of people, and groups of people, as well as nouns which have been denasalized in Gurmaare.
18
Part of my interest in doing the study on this, using the dictionary data base, was to see if “normally” Fulfulde
nouns were formed in accordance with the “rules” set forth in Table 5.1. This includes the singular form of a
word as well as its pluralized form. I was impressed by the high degree of conformity that I found, even in the
forming of singular forms. The results of that study are summarized in Table 5.2 above and the details are
contained in Appendix A.
19
A look at these “suspected” borrowed words (see Appendix A) shows that many of them possess the
characteristics that would cause suspicion – often their singular noun class is o and their plural noun class is
i,
they do not follow the normal patterns set forth in Table 5.1 for their singular forms, nor do their initial
consonants change when pluralized. Some of these “suspects” are surprising, and may in fact represent non-
borrowed words which are an exception to the rule. For some of these there may be a reason for their non-
conformity that has not occurred to me.
34
 stare. Sometimes I wonder if my informants have made up
something. So with words where the Fule either have lost track of
the correct plural form, often because these plural forms are rarely
used by them, or that perhaps never had a “real” grammatically
correct plural to start with, there is no change of the initial
consonant when pluralizing the noun. See Appendix A for a listing
of examples.

3. Nouns derived from another word: The third category of non-

conforming nouns is of those which have been derived from another
word. This may be another noun or a verb. These cases represent
24% of the non-conforming nouns. See the discussion in point B
above in the case the cognate is a verb. If the cognate is another
noun, then whatever initial consonant that word begins with is what
the derived form will begin with as well. Generally speaking, the
cognate’s initial consonant conforms to the rules, but the noun class
the derivative word lands in will determine if it conforms to the
rules or not. See Appendix A for a listing of examples.

4. Diminution: A forth category (comprising only 1% of the cases)

should be mentioned for the sake of completeness. As mentioned in
the introductory remarks on nouns, diminishing a word may result
in it moving from one group to another, which may entail initial
consonant changes for either the transformed singular or plural
forms. The Fule do not always bother to change the initial
consonant in this situation to conform with the expected form.
See Appendix A for examples.

35
6. PLURALIZATION: MULTIPLE SUFFIXES

Pluralization has two features in Fulfulde, initial consonant changes, which is dealt
with above in Section 5, and multiple SUFFIXes.

A.
e:
Words referring to persons, coming from the singular noun class o, pluralize
with the SUFFIXes -e, -’en, -aae, -eee, -iie, -ooe, or -uue, and fall in
the plural noun class e (see Table 6.1 for details). Generally only words
referring to persons are found in the plural noun class e.

Table 6.120
Occurrences of suffixes in the e noun class
Family Typical Form # %
Simple SUFFIX -e 41 15%
Simple SUFFIX -’en 27 10%
A -aae 119 42%
E -eee 24 8%
I -iie 21 7%
O -ooe 36 13%
U -uue 13 5%
Total 281 100%

So how does one know which of these plural endings to use? It is helpful to
think of nouns as “stems” with a “SUFFIX” attached that signifies whether
the word is in the singular or plural.21 Generally the plural SUFFIX will
resemble the singular SUFFIX of a given noun. So generally, words that end
with a singular SUFFIX containing “A” will use the plural SUFFIX -aae, those
ending with a singular SUFFIX containing “E” will use the plural SUFFIX
-eee, those ending with a singular SUFFIX containing “I” will use the plural
SUFFIX -iie, those ending with a singular SUFFIX containing “O” will use the
plural SUFFIX -ooe, and those ending with a singular SUFFIX containing “U’
will use the plural SUFFIX -uue. For nouns using a simple singular SUFFIX,
the plural SUFFIX -e is tacked on the end (see examples below). The simple
SUFFIX -’en is often used with borrowed words.22 As can be seen from Table
6.1 above, the most commonly used SUFFIXes used to form plurals in the e
noun class are -aae (42%), -e (15%), and -ooe (13%).

20
This data is derived from Appendix B, which in turn was derived from the second edition of the Burkina Faso
Fulfulde/English-English/Fulfulde Dictionary. This data is not meant to represent an exhaustive representation of
all possible nouns in the e noun class. Rather this data is included to give the student an idea of the relative
occurrence of the various SUFFIXes.
21
The noun “stem” is the base part of the noun, without its ending. For example, for the word
kaan-anke → kaan-ankooe, kaan- would be the stem, and -anke would be the singular SUFFIX, while
-ankooe would be the plural SUFFIX.
22
Of the 27 plurals in the dictionary using the Simple SUFFIX “-’en,” 23 of those words are borrowed words.
36
 Taking a closer look at the various plural SUFFIXes in the e noun class group
we see that there are some tendencies. In each “family” of endings
(Simple,A,E,I,O,U) there is a limited number of SUFFIXes. It is important for
the beginning student to grasp these tendencies and to know the main
SUFFIXes for each group.

42% of words in the e noun class have “A” as a prominent feature of the
singular SUFFIX. We will refer to these SUFFIXes as belonging to the “A
family” of SUFFIXes. Nearly half of these use the following two
singular/plural SUFFIX combinations:23

-aajo/-aae, e.g. annab-aajo → annab-aae

-aa
o/-aae, e.g. cu-aa
o → su-aae24

It is important to note that many of the e noun class words which have “A”
in the singular SUFFIX, are words that refer to people one is closely tied to,
such as family, friends and neighbors. The most common singular/plural
combinations are:

-a/-iraae, e.g. baab-a → baab-iraae

-ø/-iraae, e.g. dee or dey → deek-iraae
kaaw(u) → kaaw-iraae
-aa/-aae, e.g. saar-aa → saar-aae
-a/-aae, e.g. suk-a → suk-aae25

Unfortunately there are a few words that end with either -o or -oo in their
singular form and which nonetheless pluralize with the SUFFIX -iraae:

-o or -oo/-iraae, e.g. yig-oo or yig-o → yig-iraae

There are also a few words whose singular SUFFIXes are in the “I” family
which pluralize in the “A” family group with the SUFFIX -iraae. The key is
to recognize these nouns as words referring to family, friends, or neighbors:

-iiwo/-iraae, e.g. bannd-iiwo → bannd-iraae

-iyo/-iraae, e.g. bannd-iyo → bannd-iraae

23
Refer to Appendix B for details on the actual number of each SUFFIX type listed in this section.
24
Other singular/plural SUFFIX combinations used for “non-family” words are: -or-aa
o/-or-aae, e.g. baat-or-
aa
o → waat-or-aae; -an-aa
o/-an-aae , e.g. beer-an-aa
o → weer-an-aae and kunng-an-aa
o → hunng-an-
aae; -a/-aae (3), e.g. tokor-a → tokor-aae; -ø/-aae, e.g. musel (Fr: monsieur) → musel-aae
25
Because the way words are listed in the dictionary, “family” words ending with –iiwo or –iyo are seldom listed
as the word’s lexeme. However, these two SUFFIXes are very common as can be seen from examining the actual
entries for these “family” words in the dictionary. I have tried to reflect that importance in these statistics.
Other singular/plural SUFFIX combinations used for “family” words are: -iike/-iraae, e.g. sak-iike → sak-iraae;
-aanjo/-iraae, e.g. bapp-aanjo → bapp-iraae; -aanyo/-iraae, e.g. bapp-aanyo → bapp-iraae; -aanyaa/-
inyaae, e.g. bapp-aanyo → bapp-inyaae; -iraa
o/-iraae, e.g. baab-iraa
o → baab-iraae
37
 Perhaps the most difficult group to know how to pluralize are those nouns
where the SUFFIX -e is added to the noun stem. What makes them difficult
is that their singular SUFFIXes may resemble other group’s SUFFIXes,
especially the -o/-ooe combination. The key for recognizing these nouns is
noting the simplicity of the singular SUFFIX. Apart from words ending in the
SUFFIX -o, note that the other singular SUFFIXes (families A-U) generally
have multiple vowels in the SUFFIX. The Simple family of SUFFIXes will
nearly always have only one consonant followed by one vowel in the
SUFFIX.26 So, for example, -aa
o/-aae of family “A” can be distinguished
from -
o/-e. These nouns with simple singular/plural SUFFIXes make up
15% of e class nouns and there are two main singular/plural SUFFIX
combinations to be aware of:

-o/-e, e.g. beer-o → weer-e

-
o /-e, e.g. bel-
o → wel-e

A minor pattern, with an important word is:

-lo/-e, e.g. bahil-lo → wahil-e and Pul-lo → Ful-e27

There is a handful of other words listed in the dictionary whose noun stems
end with a consonant, but which fit into no specific SUFFIX pattern.28

The other large group in the e noun class contains those words which end
with the plural SUFFIX -ooe. These make up 14% of the total e noun class
words. There are four singular/plural SUFFIX combinations to be aware of:

-anke/-ankooe, e.g. Alhuudiy-anke → Alhuudiy-ankooe

and kaan-anke → kaan-ankooe
-oowo/-ooe, e.g. Jelg-oowo → Jelg-ooe
and dur-oowo → dur-ooe
-oojo/-ooe, e.g. wur-oojo → wur-ooe
-o/-ooe, e.g. joor-o → joor-ooe
and jaad-o → jaad-ooe29

For the group of personal o class nouns whose singular SUFFIX contains “E,”
the main singular/plural combination to be aware of is:

-eejo/-eee (19/24), e.g. bo
-eejo → wo
-eee30

26
I say nearly because woy-
u
o → woy-e appears to be an exception to this rule.
See footnote 29 below on
the eclectic singular SUFFIX -o.
27
The only other “pattern” that stands out in this group is: -ø/-e, e.g. ii → i-e. Note also how often the stem
final consonant morphs to “
” for phonetical reasons in the plural form. Even in the example ii → i-e the
vowel (in this case) “i” morphs to “.” Other examples would include: go
-
o → wo-e; gi
-o → yi-e
28
Here are the five words in this miscellaneous group: gor-ko → wor-e; guj-jo → wuy-e; Jaawan-ndo → Jaawan-e;
jokol-le → jokol-e; Lab-bo → Law-e
29
Words that use the singular SUFFIXes -o or -oo are a bit fluid in their identification with any one given plural SUFFIX pattern.
We have already seen some of these words show up in the “A” group, e.g. yigoo. Various places would render the plural of
jaado as yaadiie, yaadooe, or yaaduue!
30
Here are the three minor patterns in the “E” family: -e/-eee, e.g. atiim-e → atiim-eee, tomott-e or tomett-e →
tomott-eee, and taakalemm-e → taakalemm-eee; -ee/-eee, e.g. seed-ee → seed-eee; -eero/-eee, e.g. deer-eero
→ reer-eee
38
 For the “I” group in the e noun class the main singular/plural combination
is:

-iijo/-iie (7/21), e.g. aah-iijo → aah-iie31

For the “U” group in the e noun class there are two main principle
singular/plural combination patterns:

-u/-uue (5/11), e.g. amiir-u → amiir-uue

-uujo/-uue (5/11), e.g. bonng-uujo → bonng-uue

In the e noun class, the other SUFFIX in the Simple family is -’en.
As mentioned above this word is typically used by the Fule in pluralizing
foreign words with which they are uncertain of what else to do.
For example:

alaali'en, almaami'en, wakiili'en, dunkee'en

Having said that, -’en is also often used for creating plurals for people
considered part of one’s group, for example: Alsilaami'en, dokotoro’en.
Finally it is used for groups of which you are not a part, for example:
kam’en, Maamuudu’en. Maamuudu’en can mean Maamuudu and his family,
or Maamuudu and his friends, or Maamuudu and his traveling party.

A nanii Maamuudu’en ngaran hannden?

Did you hear that Maamuudu’s group (family, friends, traveling party) is coming
today?

31
As mentioned in footnote 29 above, singular nouns ending in “o” sometimes will form their plural in the “I”
group. Here are the remaining three patterns in the “I” group of the
e noun class: -o or -oo/-iie,
e.g. ard-o → ard-iie and goor-oo → goor-iie; -i or -ii/-iie, e.g. annjaari → annjaar-iie and banndii or
banndi → bannd-iie; -ii
o/-iie, e.g. laam-ii
o → laam-iie
39
 B. e:
Words from the singular noun classes ki, nde, and ngal tend to use the
e
class to form their plurals (as can be seen in Table 4.1 above). As with the
e plural noun class, there are six “families” of SUFFIXes for the
e noun
class: Simple, A, E, I, O, and U.32 However, the
e noun class is much more
complex than the e class as there are five subdivisions of the Simple family
(-e, -
e, -e, -le, -je), and three subdivisions for the families A, E, I, O, and
U (-je, -
e, -le). The details are in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Occurrences of suffixes in the e noun class33

X Simple A (-aaxe) E (-eexe) I (-iixe) O (-ooxe) U (-uuxe) Total
-je 2 138 74 52 69 52 387
-e 174 10 3 0 21 2 210
-le 40 8 3 0 8 0 59
-
e 12 12
-e 250 250
Total 478 156 80 52 98 54 918

Mass nouns, borrowed nouns,34 nouns with rarely used plurals, as well as
other normal Fulfulde nouns which are in the
e plural noun class, often end
with the SUFFIXes -aaje, -eeje, -iije, -ooje, or -uuje. As can be seen from
Table 6.2 above, these endings make up the bulk of the A-U family’s plural
ending. Additionally, many nouns originating in Fulfulde, and a few
borrowed words that fall in the
e plural noun class, end with the SUFFIXes
-aa
e, -aale, -ee
e, -eele, -oo
e, -oole, -uu
e, -uule, or the simple SUFFIXes
-e, -
e, -e, -je, and -le.

Within these six families there are a number of singular/plural SUFFIX

combinations used.35 It is worth noting that each combination pertains to
words from one singular noun class. This is due to the types of endings each
noun class group uses. Remember that the Fule like these words to rhyme!
As mentioned above, words from the ki, nde, and ngal singular noun classes
feature pominately in the
e plural class. Appendix B contains a compilation
of the singular/plural combinations used for the
e noun class with examples
and an indication of how many occurrences of each combination were
found.36

32
As with the e class above, the “Simple family” consists of singular/plural endings that generally are short, often
containing only one vowel and one consonant, sometimes only one vowel is used (see listing in Appendix B on
pp. 198-199 – these are #16-20). Families A-U use the plural SUFFIX formula –vvxe, where “v” is a vowel (a-u),
“x” is a consonant (j, , l), and the final vowel is “e” because these are words in the
e noun class. So the SUFFIX
-aaje would belong to the A family. That much is straight forward, however, sadly there are 71 singular SUFFIXes
for the A-U “family” listed in Appendix B!
33
This information was gleaned from the second edition of the Burkina Faso Fulfulde-English/English-Fulfulde
Dictionary. The over 200 entries involving multiple words, and the over 70 plurals without singular forms, were
not included in this analysis. In the abbreviations “-aaxe”, etc., the “x” would be either the consonant “j,” “,”
or “l.”
34
Actually, of the 255 borrowed nouns in the dictionary, either personal or non-personal, which have both a
singular and a plural form, 23% use the SUFFIXes -vvje, 49% use the SUFFIXes -vvji, and 28% use some other
plural ending (-
e 15%, -’en 8%, -e <1%, -e 1%, koy <1%). When speaking of borrowed words in the
e class
the majority of their singular forms are NOT found in the o class. Only 14% of their singular forms are found in
the o class, while 43% are in the nde class, 26% in the ngal class, and 17% are in the ki class.
35
116 different singular SUFFIX patterns are listed in Appendix B!
36
These are the endings found in the
e class nouns in the dictionary. While the listing here is extensive, no claim
is being made that there might not be additional combinations not listed here. The numbers are to give the
student a relative idea of a SUFFIX combination’s importance.
40
Obviously, this much information is overwhelming! The listing in Appendix
B is for reference, not to be learned! It would, however, be worthwhile to
look over the information in Appendix B in order to have a general grasp of
what is happening. A few of the more significant combinations will be
mentioned here. As already mentioned above, the vast majority of plural
endings follow the formula -vvje for the SUFFIXes in the A-U families.
Because the singular noun classes ki, nde, and ngal tend to feed into the
plural noun class
e rather than the
i noun class, it is not surprising that the
three most important singular/plural SUFFIX combinations for family A are:
ki: -aahi/-aaje (11% of family A SUFFIXes)
nde: -aare/-aaje (51% of family A SUFFIXes)
ngal: -awal/-aaje (8% of family A SUFFIXes)

The two outstanding patterns for family E are:

ki: -eehi/-eeje (21% of family E SUFFIXes)
nde: -eere/-eeje (47% of family E SUFFIXes)

The one outstanding paradigm for family I is:

nde: -iire/-iije (61% of family I SUFFIXes)

The two most significant SUFFIX combinations for family U are:

nde: -uure/-uuje (32% of family U SUFFIXes)
ngal: -uwal/-uuje (49% of family U SUFFIXes)

These eight patterns represent 55% of the words in families A-U! And the
71 A-U patterns make up 48% of the singular/plural SUFFIX combinations
that involve nouns in the
e plural noun class.

Which means that the remaining 52% of these nouns are in the Simple
family. There are three noteworthy patterns in the family of simple
SUFFIXes.

From the group of SUFFIXes whose plural SUFFIX is -e:

nde: -de/-
e (12% of the Simple SUFFIXes)

And from the group of SUFFIXes whose plural SUFFIX is -e:

nde: -ere/-e (18% of the Simple SUFFIXes)
nde: -al/-e (15% of the Simple SUFFIXes)

These three paradigms represent 45% of the words in the Simple family.

Together the above 11 patterns cover 50% of all the words in the plural noun
class
e!

41
 C. i:
Words from the singular noun classes ka, ko1, ndi, ndu, nga, nge, ngo, ngu,
and o classes tend to use the
i class to form their plurals. Mass nouns,
borrowed words, and nouns with rarely used plurals which are in the
i
plural noun class end with the SUFFIXes -aaji, -eeji, -iiji, -ooji, or -uuji.37
As can be seen from Table 6.3, 63% of all words in the
i noun class have
the plural SUFFIXes -vvxi. As with the
e noun class, some words also use
the SUFFIXes -aa
i, -aali, -ee
i, -eeli, -ii
i, -oo
i, -ooli, -oob/i, and -uuli.
The Simple family of SUFFIXes uses -ji, -
i, -li, -b/i, -i, and -i.

Table 6.3 Occurrences of suffixes in the i noun class38

X Simple A (-aaxi) E (-eexi) I (-iixi) O (-ooxi) U (-uuxi) Total
-ji 1 173 76 80 102 109 541
-i 46 7 1 2 6 0 62
-li 31 14 4 0 14 6 69
-b/
i 15 3 18
-i 161 161
-i 7 7
Total 261 194 81 82 125 115 858

As with the information regarding the endings for the
e plural noun class,
the information relating to the ending for the
i plural noun class is
overwhelming.39 A few of the more important patterns will be listed here for
the student’s benefit.

The most important singular/plural SUFFIX combination for the A family

words would be:

ka: -a(a)/-aaji (72% of A family SUFFIXes)

The key singular/plural SUFFIX combination for the E family is:

o: -e/-eeji (54% of E family SUFFIXes)

For the I family of nouns the most important pattern would be:

o: -i/-iiji (76% of I family SUFFIXes)

37
Of the 255 borrowed nouns in the dictionary, either personal or non-personal, which have both a singular and a
plural form, 49% use the SUFFIXes –vvji. That means that the vast majority of borrowed words use the SUFFIX
-vvji! The break down is: 49% use the plural SUFFIX -vvji, 23% use -vvje, and 28% use a simple SUFFIX (-e, -e,
-’en, -
e and -oy). Unlike with the plural noun class
e, the majority (75%) of the borrowed words in the
i noun
class using the -vvji plural SUFFIX are in the o class in their singular form. The remaining 25% of dictionary
words using the -vvji plural SUFFIX come from the ka, ndi, ndu, ngel, ngo, ngol, and ngu singular noun classes.
38
This information was gleaned from the second edition of the Burkina Faso Fulfulde-English/English-Fulfulde
Dictionary. Some 100 entries involving multiple words or separate listings of plurals, and the over 50 words
without singular forms were not included in this analysis. In the formula “-aaxi”, etc., the “x” would be either
the consonant “j,” “,” or “l.”
39
There are 102 distinct singular/plural SUFFIX patterns used with nouns in the i noun class. While this listing is
extensive, based on data from the dictionary, it is probably not exhaustive.
42
 The noteworthy pattern for the O family is:

o: -o/-ooji (66% of O family SUFFIXes)

Not suprisingly, the key pattern for the U family is:

o: -u/-uuji (60% of U family SUFFIXes)

The most important pattern for the Simple family to be aware of is:

ngol: -ol/-i (33% of Simple family SUFFIXes)

D. Ko2:
The augmenting singular noun classes nga, ngal, and ngi pluralize with the
ending “o” of the plural noun class ko2. For example:

baalal (large sheep) ngal → mbaalo ko2

mbaala (large sheep) nga → mbaalo ko2
mbaali (large sheep) ngi → mbaalo ko2

E. Koy:
Words in the singular noun classes ngel and ngu, when referring to small
things, usually use the plural noun class koy. There appear to be two
singular “diminutive” endings used with noun roots that end with a vowel.
The most common SUFFIX used in roots ending with a vowel seems to be -yel.
This ending becomes -hoy when pluralized. For example:
aanyee-re (grave) nde → aanye-yel ngel → aanye-hoy koy
aadi (covenant) ndi → aadi-yel ngel → aadi-hoy koy
adadu (total) o → adadu-yel ngel → adadu-hoy koy

The other ending used with a vowel is -ngel. This ending pluralizes as -koy.
For example:
kaa
u-ngel (gall bladder) ngel → kaa
u-koy koy
morru-ngel (Adam’s apple) ngel → morru-koy koy
palla-ngel danki (gecko) ngel → palla-koy koy

Roots ending with the nasals “m” and “n” use the singular SUFFIX -ngel and
pluralize with -koy. For example:
dam-ngel (a male kid) ngel → ndam-koy koy
nyaan-ngel (carpet viper) ngel → nyaan-koy koy

iin-ngel (child) ngel
iik-koy koy

Roots ending with “r” uses the singular SUFFIX -gel and also pluralizes with
-koy.
nyittor-gel (handkerchief) ngel → nyittor-koy koy
poofir-gel (comma) ngel→ poofir-koy koy
amir-gel (question mark) ngel → amir-koy koy

43
 The rest of the consonants use the singular ending -el as the diminutive
ending.40 These become -oy when pluralized.
buub-el (small fly) ngel → m-buub-oy koy
ce
-el le
-el (tip of tree) ngel → ce
-oy le
-oy koy
cof-el (chick) ngel → cof-oy koy
legg-el (stick) ngel legg-oy koy
cukal-el (child) ngel → cukal-oy koy
pet-el (small pond) ngel → pet-oy koy

The form of these endings seems to be driven by phonetic considerations -

remember that the Fule like their nouns, pronouns and noun class markers
to rhyme!

7. PLURALIZATION OF COMPOUND NOUNS

In the case of compound nouns, where there are two or even three words which as a
unit refer to one thing, the main thing to keep in mind is that which ever part of the
compound determines the noun class in the singular will also determine the noun class
in the plural.
Sometimes both words of the compound will be pluralized:
baa
aade o (head of household) → baabiraa
e
aadeeji
e (heads of households)
banndo ci
itel ngel (ring finger) → banndiraa
e ci
itoy koy (ring fingers)
jom suudu o (head of household) → jomiraa
e cuui
e (heads of households)
laalagal hoore ngal (skull) → laalaae ko'e e (skulls)
nyannde otteteende nde (day of rest) → nyalaae otteteee e (days of rest)
futun faaldu ndu (blister) → putun paali i (blisters)

Sometimes only the first noun in the compound will be pluralized:

oggol fitilla ngol (wick) →
oggi fitilla i (wicks)
leembol nawki ngol (underarm hair) → lee
i nawki i41 (underarm hairs)
liccal kamanaari ngal (corn plant) → licce kamanaari e (corn plants)
wudde hinere nde (nostril) → gue hinere e42 (nostrils)

More rarely the second noun of a compound noun is pluralized:

metta iiaajo o (someone upsetting) → metta iiaa
e
e (someones upsetting)
ganya ganyalo o (selfish person) → ganya ganyaloo
e
e (selfish persons)
ka
a karo o (warrior) → ka
a karoo
e
e (warriors)
dow koyngal ngal (top of foot) → dow koye e (top of feet)
hamma keekawal ngal (abyssinian roller) → hamma keekaaji i (abyssinian rollers)

Note in the above examples that sometimes it is the first noun which determines the
noun class, and sometimes it is the second noun, but in all cases, whichever word
determines the noun class in the singular will also determine the plural noun class.

40
The only exception to this I found was jaw-gel ngel pluralizing as njaw-koy koy.
41
For one arm pit the plural is leei nawki
i, but for two (or more) arm pits it would be leee naw
i
i.
42
For one nose the plural is gu

e hinere
e, but for two (or more) noses it would be gu

e kine
e.
44
8. PERSONAL, INDEPENDENT AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Fulfulde has eight different sets of pronouns. The personal pronouns include the
subject, long-form subject, object and possessive (also possessive/SUFFIX) pronouns.
The independent pronouns are the emphatic, demonstrative, and referential pronouns.
Several of the interrogatives are pronouns, while others are actually adverbs, so they
are not listed as a set here under the discussion of pronouns. We also refer to relative
pronouns, which technically speaking are not all pronouns either, some are actually
adverbs, and for this reason they are not listed in this section on pronouns.

Three general comments on the pronouns:

There is one distinction drawn in Fulfulde which is foreign to English and
French speakers: Fulfulde has both an exclusive and an inclusive first PERSON
plural pronoun. For example, under the subject pronouns, min is the exclusive
and en is the inclusive. When a speaker uses min, he is saying in effect “we,
but not you.” When a speaker uses en, he is saying in effect “you and I and all
of us (involved).”

Fulfulde does not distinguish between gender in the third PERSON singular.
O, for example, is used for both he and she.

The second PERSON plural simply indicates plural and does not carry any
polite/respect connotation as does the second PERSON plural in French.

45
A. Subject Pronouns:

Table 8.1 Subject Pronouns

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST mi Exclusive Inclusive
min en
SECOND a on
THIRD
SINGULAR PLURAL NOUN CLASS
NOUN CLASS
o
e
am e
um i
ka ko2
ki koy
ko1
kal
kol
nde
ndi
ndu
nga
nge
ngi
ngo
ngu
ngal
ngel
ngol

NOTE: The third PERSON subject pronouns are the same as the noun class markers.
Any of these third PERSON pronouns not referring to a person can be translated as “it.”

Examples:
Mi yahan Fada. I will go to Fada.
e ndookeke Laam
o. They prayed to God.
Ngal na fam
i sanne. It (the chicken) is very small.

46
B. Long-Form Subject Pronouns:
These pronouns are only used with Stative or Progressive verb FORMs.
See Section 16, p. 106 ff. and Section 17, p. 111 ff. for an explanation and
examples of these verb FORMs. As can be seen in the chart, either “e” or “i”
can be added to the beginning of any of the third PERSON noun class
pronouns (except o) for use with either the Stative or Progressive verbal
FORMs.

Table 8.2A Long-Form Subject Pronouns

PERSON SINGUALAR PLURAL
FIRST mio Exclusive Inclusive
mien een*
SECOND aa oon
THIRD
SINGULAR PLURAL
NOUN CLASS NOUN CLASS
o imo/omo e e
e/i
e

am eam/iam
e ee/ie

um eum/ium
i ei/ii
ka eke/iki ko2 eko/iko
ki eki/iki koy ekoy/ikoy
ko1 eko/eko
kal ekal/ikal
kol ekol/ikol
nde ende/inde
ndi endi/inde
ndu endu/indu
nga enga/inga
nge enge/inge
ngi engi/ingi
ngo engo/ingo
ngu engu/ingu
ngal engal/ingal
ngel engel/ingel
ngol engol/ingol
*Anen is often used in Yaagaare, Moosiire, and Gurmaare.

NOTE: For the sake of consistency in this grammar imo will be used as the third PERSON long-
form pronoun throughout.

Examples:
Stative: Ium woo
i. It is good.
Progressive: Enga dogga. It (the goat) runs.

47
 The long-form subject pronouns of some areas may vary from those used in
Table 8.2A. It is best to check this in your ministry area. Table 8.2B shows
the long-form subject pronouns used in the Mahadaga area (Gurmaare
dialect).

Table 8.2B
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST mino Exclusive Inclusive
minen enen
SECOND ana onon
THIRD omo e
e

There is a second way these long form subject pronouns can be formed, which is by
using the particle “na” in front of the various subject pronouns. The various
constructions are as follows in Table 8.2C. Informants from Djibo, Tenkodogo, and
Pièla all indicated that they use this form of long subject pronouns with either stative
or progressive conjugations of verbs. In the Tenkodogo region this is the standard
way of forming the Stative and Progressive.

Table 8.2C
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST na mi Exclusive Inclusive
na min na en
SECOND na a na on
THIRD na o na
e

48
 C. Object Pronouns:

Table 8.3 Object Pronouns

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST kam Exclusive Inclusive
min* en†
SECOND ma on‡
THIRD o/mo
e
am e
um i
ka um’en
ki ko2
ko1 koy
kal
kol
nde
ndi
ndu
nga
nge
ngi
ngo
ngu
ngal
ngel
ngol

*In some areas men is used. † In Sebba en is used for en.
‡
In Sebba on is used for on.

Note: Any of the third PERSON object pronouns not referring to a person can be translated as “it.”

NOTE: The central dialects of Fulfulde in Burkina, Jelgoore (Djibo), Moosiire (Kaya-
Tenkodogo), and Nommaare (Fada), use o for both the third PERSON singular subject
pronoun and for the third PERSON singular object pronoun. The eastern dialects of
Fulfulde in Burkina, Liptaakuure (Dori), Yaagaare (Sebba), and Gurmaare (Kantchari-
Mahadaga), use o for the subject pronoun (he/she) as well, but use mo for the object
pronoun (him/her). Check in your particular ministry area what is being used. In this
grammar o will be used for both subject and object pronouns.

Examples:
Burayma hokkaay o lai makko.
Burayma did not give him his knife.

Ngaddannan kam caaku gawri am mo coodumi luumo.

Bring me my sack of millet which I bought at the market.

Alfa nyiani
e garuwal mawngal.

Alfa built a big house for them.

49
 When the Imperative in the active or middle VOICE is used with the first
PERSON singular object pronoun kam, kam is shortened to -am and is added
as a verbal SUFFIX, with the normal Imperative singular SUFFIX (i.e. -u for the
active VOICE, -a for the middle VOICE) being dropped off.43

Example:
Hokk-u kam. → Hokkam. (-u + kam = -am)
Rookan-a kam. → Rookanam. (-a + kam = -am)

There are four cases when the second PERSON singular object pronoun ma
undergoes a transformation and becomes part of the verb’s ending.
This happens with the following verbal FORMs.

1. With the General Incomplete:

When the General Incomplete, which is what we might think of as a
future “tense,” is used in the active and middle VOICEs, the SUFFIXes -
an (active VOICE) or -oto (middle VOICE) are combined with ma to
form a new verb SUFFIX: -ete.44 Examples:

Mi hokk-an ma... → Mi hokkete... (-an + ma = -ete)

Mi rook-oto ma... → Mi rokkete... (-oto + ma = -ete)
Mi wa
-an-an ma.. → Mi wa
ente.. (-anan+ma = -ente)

Note: The first -an in waanan is an INFIX which changes the meaning of the word
waude from “to do” to “to do for.”45 In this case “to do for you.” With the
INFIX -an, plus the SUFFIX –an, plus the object pronoun ma, the “a” of the INFIX
-an is dropped as well as the entire active VOICE General Incomplete SUFFIX -an,
and the remaining “n” of the INFIX -an is inserted between the “e” and the “t” of
–ete, rendering -ente.

Mi hokkete siwooru maa jaango.

I will give you your bucket tomorrow.

Mi wa
ente moere mawnde.

I will make (bring) you a great good.

2. With the Progressive:

When the Progressive is used and followed by a ma, the normal
Progressive SUFFIX, -a (active VOICE) or -oo (middle VOICE), is
changed to -e.46 Examples:

Mi
o hokk-a ma... → Mi
o hokke...(-a + ma = e)

Imo rook-oo ma... → Imo rooke...(-oo + ma = e)

Mi
o hokke kaalisi joonin, joonin.

I am giving you money right now.

Imo hokke ko nyaama.

She is giving you something to eat.

43
See Section 20, p. 124 ff. for a discussion of the Imperative verb FORM.
44
See Section 11.B, page 73 ff. for a discussion of the General Incomplete verb FORM.
45
See Section 21, p. 140 for a discussion of INFIXes.
46
See Section 17, p. 111 ff. for a discussion of the Progressive verb FORM.
50
 3. With the Subjunctive:
As with the Progressive, so also with the Subjunctive, the
object pronoun ma is changed to the SUFFIX -e while the
normal Subjunctive SUFFIXes, -a (active VOICE) and -oo
(middle VOICE), are dropped.47 Note that the Progressive
SUFFIXes and the Subjunctive SUFFIXes are the same.

Examples:
faa o hokk-a ma → faa o hokke (-a + ma = e)
faa o rook-oo ma → faa o rooke (-oo + ma = e)

Min ngarii to maa
a faa mi
en kolle nyaw
o o.

We came to you to show you this person who is ill.

Hey, hettinda ga faa mi haalane.

Hey, you should listen here so that I can tell you
something.

e nootii, e mbi'i, “Jommii amin, war ga faa min kolle.”

They answered and said, “Lord, come here so we can show you.”

4. With the Relative:

With both the Relative Complete and the Relative Incomplete verb
FORMs, if the subject is the first PERSON singular -mi, which in the
Relative form is added as a SUFFIX, then the object pronoun ma
becomes -maa and is added between the verbal root and the SUFFIX
-mi.48

Examples:
ko kokk-u·mi ma → ko kokk-u·maa·mi (-mi+ma = -maa·mi)

Note: kokkumi is the Relative Complete FORM’s first PERSON singular

CONJUGATION of hokkude.

ko kokk-am·mi ma → ko kokk-am·maa·mi (-mi+ma = -maa·mi)

Note: kokkammi is the Relative Incomplete FORM of mi+hokkude.

ko njaaf-umi ma → ko njaafumaami )

47
See Section 18, p. 115 ff. for a discussion of the Subjunctive verb FORM.
48
See Section 13, p. 83 ff. for a discussion of the Relative verb FORM. The reason that the Fule elongate the
object pronoun ma to maa is that they prefer a long vowel sound before the inverted subject pronoun mi.
51
Object pronouns after e:
The particle e here means “with,” which is why we have listed these pronouns as
object pronouns. Note that some of these pronouns look like possessive pronouns.
As such, the third PERSON singular and plural pronouns are used in the same way that
makko/mu
um or mae/muen are used.

Table 8.4
PERSON SINGUALAR PLURAL
FIRST e he’am/e am e he’amin/e amin e meeen/e hemen
SECOND e hema/e maaa e hemon/e mooon
THIRD e makko/e muuum e ma

e/e mu

en

NOTE: The above forms are used in some areas and not in others.
Some areas drop the “he.” Check what is used in your area.

Examples:
Baasi fuu walaa e he’am.
There are no problems with me.

A yoppi Saalu Ouagadougou naa? A'aa, mi wardii e muuum.

Did you leave Saalu in Ouagadougou? No, I came with him.

Note: Because the proper name Saalu is used in the question it is necessary to use
muuum in the response.

A yoppi o Ouagadougou naa? A'aa, mi wardii e makko.

Did you leave him in Ouagadougou? No, I came with him.

Note: Because the pronoun o is used in the question it is necessary to use makko in the
response.

Object pronouns after other prepositions:

The object of any prepositional phrase, not just those beginning with e, takes the same
form as the possessive pronouns listed in Table 8.5.

Examples:
Salla a wattii bindirgal am ley dewtere ndeeto naa?
A'aa, mi yoppi ngal dow mayre.
Did you put my pen in that book over there?
No, I left it [the pen] on it [the book].

Salla puccu mon na nanndi puccu ngu naa?

Ayyo, ngu wo hono maggu sanne!
Does your horse look like that one?
Yes, it [that horse] is a lot like it [our horse].

52
D. Possessive Pronouns:

Table 8.5 Possessive Pronouns

PERSON SINGUALAR PLURAL
Exclusive Inclusive
FIRST am amin meeen
men
SECOND maaa/maa mooon/mon
THIRD
SINGULAR PLURAL
NOUN CLASS NOUN CLASS
o makko e ma

e
muuum/mum mu

en*

am majjam
e majje

um makkum
i majji
ka makka ko2 makko
ki maaki koy makkoy
ko1 makko
kal makkal
kol makkol
nde mayre
ndi mayri
ndu mayru
nga magga
nge magge
ngi maggi
ngo maggo
ngu maggu
ngal maggal
ngel maggel
ngol maggol

* In Sebba muuum’en is also used.

There is a difference between third PERSON singular makko and muu
um and
between the third PERSON plural mae and muen. The distinction is made
along the lines of whether or not the possessive pronoun is referring to a
noun, proper name or title versus if the possessive pronoun is referring to a
pronoun. In the case of the pronoun o being used, then the possessive
pronoun would be makko. If the plural pronoun e is used, then the
possessive pronoun would be mae. On the other hand, if a noun, proper
name or title was used, then either muu
um or its shortened form mum would
be used as the possessive pronoun in a singular case, and muen in a plural
case. Muu
um is often shortened to mum, or, if the noun it follows ends in a
vowel, to simply -m. For example suu
u muu
um becomes suu
um.
Muen is a contracted form of muu
um’en.

53
Examples:
Almasiihu yamiri taalie muuum e nji
undura.
Christ commanded His disciples to love one another.

Note: As the name of Christ is used as the subject the possessive pronoun must be muuum.

O yamiri taalie makko e nji
undura.

He commanded His disciples to love one another.

Note: As the subject pronoun o is used the possessive pronoun must be makko.

Lobbo hokkii o keekel muu
um.

Lobbo gave him his bike.

Note: In this case the bike is Lobbo’s. We know this because the possessive
pronoun muuum is used which refers to the proper name Lobbo in the sentence.

O hokkii Daniyel keekel makko.

He gave Daniel his bike.

Note: The bike is still Lobbo’s. This time the possessive prounoun makko is used, which
refers to the subject pronoun o.

They would NOT say: Lobbo hokkii Daniyel keekel makko.

Rather they would say: Lobbo hookii keekel muu
um Daniyel.
Lobbo gave his bike [to] Daniel.

Note: The bike is still Lobbo’s. While there are two proper names in the sentence
muuum is placed after Lobbo’s name and before Daniel’s name, so it refers back to
Lobbo.

Lobbo hokkii Daniyel keekel muu
um.

Lobbo gave Daniel his bike.

Note: The bike is Daniel’s in this example because Daniel is the closest name
preceding muuum that muuum can refer back to.

O hokkii o keekel makko.

He gave him his bike.

Note: There is not enough information in this sentence to know to whom the bike belongs.

54
 Please note that muuum is used with all singular nouns and not for just
people! Likewise mu

en is used with all plural nouns. For example:

Gertogal na waali dow occoo
e muu
um.

Ingal waali dow occoo
e maggal.

Gertoo
e na mbaali dow occoo
e muen.

I
e mbaali dow occoo
e majje.

Ommboode taasawal na hippi dow taasawal muu
um.

Inde hippi dow taasawal mayre.

Ommboo
e taasaaje na kippi dow taasaaje muen.

I
e kippi dow taasaaje majje.

E. Possessive Suffixes:
In certain situations, particularly when referring to family members, these
SUFFIXes are added to the end of a noun. The distinction described above
between makko/muu
um and mae/muen is also applied to -iiko/-um and
-iie/-umen. Not all dialect areas use these SUFFIXes so check what is used
in your ministry area!

Table 8.6 Possessive Suffixes*

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST -am exclusive not used
inclusive -ii’en/-iien
SECOND -a -ii’on/-iion
THIRD -iiko -ii
e
-um -umen

*These are the basic forms of possessive SUFFIXes. These are used to form a contraction bewteen
various nouns used to describe family members and the possessive pronouns. See Appendix C,
p. 206 for a listing of these words and their various forms.

iyam warii hannden. My child came today.

Noy deeka wa
i? How is your wife?

Deekiiko jaaay fey. His wife did not argee at all.

Aamaa hokkaay deekum pa

e. Aamaa didn’t give his wife shoes.

Gorko o hokkaay deekum pae. That man didn’t give his wife shoes.

e piyii iyii
e. They spanked their child.

Hama e Saala piyii iyumen. Hama e Saala spanked their child.

55
F. Emphatic Pronouns:
Emphatic pronouns are used to give emphasis as in, “It was I who did it.”
Note the lengthening in some of the CONJUGATIONs indicating that
focalization is taking place.

Table 8.7 Emphatic Pronouns

PERSON SINGUALAR PLURAL
FIRST miin Exclusive Inclusive
minen enen*
SECOND †
an onon*
THIRD
SINGULAR PLURAL
NOUN CLASS NOUN CLASS
o kanko e kam
e
kam kam
en

am kanjam kam’en

um kanjum
e kanje
ka kanka
i kanji
ki kanki ko2 kanko
ko1 kanko koy kankoy
kal kankal
kol kankol
nde kayre
ndi kayri
ndu kayru
nga kannga
nge kannge
ngi kanngi
ngo kanngo
ngu kanngu
ngal kanngal
ngel kanngel
ngol kanngol
*In Sebba anon is used for onon or enen. In Tenkodogo anon is used for enen.
†
In Djibo aan is used.

Examples:
Wanna kanko, miin mo

ini um.
It wasn’t he, it was I who made it.

Kanko, o yahan to esiraae makko, imo suusi?

He is going to his in-laws, does he dare?

Aan, tuubaaku, a jogaaki kaalisi?!?

You, a white man, don’t have any money?!?

Minen tan njahata.

Just we (exclusive) will go.

Aan wa
ata
um fuu.

It is you who will do this all.

56
 When an emphatic pronoun is the subject it demands a Relative verb FORM.
However, the three singular persons all use the CONJUGATION for the third person
singular, and the three plural persons use the CONJUGATION for the third person plural;
e.g. Onon nga
ata
um fuu. The reason for this is to preserve the emphatic pronoun.
The normal inverted Relative FORMs cannot be used because the emphatic pronoun
would disappear. See Table 13.2, page 84 for the Relative Complete paradigm and
Table 13.3, page 85 for the Relative Incomplete paradigm. -Ed.

The distinction between kanko and kam is the same as that between makko
and muu
um. That is that kanko refers to a pronoun while kam refers to a
proper name or a noun. Be careful to not confuse the object pronoun kam
with the emphatic pronoun kam! An examination of the role of the word in
the sentence should distinguish the difference. Likewise, the distinction
between kame and kamen, or the shortened form, kam’en, is the same as
the difference between mae and muen. Kame refers to a pronoun while
kamen or kam’en refer to a proper name or a noun.

Example:
Almasiihu wurtii e hueere, kam e taalie muu
um.
Christ left the village, he and his disciples.

However, if Almasiihu is substituted with a pronoun...

O wurtii e hueere, kanko e taalie makko.

He left the village, he and his disciples

57
 G. Demonstrative Pronouns and Locators:
Demonstrative pronouns are used for specifying a particular thing or person
by pointing at it. These pronouns can be translated as “this” or “that.”
The
o, to, and ga listed in Table 8.8 are locators which enable the speaker
to add some precision to the location of objects relative to each other.
o and ga roughly mean the same thing, i.e. “here,”49 while the to generally
means “over there.” Be aware that in some areas there may be some
variation in what is used. For instance, in Sebba to is often used for both
here and there. Check in your ministry area to find which of these words are
used and what they mean. Some Fulfulde speakers elongate the vowel if it is
the final letter, e.g. oo, ee, kii. Others not only elongate the final vowel,
but also place a very subtle glottal stop in these words, e.g. o'o, e'e, ki'i.
Still others would place a glottal stop at the end of the word without
elongating the final vowel, e.g. o',
e', ki'. For the time being we have
decided to represent them as written below in Table 8.8.

Table 8.8 Demonstrative Pronouns

DEMONSTRATIVE o ga to
PRONOUN
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR
o ooo ooga ooto

am amo amga amto

um umo umga umto
ka kaao kaaga kaato
ki kiio kiiga kiito
ko1 kooo kooga kooto
kal kalo kalga kalto
kol kolo kolga kolto
nde ndeeno ndeega ndeeto
ndi nduuo ndiiga ndiito
ndu ndiio nguuga nduuto
nga ngaao ngaaga ngaato
nge ngeeo ngeega ngeeto
ngi ngiio ngiiga ngiito
ngo ngooo ngooga ngooto
ngu nguuo nguuga nguuto
ngal ngalo ngalga ngalto
ngel ngelo ngelga ngelto
ngol ngolo ngolga ngolto
THIRD PERSON PLURAL
e
eeo
eega
eeto

e eeo eega eeto

i iio iiga iito
ko2 kooo kooga kooto
koy koyo koyga koyto

49
Some would say that
o means right here while ga is bit further away but
o and ga are not used together to
distinguish between the location of two objects.
58
Examples:
Hokkaram lai ki. Kiio? A'aa, kiito.
Give me that knife. This one here? No, that one over there.

Mi soodan daago ngo. Ngooto? A'aa, ngooga

I will buy this mat. That one there? No, this one right here.

Mi
o yi
i anndude yalla nagge ngeega bonnii nokku am naa ngeeto.
I would like to know whether this cow ruined my garden or whether it
was that one there.

Nagge bonnunge sardie maa ngeen wanaa nge.

The cow which ruined your garden is not this cow.

Min kirsan ndamndi pamardi ndi

We will butcher this small goat.

Toy woni amiiru? Ley suudu nduuto.

Where is the chief? In that hut over there.

Gorko ooto wo caahii
o sanne!

That man over there is very generous/polite/correct!

59
H. Referential Pronouns:

Table 8.9 Referential Pronouns

NOUN CLASS REFERENTIAL 2ND REFERENTIAL
PRONOUN PRONOUN
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR
o oon oye oon

am aam ame aam

um uum ume uum
ka kaan kaye kaan
ki kiin kiye kiin
ko koon koye koon
kal kaal kale kaal
kol kool kole kool
nde ndeen ndeye ndeen
ndi ndiin ndiye ndiin
ndu nduun nduye nduun
nga ngaan ngaye ngaan
nge ngeen ngeye ngeen
ngi ngiin ngiye ngiin
ngo ngoon ngoye ngoon
ngu nguun nguye nguun
ngal ngaal ngale ngaal
ngel ngeel ngele ngeel
ngol ngool ngole ngool
THIRD PERSON PLURAL
e
een
eye
een

e een eye eeno

i iin iye iin
ko2 koon koye kool
koy kooy koye kooy

Referential Pronouns are used to refer to a noun already used in the narrative
or conversation. They are formed by lengthening and nasalizing the final
vowel. Referential pronouns can be used as a subject, object, or as a
demonstrative. The locators
o, and to, can also be lengthened and nasalized
taking on a referential dimension; e.g.
o (here) becomes
oon (here or
there) and to becomes toon (there). The first list of referential pronouns
gives what are normally used in referring to a noun already mentioned in the
narrative or conversation, while the second list of referential pronouns gives
you the ability to distinguish a second item in the case where two things are
being discussed.

Examples:
Mi anndaa oon.
I don’t know him (the one just mentioned).

60
 Nyannde gomma Muusa soodii dewte
i
i. O soodi dewtere dow laawol Laam
o de
o soodi dewtere fillaaji Fule. Nde o hewtinoo suudu makko ndeen o janngi
dewtere ndeen, ammaa o resi dewtere ndeye ndeen.
One day Muusa bought two books. He bought a book about the way to God and he
bought a book of Fulani stories. When he got home then he read the first book
[about God that we mentioned before], but he put the second book [that was also
mentioned before] away.

Laam
o yamiri Nuuhu wa
a laana ndiyam mawka sabo O wardan yime e ilam
tuufaandu. Nuuhu e sukaae muu
um tato na nga
i laana kaan faa wa
i duui
hemre. Ika mawni sanne.
God commanded Noah to make a big boat because He was going to kill everyone
with a great flood. Noah and his three sons worked on the boat [which has already
been mentioned] for one hundred years. It [the boat] was very big.

I. Indefinite Pronouns:
Indefinite pronouns in Fulfulde are:
huunde -something
fay huunde -nothing, not a thing
fay meere -nothing
nokku -somewhere
fay nokku -anywhere, nowhere
ne

o -someone
fay ne

o -anyone, no one (lit. no person)
fay gooto -anyone, no one (must be conjugated for each
class; e.g. ndi → fay ngootiri, etc., see page 160.)
yoga -some/certain people
yogaae -some/certain people
yoga en -some/certain people
heewe -many (must be conjugated for each plural
class; e.g. keew
e, keew
i)
mono fuu -each one (must be conjugated for each class;
e.g. ndi → mondi fuu)
mono kala -same meaning as mono fuu but less
frequently used
e fuu e -everyone (must be conjugated for each plural
class; e.g.
e fuu
e,
i fuu
i)
e kala e -same meaning as
e fuu
e but less frequently
used
go

o -another, others (must be conjugated for each
class; e.g. woe, wonnde, etc, see page 160.)
gooto men/amin -one of us

61
Examples:
Huunde na toon!
Something is there!

O hokkaay kam fay hunnde/fay meere.

He did not give me anything at all.

Toy ponndi
aa? Mi yahan nokku.

Where are you headed? I am going somewhere.

Gilla fajiri, mi yahaay fay nokku.

Since morning, I have not gone anywhere.

Ndoomen faa neo wara.

Let's wait until someone comes.

Mi yi'aay fay gooto/fay neo to suudu maa toon.

I did not see anyone over there in your hut.

Almasiihu, min keaay fay gooto si wanaa aan.

Christ, we have (trust) no one else but you.

Yoga na yi
i, yoga yi
aa fey.

Some like it, some don't like it at all.

Yogaa
e na nji
i, yogaa
e nji
aa fey.

Some like it, some don't like it at all.

Heew
e eggii Boussouma.

Many have migrated from Boussouma.

Mono fuu na haani amude inna mum.

Each one must ask her mother.

Si Joomiraa
o wartii,
e fuu
e kean ko e nyaama.

When the Lord comes back, everyone will have enough to eat.

e kala
e keii!
Everyone received some!

Goo waran caggal am.

Another will come after me.

Wo

e ngaran caggal am.

Others will come after me.

Gooto e amin na haani jaowaade na'i
i.

One of us must go look for/check on the cows.

62
J. Interrogative Pronouns:
Of the various interrogatives we might think of three of them as
being pronouns. These are moy, eye (who), and
ume (what).
The other interrogatives, ndey (when), toy (where), ko saabi, ko wa
i (why),
noy (how), noy foti (how many) are adverbs. For a discussion of
interrogatives and a complete listing of the words meaning “which” in an
interrogative sense see Table 13.4, page 88.

Examples:
Moy wari hankin?
Who came last night?

ume cui
aa?
What did you choose?

Nagge ngeye cumataa joonin?

Which cow will you brand now?

K. Relative Pronouns:
In Fulfulde there is a group of words known as relative pronouns
which are used in a variety of contexts. For a listing of the various
relative pronouns see Table 13.5, and for an explanation of when
they are used see the the discussion beginning on page 91.

63
 VERBS

9. MASTER VERB CHART

Table 9.1 Basic Conjugations of 13 Verb Forms

Aspect
Complete Incomplete
Voice
Active Middle Passive Active Middle Passive
Form  Aspect Focused
General -ii -eke* -aama -an -oto -ete
Other plus Aspect Focused
Negative -aay -aaki -aaka -ataa -ataako -ataake
Relative -i -ii -aa -ata -otoo -etee
Participle -u
o -ii
o -aa
o -oowo -otoo
o -etee
o
Other Focused
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Emphatic -u/ø -i -a
Stative -i -ii -aa
Negative Stative -aa ø† ø†
Progressive -a -oo -ee
Subjunctive -a -oo -ee
Non-Focused
First Infinitive -ude -aade -eede
Second Infinitive -ugol -agol -egol
Imperative -u/-ø -a -e
Desiderative -u/-ø -o -e

*Note: In various areas the following General Complete middle VOICE SUFFIXes are used: -ake, -eke,
-oke. Check in your ministry area to see which SUFFIX is used. However, for the purpose of
consistency -eke will be used throughout this grammar.

†The Negative Stative is not used for middle or passive VOICE verbs. Instead the Negative Complete FORM is used.

See Appendix D for a listing of all the CONJUGATIONS for the various verb FORMs listed in the master verb chart.

10. VERB ROOT TRANSFORMATIONS

With the exception of √yaa- (go), verb ROOTs rarely change their internal structure in
Fulfulde.
Yaa! (Go!)
O yehii. (He went)
There are, however, changes to the initial and final consonants of the verb roots, the
initial consonant changes being extensive and consistent, the final consonant changes
being less extensive and incidental to the phonetic environment.

64
 A. Initial Consonant Changes:
There are certain pairs of consonants that alternate depending on whether the
verb is in a singular or plural CONJUGATION, or a non-inverted or inverted
CONJUGATION. The plural and inverted CONJUGATIONs are used when the
verb is plural and when the subject and verb are inverted, as with the
Relative and Subjunctive verb FORMs presented below.50 The alternations are
shown below in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 Initial Consonant Changes for Verbs

Singular Plural
non-inverted inverted
b → mb
d → nd
f → p
g → ng
h → k
j → nj
r → nd
s → c
w → mb
w → ng
y → nj

Examples:
O barminii ne

o. → e mbarminii ne

o.
O defii hiraande. → e ndefii hiraande.
O gollii ... → e ngollii ...
O janngii dewtere. → e njanngii dewtere.
O remii ngesa. → e ndemii ngesa.
O warii Djibo. → e ngarii Djibo.
O yarii kosam. → e njaarii kosam.
O fijii ballon → e pijii ballon
O hollii o. → e kollii o.
O soodii huunde. → e coodii huunde.

There is a similar but different set of alternations for the noun system
and for participles.51

50
See Section 13, p. 83 ff. for details about the Relative FORM and Section 18, p. 115 ff. for details about the
Subjunctive FORM.
51
Note the similarities to the initial consonant changes for nouns found in Table 5.1, p. 31 and participles found in
Table 14.2, p. 100.

65
 B. Final Consonant Changes:
The final consonant changes that occur on the ROOT are less consistent, and
are not related to pluralization. Vallette referred to this as harmonization of
the final consonant. Dave Wilkinson commented that this is an assimilation
of sound that occurs in speech in any language, and which makes something
easier to say. Notice that in some cases the word is contracted, generally by
dropping a vowel, in order to facilitate the harmonization. Here are some
examples:

d
→

hokkitide → hokkiti

e
d →  hokkitidde → kokkitio
 → tt nga
u
en → nga

en (first contracted) → ngatten (then harmonized)
dd → gg hokkitidde → hokkitiggol
n → nn wo
ande → wo
nde (first contracted) → wonnde (second harmonized)
n →  wo
ude » o class participle → goo
n
→

wo
ude »
e class participle → wo

e
nk → kk wo
ude » ka class participle → ngokka
nr → rr nanrude → narrude

11. THE GENERAL

The General is probably the most straightforward of the verbal FORMs for an
Anglophone to understand. It is the only completely ASPECT FOCUSed FORM. In its
Complete FORM it communicates that something has happened, which to an
Anglophone sounds a lot like the past tense. In its Incomplete FORM it communicates
that something either has not finished happening as of yet, or has yet to begin to
happen – it is incomplete!

Table 11.1 Conjugations of the General Complete & Incomplete

Aspect
Complete Incomplete
Voice
Active Middle Passive Active Middle Passive
Form  Aspect Focused
General -ii -eke* -aama -an -oto -ete

*Note: In various areas the following General Complete middle VOICE ASPECT SUFFIXes are used: -ake, -eke, -oke.
Check in your ministry area to see which SUFFIX is used. However, for the purpose of consistency -eke will be
used throughout this grammar.

66
A. The General Complete
The General Complete is used in the following five contexts:
1. Completed events:
The General Complete is used to make general statements about
events that are completed. The General Complete FORM is in bold
type in the examples:
O yehii luumo.
He went to the market.

Mi warii keean.
I came yesterday.

e nyaamii hiraande.
They ate supper.

Tuubaaku o yarii kosam defaa
am tan!

That white man drank only cooked/boiled milk!

O fukkeke law hankin.

He went to bed early last night.

e njiileke ley ngeendi faa laasara.

They wandered around town until late afternoon.

Mi looteke fajiri han.

I washed myself this morning.

Mi tileke golle oon.

I finished the work.

Fatimata rimaama gilla mi ho
aay Tenkodogo.

Fatimata was born before I came to live in Tenkodogo.

Aysa fiyaama.
Aysa was hit/spanked.

67
 2. First verb in a narrative:
If the action to be described is complete, the General Complete is used
for the first verb at the beginning of a narrative or a paragraph.
OTHER FOCUS FORMs, especially the Relative, are used for the
remainder of the narrative or paragraph. However, sometimes if a
new thought is introduced, or there are other overriding factors, such
as a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE, the General Complete will be used.
The General Complete FORMs are underlined once and the Relative
Complete twice in the examples:
Haddi leydi Jelgooji ndi kaa min njiitan. Leydi amin ndi worrii duui
teemede tati e capan
e jeegom e duui jeegom (A. D. 1616). uum
leydi ndi ho
iri
o hikka (1982). Fule een laamori duui teemede tati
e capan
e jeegom e duui jeegom. um woni ko e ngardi e Jelgooji.
e artoraaynaa Sona. e nga
i Sona duui nooogaay e
i
i. De e
ngari Maati, e tawi ndiyam walaa Maati. e tonnga pucci mae
hor
oore toon. um wonnoo maanaa Tonngommayel. e njehi, e
tiimowi weendu Jibow ndu. e tawi kaa
o gooto, ina wi’ee Jibo
Kurminke. o suudu doonye,
o e ngari, e ko
i. e ngari, e nga
i
laamu mae. To e nga
i laamu mae toon fuu e hoore muu
um.52

We can show you all about the territory of the Jelgoo
e. Our country
has been here for three hundred and sixty six years. That many years
ago this year the land was settled here. The Fulani have ruled for three
hundred and sixty six years. That was the arrival of the Jelgooji.
They started from Sona. The spent twenty two years at Sona.
Then they came to Maati, but they didn’t find any water at Maati. They
tied up their horses south of there. That is the meaning of
Tongommayel. Then they went and spotted Djibo lake. They found one
African named Jibo Kurminike. They settled where the customs office
is. They came, they made their kingdom. That was how their kindgom
began.

Ndeen joomiraae anndal koode uuri lettugal ngari Urusaliima,

ie ama, “Toy Kaananke Alhuudiya’en dimaa
o joonin oon woni?
Min nji’ii hoodere Makko angii lettugal de min ngarii faa min teddina
O.” Nde Hirudus kaananke oon nannoo
um fu huli, kam e yime
Urusaliima fuu. Hirudus hawrunduri mawe almaami’en e jannginooe
Tawreeta fuu, o ami
um en toy Almasiihu rimetee.53 (Matta 2:1b-4)

Then the wise men from the east came to Jerusalem, they asked, “Where
is the newborn King of the Jews? We saw His star appear in the east
and we came so that we could honor/worship Him.” When King Herod
heard this he was afraid, he and all of Jerusalem. Herod gathered all the
chief priests and scribes and asked them where the Messiah was to be
born. (Mathew 2:1b-4)

52
Adapted from: Dewtere Fillaaji Jelgooji, 1985, Abidjan, p. 49: The account was recounted by Hammadi Baagal
of Burrow in 1982.
53
Note the single underlined verbs (General Complete) in this examples are part of a quote that is inserted in the
flow of the narration. A direct quote necessitates the use of the General Complete. It is worth noting that the
usage of the Relative FORM resumes immediately after the quote. It is also worth noting that the de in this
example is merely conjunctive – it links two clauses together, but both of them are independent and are capable
of standing alone.

68
 3. In a subordinate clause:
If the action is positively stated, the General Complete is used in certain
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.54 The particular SUBORDINATE CLAUSES where the
General Complete is used are detailed below. The following is a discussion
of four TRIGGER WORDS (si/sabo/faa/salla) that might trigger the utilization
of the General Complete in the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.55

One particular type of SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is the CONDITIONAL CLAUSE.56

Conditional sentences (those sentences which contain a CONDITIONAL
CLAUSE) are easy to spot. They contain the TRIGGER WORD si.57
Conditional sentences are particular in their construction, in as much as they
propose something which has not yet happened as if it had happened.
A conditional sentence will contain two parts: the CONDITIONAL CLAUSE,
which begins with a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION, and the INDEPENDENT
CLAUSE. Because of the unique perspective of a conditional sentence, the
construction of these sentences is very regular. The CONDITIONAL CLAUSE
usually requires the General Complete verb FORM and the INDEPENDENT
CLAUSE usually requires the General Incomplete verb FORM if the action is
stated positively.58 If the action is stated negatively for either part of a
conditional sentence, then the Negative FORM is used in that part of the
sentence, with the Negative Complete being used instead of the General
Complete in the CONDITIONAL CLAUSE half of the sentence, and the Negative
Incomplete being used in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE half of the sentence.59
All of the following are possible:

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE – INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

Si (pos. – Gen. Comp.) – (pos. - Gen Incomp.)
Si o warii law en dawan.
If she comes soon - we will leave in the morning.

Si (neg – Neg. Comp.) – (pos. - Gen. Incomp.)

Si o waraay hannden en ndooman o.
If she doesn’t come today - we will wait for her.

Si (pos. – Gen. Comp.) – (neg. – Neg. Incomp.)

Si o warii hannden en dillataa
o fey.
If she comes today - we will not leave here at all.

Si (neg. – Neg. Comp.) – (neg. – Neg. Incomp.)

Si o waraay hannden en ndoomataa
o katin.
If she doesn’t come today - we won’t wait here any longer.

54
Bear in mind the Subjunctive is used with these same clauses if the action is incomplete, especially after faa and with indirect
discourse; see Section 18.B/C, p. 117 ff. for discussion. For a more comprehensive discussion of SUBORDINATE CLAUSES see
Section 25 on page 145 ff.
55
See discussion of COMPLEX SENTENCE, SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, and TRIGGER WORDS in the Glossary.
56
What is being described in this discussion of CONDITIONAL CLAUSE s is what English grammarians refer to as a type 1
CONDITIONAL CLAUSE – one that refers to real and possible conditions. In both English and Fulfulde the typical type 1
CONDITIONAL CLAUSE uses a past tense/complete FORM in the CONDITIONAL CLAUSE and a future tense/incomplete FORM in the
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. It is also possible in both English and Fulfulde to form a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE with a future
tense/incomplete FORM in the CONDITIONAL CLAUSE and a future tense/incomplete FORM in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE; e.g. Si o
waran hannden en dillataa
o fey. {If she will come today then we won’t leave here at all.}
57
Four other commonly encountered compound TRIGGER WORDS which contain si are: fay si (even if), ammaa si (but if), sabo si
(because if), and si wanaa (if not, unless, except). Fay si triggers a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE, but an emphatic one, which means
that the Relative Complete is required (see. Section 13.E.1, p. 95). Ammaa si and sabo si are just variations of si, triggering a
“normal” CONDITIONAL CLAUSE, and eliciting the use of the General Complete or Participial Complete in most positively stated
cases. Si wanaa literally means “if it is not.” This grammatical structure is invariable. Si + wondude always triggers the
Stative Negative FORM → si wanaa. It is used to introduce an exception to the main thought of the sentence.
58
Keep in mind that if the thought being expressed requires either the use of either of the Stative or Progressive verb FORMs,
then these will “trump” the “default” verb FORM. Sometime the Fule will use a Participial Complete FORM instead of the
General Complete.
59
If the thought being communicated requires the Negative Stative verb FORM, this will “trump” either the Negative Complete or
Incomplete in either part of the sentence.

69
 a. In conditional clauses introduced by the subordinating
conjunction si (if): 60
As stated above, the General Complete is the verb FORM used in
the first half of positively stated conditional sentences - the part
with the “if.”61 It is this first clause in the sentence which is
subordinate to the second part. Note in each example below,
the CONDITIONAL (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSE cannot stand alone as
a complete sentence, while the second clause (the INDEPENDENT
CLAUSE) in these sentences could stand alone. The SUBORDI-
NATE CLAUSES are underlined in the examples below and the
General Complete FORMs are in bold type:
Si a naatii ley laawol kisindam, ginnaaji torrataa ma katin.
If you become a Christian, the evil spirits will no longer bother
you.

Si Pullo he
ii puccu, o hean teddengal ley yime.

If a Pullo has a horse, he will have honor among the people.

Si o yehii luumo, o soodan gawri.

If he goes to the market, he will buy millet.

b. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating

conjunction sabo (because):62
Sabo (or one of its variations) is a TRIGGER WORD and in a
positively stated clause where the action is complete and the
FOCUS is on the ASPECT (completeness) of the action, it triggers
the usage of the General Complete FORM in the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE.63 The SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined in the
examples below, and the General Complete FORMs are in bold
type:
Sabo o yennii kam, wa
i [
e] piimi o.
Because he cursed me is why [I] hit him.

Sanaa kokken o saaya, sabo jaangol torrii o.

We should give him a robe because the cold bothered him.
Mi soodii bie, sabo ie na'i njolbii sanne.
I bought cottonseed meal because the calves were very hungry.

60
Depending on the area of your ministry, either si or so, or both, are used to mean “if” or “when.” In Mahadaga
some use se. Check in your area to see which of these terms is used. For the purpose of consistency si will be
used throughout this grammar.
61
See footnote 56 for the exceptions to the rule.
62
Other forms of this same SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION are: sabu, gam, gan, ngam, ngan. Check your dialect
area for which of these CONJUNCTIONS are preferred.
63
In positive statements, the FOCUS of a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE beginning with sabo could also require either a
Stative verb FORM or a Progressive verb FORM. In negative statements either the Negative Complete or the
Stative Negative could be use in a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE with the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION sabo.

70
 Note: There are several words which resemble each other, but
which have very different grammatical functions in Fulfulde.
Sabo (or sabu) is the CONJUNCTION which introduces a
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE and means “because.” Saabe (or saabi)
is an adverb that begins an adverbial phrase and means
“because of.” Having said this you should be warned that in
some areas there is not much distinction made between sabo
and saabe. The Yaagaare speakers of Sebba do not seem to
make much of a distinction between sabo and saabe.
Likewise they use the local equivalents gam/gan, ngam/ngan in
both grammatical situations where “because” would be used
and in grammatical situations where “because of” would be
used. Check how this works in your area. Ko saabi and ko
wa
i64 are adverb phrases than can be used either as adverbs or
as interrogatives and mean “why.” Sabaabu is a noun that
means “the reason.” Saabanaade is a verb which means “to
cause.” Examples:
e njahaay ladde sabo gooruwol na luggi.
They didn’t go [out] to the bush because the river was [too] deep.

e njahaay ladde saabe ndiyam.

They didn’t go [out] to the bush because of the water [which was
too deep].

Piirtanaa kam ko saabi a waraay keean.

Explain to me why you didn’t come yesterday.

Sabaabu wargol am wo faa Laam
o faamdina en o.

The reason for my coming was so that God might manifest Him
to us.

Joonin kaa wanaa ko kaalan
aa min
uum saabanii min

hoolaade o, joonin kaa minen, e ko'e amin, min nani ko
o waajii . . .

Now it’s not that what you have told us that causes us to believe
in Him, now we have ourselves [lit.-with our own heads] heard
Him preach . . .

64
Both ko saabi and ko wa
i function as interrogatives and mean “why.” They both might be called relative
phases. In the case of ko saabi the phrase is composed of the relative pronoun ko and the adverb saabi/saabe.
In the case of ko wa
i the phrase is composed of the relative pronoun ko and the third person singular Relative
Complete CONJUGATION of the verb wa
ude.

71
 c. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunction
faa (until):
In positively stated clauses beginning with the SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTION faa where the action is complete, either the General
Complete or the Relative Complete will be used, depending on
whether the speaker wishes to put an emphasis on the SUBORDINATE
65
CLAUSE or not. When the General Complete is used there is no
emphasis on either the INDEPENDENT or the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.
When the Relative Complete is used the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is
emphasized.66 The difference is a very subtle one. The
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined in the examples below and the
General Complete FORMs are in bold type:
Mi rookeke faa mi he
ii. – General Complete67
I asked until I got it.

Mi rookeke faa keumi. – Relative Complete68

I asked until I got it.

O gollii faa o tampii.

He worked until he was tired.

Mi nanaay fay huunde faa mi narrii Bureyma.

I didn’t hear a thing of it until Bureyma informed me.

Suka oon nyaamii faa nyiiri ndi fuu timmii.

The child ate until all the cooked millet was gone.

d. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating

conjunctions yalla or salla (whether or not):
In a positively stated clause whose action is complete either the
General Complete or the Stative verb FORMs will follow the
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS “yalla” and “salla.” The SUBORDI-
NATE CLAUSES are underlined below and the General Complete FORM
is in bold type:
Hecci-keean mi nanii o waran Markoy, kaa mi anndaa yalla o warii
naa o waraay.69
The day before yesterday I heard he was coming to Markoy, but I don’t
know whether he came or not.

Mi nanii faro Amerik na woodi safaare durma de salla ina woodi naa
walaa mi anndaa.
I heard that in America there is cold medicine, but whether or not there
is or isn’t I don’t know.

65
When the action described is positive but incomplete, the verb after faa will nearly always conjugate with the
Subjunctive FORM. See Section 18.B, p. 117 for details of the use of the Subjunctive with the SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTION faa.
66
See Section 13.E.2, p. 95 for discussion of the use of the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION faa when the action is
complete and the Relative FORM is used to FOCUS on the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.
67
The FOCUS of the sentence using the General Complete is that these two things happened:
I asked,  I got it.
One could just as easily say: Mi rookeke de mi heii. {I asked and I got it.}.
68
The FOCUS of the sentence using the Relative FORM is the message of the subordinate clause: “I got it.”
One could also say: Mi rookeke de keumi. {I asked and I got it.}.
69
This is a COMPOUND SENTENCE consisting of two INDEPENDENT CLAUSES joined by the non-subordinating
CONJUNCTION kaa (but). However, within the second INDEPENDENT CLAUSE are two SUBORDINATE CLAUSEs set off
by the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION yalla. The first SUBORDINATE CLAUSE uses the General Complete as the
speaker is speculating what he heard might be true (positive) and complete. The second SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
uses the Negative Complete as the speaker continues to speculate that what he heard might not be true (negative)
and not complete.

72
 4. In indirect discourse:
Indirect discourse (I heard that..., he said that...) is in use when only the
thought behin d the actual words spoken are repeated. For example, if
quoting someone (direct discourse) one would say: “He said, ‘I came home
last night.’ ” while when employing indirect discourse one would convey
that same information like this: “He said he came home last night.” In cases
where the thought being related in indirect discourse is positive and
complete the General Complete FORM is used.70 It should be noted that the
General Complete is always used in indirect discourse, even in narratives,
thus breaking the pattern of Relative verb FORMs that normally appear in a
narrative.71 In the examples below the phrases indicating the indirect
discourse are underlined and the General Complete FORMs are in bold type:
Mi nanii o wujjii na'i faa keewi.
I heard that he has stolen many cows.

Fatimata wi’ii inngel mum unii hiraande mae.

Fatimata said that her daughter pounded [the millet for] their evening meal.

e mbi'ii e nji'ii banndii gooto ley ferro.

They said that they saw one bandit in the bush.

Mi nanii Nawma maayii,
um wo goonga naa?

I heard that Nawma died, is this true?

5. With kori (hopefully):72

Examples:
Kori a waalii e jam?
Hopefully you passed the night in peace?

Kori a yiitii ngelooba maa?

Hopefully you found your camel?

B. The General Incomplete

The General Incomplete is used in the following two contexts:
1. In uncompleted events
The General Incomplete is used for general statements about
incomplete events. In some sub-dialects these may also indicate a
strong intention. The General Incomplete FORMs are in bold type in the
following examples:
Mi yahan luumo janngo, si Alla jaii.
I will go to market tomorrow, if God wills.

Moodibbo o joooto dow daago ngo faa yime fuu koota.

That Marabou will sit on the mat until everyone goes home.

Sabo o hasii Bukari, daabaaji makko marete faa gasa.

Because he hired Bukari, his animals will be well taken care of.

Amiiru yahan toon je

iire waroore, si Alla jaii.

The chief will go there next week, if God wills.

When the General Incomplete active VOICE is followed by ma, the SUFFIX
combines with the object pronoun and then morphs to form the SUFFIX -ete.

70
When the thought being related in indirect discourse is positive and incomplete the Subjunctive FORM is used.
71
See above at Section 11.A.2, p. 68 for the discussion of the use of the General Complete in a narration.
72
The particle kori is also discussed in Section 32.D, p. 178.

73
 For example: mi hokkan ma → mi hokkete {I will give [it] to you.}
This can be easily confused with the General Incomplete passive VOICE
FORM, however context and usage will usually aid in distinguishing the
73
FORMs. Examples of General Incomplete active with ma:74

Mi hokkete ko nyaama.
I will give you something to eat.

Alu noddete fajiri law.

Alu will call you early in the morning.

2. After a conditional clause:

Above, in the discussion of CONDITIONAL CLAUSEs and the General
Complete, it was described how the TRIGGER WORD si triggers the use of the
General Complete verb FORM in certain CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.75 However,
this same TRIGGER WORD, as well as fay si, also triggers the use of either the
General Incomplete or the Progressive verb FORMs in the INDEPENDENT
CLAUSE that follows the CONDITIONAL CLAUSE if the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
is positively stated.76 It is due to the nature of conditional sentences that the
action in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE will usually be incomplete.
a. After a conditional clause with the subordinating conjunction si:
Either the General Incomplete or the Progressive is used in a positively
stated INDEPENDENT CLAUSE which follows a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE
employing the subordinator si (if).77 The CONDITIONAL (SUBORDINATE)
CLAUSES are underlined in the examples below and the General Incomplete
FORMS are in bold type:

Si mi yehii Fada, mi soodan caaku gawri, si Alla jaii.

If I go to Fada, I will buy a sack of millet, if God wills.

Si a wa
ii
um, bammaa fiyete.

If you do that, your father will spank you.

Si a nyiii garuwal, ndeen a
ooyan ga.

If you build a mud house, then you will stay here.

Si o sellaa, o fukkoto.
If he doesn’t feel well, he will lie down.

b. After a conditional clause with the subordinating conjunction fay si:

Usually either the General Incomplete or the Progressive is used in a
positively stated INDEPENDENT CLAUSE which follows a CONDITIONAL
78
CLAUSE employing the subordinator fay si.

73
See Table 11.1, p. 66 above for the General Incomplete passive FORM.
74
For additional examples of the General Incomplete active with the object pronoun ma see Section 8.C.1, p. 50.
75
The General Complete FORM would be the “normal” verb FORM used in a positively stated si clause. However, as
stated throughout this grammar, other FORMs sometimes “trump” the General Complete in this situation. For a
positively stated clause this would include occasions where the speaker uses a participle instead of the General
Complete, or if the thought being expressed requires either the Stative or Progressive FORMs. Occasionally, as
alluded to in footnote 55, the General Incomplete might be used in both the dependent and INDEPENDENT CLAUSES;
e.g. Si a nyian garuwal, ndeen a
ooyan ga {If you will build a house then you will stay here.}.
76
Remember, fay si triggers an emphatic CONDITIONAL CLAUSE which requires the Relative Complete rather than
the General Complete. If the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE of a conditional sentence is negatively stated then the
Negative Incomplete is required; e.g. Si o wujjii
um, mi haaldataa e makko katin abada. {If he stole it I will
never speak with him again.}; Fay si o walli en, mi hokkataa o mbeewa fay ngoota. {Even if he helps us I won’t
give him a single goat.}
77
See Section 17.D.1, p. 113 for a discussion of the use of the Progressive FORM after CONDITIONAL CLAUSEs using
the TRIGGER WORD si.
78
See Section 17.D.2, p. 113 for a discussion on the use of the Progressive FORM after CONDITIONAL CLAUSEs using
the TRIGGER WORDS “fay si.” Actually a great number of INDEPENDENT CLAUSES will be stated in the Negative
Incomplete when in opposition to fay si. If a Stative is called for then either the Stative or the Stative Negative
will be used instead of the General or Negative Incomplete.

74
 The CONDITIONAL (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSES are underlined in the examples
below and the General Incomplete FORMS are in bold type:

Fay si kokku
aa e kaalisi e cuu
i, e eggan.

Even if you give them money and houses, they will migrate.

Fay si
um welaa Baa, mi jokkan Joomiraa
o.

Even if it doesn’t please Father, I will follow the Lord.

3. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunctions yalla

or salla (whether or not):
In SUBORDINATE CLAUSES introduced by the TRIGGER WORDS yalla or salla
where the action in incomplete, positively stated actions will use either
General Incomplete or the Progressive verb FORM and negatively stated
actions will use the Negative Incomplete FORM. In the examples below the
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined and the General Complete verb FORM
is in bold type.
amaa o yalla o hirsan ndamndi naa o hirsataa .
You should ask him whether (or not) he will butcher a (male) goat.

amaa o salla o yarnan na’i makko naa o yarnataa.

You should ask him whether or not he is going to water his cows.

4. After adverbs of speculation:

Often the adverb hasi, the Progressive FORM of moude (ina moa) and
either the General Incomplete FORM of tawude (tawan) or the General
Incomplete FORM of taweede (tawete or one of its contracted forms: tawte,
tayte) is used to speculate about the future. In these cases these conjugated
verbs are functioning as adverbs. The verb being modified by these adverbs
will be in the General Incomplete FORM. In the examples the adverb of
speculation is underlined and the General Incomplete FORMs are in bold
type. Note the difference of meaning between the second example (moude
conjugated in Progressive FORM) and the third example (moude
conjugated in the Stative FORM).
Hasi o waran luumo subaka.
Probably he will come to market tomorrow.

Na moa o waran jaango.

Maybe he will come tomorrow.

Na moi si o waran jaango.79

It will be good if he comes tomorrow.

Tawan/Tayte o waran jaango.

We will find that he will come tomorrow.

There are a number of other situations where one may want to use a
General Incomplete FORM, but the Subjunctive is used instead, such as
after faa, na haani, sanaa, tilay, in indirect discourse, and with a
series of verbs.80

79
As pointed out in footnote 56, it is possible to have a conditional clause which employs something besides the
General Complete. In this example the General Incomplete is used.
80
See Section 18.A p. 116 for a discussion of the Subjunctive verb FORM with verbs of obligation, and Section
18.B, p. 117 for a discussion of the Subjunctive used after faa.

75
12. THE NEGATIVE
After the General FORM, the Negative FORM is probably the easiest verbal FORM for
Anglophones to understand. The Negative is categorized as an OTHER FOCUSED plus
ASPECT FOCUSED verb FORM on the Master Verb Chart (Table 9.1, page 64) since the
speaker is focusing on the fact of negation with some regard to whether or not the
thing being negated is complete or incomplete. The Negative Complete indicates
single instance negation (it did not happen). The Negative Incomplete can indicate
single instance negation or communicate the fact that a person habitually does not do
something, or even the sense of refusing to do something.

FOCUS on the negative overrides all other considerations as to what verb FORM should
appear in a given situation. The Stative, Imperative, and Desiderative have different
ways of forming the negative. All other verb FORMs use the Negative FORM when a
negation is required. There are only two Negative FORMs: one for all complete FORMs
and one for all incomplete FORMs (in each VOICE). If, for example, a Subjunctive verb
FORM is required in a certain situation, but the speaker frames the thought negatively,
the FOCUS on negative overrides the FOCUS on the subjunctive, requiring the speaker to
use the Negative Incomplete FORM. There is no Subjunctive Negative or Relative
Negative, and so forth. One further comment. Fulfulde frequently requires the use of
what we would call double negatives; note the use of abada and fay below.

Table 12.1 Conjugations of the Negative Complete & Incomplete

Aspect
Complete Incomplete
Voice
Active Middle Passive Active Middle Passive
Form  Other plus Aspect Focused
Negative -aay -aaki -aaka -ataa -ataako -ataake

A. The Negative Complete

The Negative Complete verb FORM is used in the following four contexts:

1. Single instance negation to a completed action:

The principle use of the Negative Complete is with single instance
negation relating to a past event. In the examples below the Negative
Complete is in bold type:
Mi nyaamaay fay batte.
I didn’t eat anything.

Burayma
iraay na’i muu
um sabo ie na’i muynii.

Burayma did not milk his cows because the calves nursed (too early).

Aadama waaaki puccu sabo ngu walaa semmbe.

Aadama did not mount the horse because it was not strong.

Aysata roondaaki siwo ndiyam oon.

Aysata did not carry the bucket of water on her head.

76
 2. Negatively stated action in a conditional clause:
As discussed above, the General Complete is usually used with the TRIGGER
WORD si (if). The Relative Complete is normally used in positively stated
CONDITIONAL CLAUSEs that employ fay si (even if).81 However, if the
thought being conveyed in the CONDITIONAL CLAUSE is negative, then the
Negative Complete is usually required.82 In the following examples the
CONDITIONAL (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSEs are underlined and the Negative
Complete verb FORMS are in bold type:
Si a naataay ley laawol kisindam, ginnaaji torrete katin.
If you don’t enter the way of salvation, the evil spirits will continue to
bother you.

Si Pullo jogaaki nagge fay woote, o walaa Pulaaku.

If a Pullo doesn’t own a single cow, he has no Fulaniness.

Si o yahaay luumo, en nyaamataa hannden.

If he didn’t go to the market, we won’t eat today.

Fay si a hokkaay e kaalisi, e ndunnyan.

Even if you didn’t give them money, they will leave.

3. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunctions yalla

or salla (whether or not):83
Yalla or salla can be translated as “whether or not.” In Fulfulde the “or
not” may be stated, or it may be understood from context. As such these
CONJUNCTIONS function both as a negation auxiliaries and as
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. In the examples the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSES are underlined and the Negative Complete verb FORMS are in bold
type:
Hecci-keean mi nanii o waran Markoy, kaa mi anndaa yalla o warii
naa o waraay .84
The day before yesterday I heard he was coming to Markoy, but I don’t
know whether he came or not.

Mi
o yi
i ndaarude salla
um heaama naa heaaka.

I want to see whether it can be had or not.

4. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunction sabo

(because):
In any SUBORDINATE CLAUSE where the action is complete and stated
negatively the Negative Complete is used. In the example the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE is underlined and the Negative Complete FORM is in bold type:

Sabo o waraay en mbaawaa runnyude jaango.

Because he didn’t come we can’t leave tomorrow.

81
See Section 13.E.1 (p. 95).
82
I say “usually,” because it is possible that a si clause could contain incomplete FORMs in both the DEPENDENT and
the INDEPENDENT CLAUSES; e.g. Fay si a hokkataa e kaalisi, e ndunnyan. {Even if you will not give them money,
they will leave.}. It is also possible to see a Negative Stative FORM in the conditional portion of the sentence.
83
If a positive DECLARATIVE construction is called for and the action is incomplete, the Progressive is always used
after yalla (see Section 17.D.3, pp. 114). When the action is complete, the Stative (see Section 16.C,
p. 110) or General Complete (see Section 11.A.3.d, p. 72) is used in a positive DECLARATIVE construction.
84
This is a COMPOUND SENTENCE consisting of two INDEPENDENT CLAUSES joined by the COORDINATING CONJUNCTION
“kaa” (but). However, within the second INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are two SUBORDINATE CLAUSES set off by the
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION “yalla.” The first SUBORDINATE CLAUSE uses the General Complete as the speaker
is speculating what he heard might be true (positive) and complete. The second SUBORDINATE CLAUSE uses the
Negative Complete as the speaker continues to speculate that what he heard might not be true (negative) and not
complete.

77
 B. The Negative Incomplete
The Negative Incomplete is used in four contexts:
1. Negation of a single instance relating to something incomplete:
Aadama waataako pucco sabo ngu walaa semmbe.
Aadama will not mount/ride the horse because it is not strong.

Aysata roondataako siwo ndiyam o.

Aysata will not carry that bucket of water on her head.

Mi nyaamataa fay batte.

I will not eat anything.

Burayma
irataa na’i muu
um.

Burayma will not milk his cows.

2. Negation of an habitual action or the connotation of refusing to do

something:
Aadama waataako pucco ngu.
Aadama will not/refuses to mount/ride the horse.

Aysata roondataako siwo ndiyam.

Aysata will not/refuses to carry a bucket of water on her head.

Baaba
irataa na’i.

Baaba will not/never does/refuses to milk the cows.

3. In the independent clause of a conditional sentence:

As discussed above, the General Incomplete or Progressive verbal
FORMs are used in INDEPENDENT CLAUSES of conditional sentences that
are positively stated.85 However, if the thought being conveyed in the
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is negative, then the Negative Incomplete is
required. In the following examples the CONDITIONAL (SUBORDINATE)
CLAUSEs are underlined and the Negative Incomplete verb FORMs are
in bold type:
Si a wa
ii
um, bammaa wallataa ma.
If you do that, your father will not help you.

Si a nyiii garuwal, ndeen a torrataako ley ndunngu.

If you build a mud house, then you won’t have problems in the rainy
season.

Fay si kokku
aa e kaalisi e cuu
i, e njooataako.

Even if you give them money and houses, they won’t stay put (lit. sit).

Fay si um welataa Baa, mi jokkataa na’i meeen jaango.

Even if it will not please Father, I won’t herd our cows tomorrow.

85
As mentioned in footnote 79, it is possible to have incomplete forms in both halves of a COMPLEX SENTENCE;
e.g. Si a naatataa ley laawol kisindam, ginnaaji accataa ma abada. {If you will not enter the way of salvation the
demons will never leave you alone.}

78
 4. In SUBORDINATE CLAUSES introduced by the SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS yalla or salla (whether or not):
In SUBORDINATE CLAUSES introduced by the TRIGGER WORDS yalla or
salla where the action is incomplete, positively stated actions will use
either the General Complete or the Progressive verb FORM and
negatively stated actions will use the Negative Incomplete FORM.
In the examples below the SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined and
the Negative Incomplete verb FORM is in bold type.
amaa o yalla o hirsan ndamndi naa o hirsataa .
You should ask him whether (or not) he will butcher a (male) goat.

amaa o salla o yarnan na’i makko naa o yarnataa.

You should ask him whether or not he is going to water his cows.

C. Negating Auxiliaries
There are a number of adverbs and indefinite pronouns which are routinely used by
the Fule to intensify the negation. In fact sometimes these adverbs are used as
single word interjections that function as negatives even without the verb!
Other adverbs temper the negation. The CONJUNCTIONS yalla and salla have a
negating effect in a sentence, even in the absence of a Negative verb FORM.
And the Negative Stative wanaa is often used as an auxiliary in negations meaning
“neither ... nor.”

1. Adverbs which intensify the negation:

abada* - never
faa’e – nothing
fay† – not even, nothing
fes – not at all, nothing
fey – not at all, nothing
fus – not at all, nothing
fuy – not at all, nothing
*Usually abada precedes the verb, but may follow it. Note that in certain contexts (usually with faa),
abada can mean just the opposite, in other words “forever”; e.g. To aljanna min mbuurata faa abada.
†
{In heaven we will live forever.} ba is used the same as fay in Sebba and Mahadaga

Examples:
Abada mi yahataa toon.
I will never go there.

Abada o yi’aay leydi Mali.

He has never seen Mali before.

Mi hokkataa ma
um abada.

I will never give it to you.

Mi nyaamaay fey.
I haven’t eaten at all, not a thing.

Fay suudu wooturu wulaay.

Not even one hut burned.

Fay nagge woote waataay.

Not even one cow died.

Wabbere fay wootere fu
aay fey.

Not even one seed sprouted.

79
 O hokkaay ma kaalisi oon? Fes, o hokkaay kam fay batte.
He didn’t give you the money? Not at all, he didn’t give me a thing.
Kori na’i makko mbonnaay ngesa maa? A’aa,
i naataay ngesa am fey.
I hope his cows didn’t ruin your field? No, they did not enter my field at all.

Mi gollanii o, ammaa mi heaay faa'e.

I worked for him, but I received nothing.

Mi yehii to mae de mi heaay fus.

I went to them but I received nothing.

ume tawu
aa toon? Fus!

What did you find there? Nothing!

ume keumi to mae? Ndagu fuy!

What did I get from them? Like nothing!

2. Indefinite pronouns:
These pronouns were mentioned in Section 8, pages 61-62. They are
formed with the adverb fay plus either another adverb, an adjective or
a noun. These indefinite pronouns form a COMPLEMENT with the
negated verb.
fay batte (ipn) – nothing
gooto (adj) – one (wootude must be conjugated for each noun class – see Table 26.5, page 160)
fay gooto (ipn) – no one (wootude must be conjugated for each noun class – see Table 26.5, p. 160)

huunde (n) – something, anything

fay huunde (ipn) – nothing

meere (n) - nothing

fay meere (ipn) – nothing

ne

o (n) – somone

fay ne

o (ipn) – no one

nokku (n) – somewhere

fay nokku (ipn) – nowhere

Examples:
O hokkaay kam fay batte/fay hunnde/fay meere.
He did not give me anything at all.

Mi yi’aay fay gooto/fay neo to suudu maa.

I did not see anyone in your hut.

Gilla beetee, mi yahaay fay nokku.

Since morning, I have not gone anywhere.

For more examples see page 62.

80
 3. Adverbs which temper the negation:
The negative can be tempered by adding the adverbs ginan, tafon,
tahen, tawam, tuwam (depending on the dialect area), which adds the
meaning of “yet” to a negative sentence. These adverbs are often
used with a negative verb.86 Examples:
Mi
o yi
i yarude kosam, kaa Usumaana iraay na’i
ii tafon.
I would like to drink milk but Usumaana has not milked the cows yet.

Dembo remaay ginan.

Dembo has not plowed yet.

Gawri ndi enndaay tafon, yime e njolbi sanne.

The millet is not ripe yet, the people are very hungry.

Sukaae e pukkeke naa pukkaaki tafon?

The children have or have not gone to bed yet?

4. The CONJUNCTIONS yalla and salla:

The SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS yalla and salla and their role in
negatively stated complete SUBORDINATE CLAUSES and negatively
stated incomplete INDEPENDENT CLAUSES was discussed above.87
Yalla or salla can be translated as “whether or not.” In Fulfulde the
“or not” may be stated or it may be understood from context.
This adds a negating feature to the sentence in and apart from the verb
FORM. For example:

O amii ma salla hoore maa na naawa.

He asked you whether your head hurts (or not).

O haalaay yalla galle makko na mawni na mawnaa.

He didn’t say whether his compound is big or not.

Yamaa o yalla imo hirsa naa o hirsataa ndamndi.

Ask him whether or not he will butcher a male goat

5. Use of wanaa with a negated verb:

There is not a clear “neither...nor” in Fulfulde, but at times one will
hear wanaa repeated, which can have more or less the same effect.
Examples:
Lobbo remaay hikka, wanaa ngesam, wanaa ngesa go

o.
Lobbo didn’t culitivate this year, neither his field nor somebody elses.

O yi’aay fay huunde, wanaa puccu makko, wanaa pucci go

i.

He didn’t see anything, neither his horse nor any other horses.

D. The Negative Stative

Briefly the Negative Stative is used with a small number of active VOICE
Stative verbs and is formed with the verbal SUFFIX -aa.88

86
Tafon and its cognates can also mean “still” or “first.”
87
See Section 12.A.3, p. 77 for a discussion of use with Negative Complete and Section 12.B.4, p. 79 for a
discussion of use with Negative Incomplete.
88
For more details on the Stative Negative see Section 16.D, pp. 110.

81
 E. The Negative Imperative
The Imperative Negative is formed with the auxiliary words taa, tinna taa,
or tinta.89

F. The Negative Desiderative

As with the Imperative, the auxiliary words taa, tinna taa, or tinta have a
negative connotation when used with the Desiderative.90

G. How to Respond to Negative Questions

In response to statements or positively phrased questions one responds with
“yes” or “no” as one would in English. With negatively phrased questions,
one responds in Fulfulde the exact reverse from English. In Fulfulde the
“yes” or “no” indicate agreement or disagreement with the fact implied by
the question. “Yes” is ayyo and “no” is a’aa. In essence they answer the
question first with a simple ayyo or a’aa and if necessary they tack on a
clarifying response. Examples:
Tinna, yaaram Dori. A’aa, mi waawaa. Yime heewue ngoni ley mobel ngel.
Please try to take me to Dori. No, I cannot. There are a lot of people in the
car.
A yahan luumo Petaga hannden? A’aa, mi yahataa hannden.
Will you go to the Petaga market today? No, I will not go today.
or
Ayyo, mi yahan hannden.
Yes, I will go today.
A yahataa luumo Petaga hannden? Ayyo, mi yahataa hannden.
You are not going to the Petaga market today? Yes, I am not going.
or
A’aa, mi yahan hannden.
No, I will go today.

H. Negative Verbs with Positive Meanings

The negative form of a Fulfulde verb when it has the particle -naa on the
end carries a positive meaning. The long vowel becomes short when it
follows a long vowel. In Jelgoore this particle, -naa, has been altered to
-noo, so remember that in the following examples -naa may be also read as
-noo. This unfortunately is the same as a Negative verb with a Preterite!
Happily this particular construction is rarely use. Also the context should
help you decide what is being said. This positive construction of a Negative
verb carries a greater degree of sureness than the same thing stated in a more
normal positive construction. Examples:
[in Djibo] ume nga
ataa? Mi nyaamataano gawri.
What are you doing? I am eating millet.

Toy woni suudu maa? Suudu am wonaayna
akkol luumo.

Where is your house? My house is next to the market.

89
For more details on the Negative Imperative see Section 20.D on p. 127.
90
For more details on the Negative Desiderative see Section 21.B on page 129.

82
 ume kaaje
aa? Mi haajaakanaa golle.
What do you need? I need work.

Toy uurataa? Mi uurataana Faransi.

Where are you from? I come from France.

Noy o wi’etee? O wi’ataakenaa Sammbo.

How is he called? He is called Sammbo.

Aawoowo aawataana konngol Laam
o.

The sower sows God’s word.

13. THE RELATIVE

As depicted in the Master Verb Chart (Table 9.1, page 64) the Relative verb FORM is
one of three OTHER FOCUS plus ASPECT FOCUS FORMs. While the Relative does have
complete and incomplete FORMs - the Relative Complete is used if the action is
complete, and the Relative Incomplete is used if the action is incomplete - this is not
where the verb’s main FOCUS is. Apart from narrations, the Relative verb FORM’S
main FOCUS relates to telling how, when, where, who, what and why something
happened. The Relative FORM mainly focuses attention on “other” things, such as:
• the object or time
• the events in a narration
• a relative pronoun
• an interrogative pronoun
• a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
• verb of completed action after sanaa (must)

Table 13.1 Basic Conjugations of the Relative Complete & Incomplete

Aspect
Complete Incomplete
Voice
Active Middle Passive Active Middle Passive
Form  Other plus Aspect Focused
Relative -i -ii -aa -ata -otoo -etee

As mentioned in the discussion on CONJUGATION in the Glossary, only the Relative and
Subjunctive FORMs have full CONJUGATIONs for PERSON and NUMBER in addition to the
CONJUGATIONs for VOICE.91

The relative demonstrates the two characteristics of OTHER FOCUSING:

Lengthening: especially apparent in the middle and passive VOICE FORMS.
There the lengthening is distributed to the end of the SUFFIX except for the first
person singular.

Upsetting of the usual word order: occurs in four of the seven persons.
Even though this is not done consistently throughout all persons, the pattern is
present. Also notice that the initial consonant of the verb root alters when the
subject and verb are inverted.92

91
See Glossary, p. 179 for a discussion of CONJUGATION. See Table 13.2 and Table 13.3 below for the full
CONJUGATION paradigms for the Relative Complete and Relative Incomplete.
92
See Section 10.A, p. 65 ff. for a discussion of initial consonant change in verb roots.

83
 Table 13.2 Relative Complete Paradigm
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Verb
suu
ude suu
aade suu
eede
PERSON 
Singular
FIRST cuu
-u·mi* cuu
-ii·mi cuu
-aa·mi
SECOND cuu
-u·
aa cuu
-i·
aa cuu
-a·
aa
THIRD o suu
-i93 o suu
-ii94 o suu
-aa95
Plural
FIRST EXCLUSIVE min cuu
-i min cuu
-ii min cuu
-aa
FIRST INCLUSIVE cuu
-u·
en cuu
-i·
en cuu
-a·
en
SECOND cuu
-u·
on cuu
-i·
on cuu
-a·
on
THIRD e cuu
-i e cuu
-ii e cuu
-aa
*Don’t forget that the object pronoun ma is inserted between the Relative Complete active VOICE SUFFIX “-u” and the inverted
first person pronoun mi. cuu
-umi+ma → cuu
-u·maa·mi96

As mentioned above, there are six FOCUSes with which the Relative verb FORM is used.

A. Focus on the Object or Time

In the following examples using the Relative Complete, the object (what) or time
(when) being FOCUSed on is underlined:

Nyiiri hoy nyaamumi joonin.

It was cooked millet and baobab leaf sauce that I ate just now.

Gilla fajiri Fulfulde tan o janngi.

Since this morning it is only Fulfulde that she has studied.

Joonin, joonin miccitiimi.

It’s just now that I remembered.

Duui tati mbayrumi yiide mawnam gorko.

It’s been three years since I’ve seen my older brother.

Keean tan nyahel ngel rimaa.

It was just yesterday that this calf was born.

93
The base SUFFIX is that of the third PERSON (both singular and plural) – as well as that of the exclusive first
PERSON plural. This is the SUFFIX shown in the Master Verb Chart (p. 64). The other four CONJUGATIONs move
the pronoun to the end of the verb. For phonetical reasons the Relative Complete active VOICE SUFFIX “-i”
morphs to “-u” in the four inverted CONJUGATIONs. Except for the first PERSON singular pronoun, mi, which
begins with a consonant, the other inverted CONJUGATIONs, all of which begin with a vowel, are lengthened by
the addition of “
” at the beginning of the pronoun. Again this is for phonetical reasons – to keep the “u”
sound of the Relative Complete SUFFIX away from the “a,” “e” and “o” vowel sounds of the pronouns.
This lengthened pronoun is then tacked onto the SUFFIX “-u.” It is worth noting that if the base SUFFIX did not
morph to “-u” it would be impossible to tell the difference between the three regular inverted CONJUGATIONs in
the active and middle VOICEs: “cuu
i
aa” vs. cuu
i
aa
94
The base SUFFIX is “-ii” for the Relative Complete middle VOICE FORM. For phonetical reasons the SUFFIX is
shortened to “-i” with the three regular inverted CONJUGATIONs which undergo lengthening (i.e. -
aa, -
en,
-
on). Note that unlike with the first person active VOICE singular CONJUGATION, the first PERSON middle VOICE
singular CONJUGATION retains the base SUFFIX form “-ii”! This is because the Fule prefer the long vowel
sound prior to the pronoun mi. However, retaining the base form of the SUFFIX means that the first PERSON
singular CONJUGATION is irregular when compared to the other three inverted CONJUGATIONs.
95
The base SUFFIX is “-aa” for the Relative Complete passive VOICE FORM. As with the middle VOICE, the first
person singular passive CONJUGATION retains the base SUFFIX in order to preserve the long vowel sound, and
tacks the pronoun mi on the end. As with the Relative Complete middle VOICE, the three remaining inverted
CONJUGATIONs in the Relative Complete passive voice shorten the base SUFFIX before the lengthened pronoun.
So the passive complete SUFFIX “-aa” becomes “-a” with these three inverted CONJUGATIONs.
96
See Section 7.C.4, p. 51 for a discussion of the objected pronoun ma when used with the subject pronoun mi in
the Relative verb FORM. The reason the object pronoun ma is lengthen to maa is the same as explained in the
two footnotes above. The Fule like the long vowel sound before the pronoun mi and so go to great lengths to
procure it, even if it means elongating the object pronoun.

84
 Table 13.3 Relative Incomplete Paradigm
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Verb
suuude suuaade suueede
PERSON 
Singular
FIRST cuu-am·mi* cuu-otoo·mi cuu-etee·mi
SECOND cuu-at·aa cuu-oto·aa cuu-ete·aa
97
THIRD o suu-ata o suu-otoo98 o suu-etee99
Plural
FIRST EXCLUSIVE min cuu-ata min cuu-otoo min cuu-etee
FIRST INCLUSIVE cuu-at·en cuu-oto·en cuu-ete·en
SECOND cuu-at·on cuu-oto·on cuu-ete·on
THIRD
e cuu-ata
e cuu-otoo
e cuu-etee

*Don’t forget that the object pronoun ma is inserted between the Relative Incomplete active VOICE SUFFIX -am and the inverted
first person pronoun mi. cuu
-am·mi+ma → cuu
-am·maa·mi100

In the following examples using the Relative Incomplete, the object (what)
or time (when) being FOCUSed on is underlined:
Nyiiri hoy nyaamataa faa kootaa Mahadaga.
It is just millet and baobab leaf sauce that you will eat until you return to
Mahadaga.

Sebba njoootoomi mawuuri.

It’s in Sebba I will live next year.

Jaango o segilotoo.
It’s tomorrow he will get ready.

97
For the Relative Incomplete active VOICE the base SUFFIX is “-ata.” In the case of the first PERSON singular, first
the final “a” of the base SUFFIX is dropped and the “t” is harmonized (see Section 10.B, p. 66) to “m” and then
the pronoun mi is tacked on the end.
1s -ata + -mi → -at + -mi → am + mi → -am·mi
Unlike with the Relative Complete active VOICE paradigm, the Relative Incomplete active VOICE does not elongate
the remaining three inverted CONJUGATIONs with the addition of “
.” Rather, the base SUFFIX is shorted to “-at”
which makes it phonetically possible for the pronouns to be added directly to the SUFFIX.
2s -ata + -aa → -at + -aa → -at·aa
98
The base SUFFIX for the Relative Incomplete middle VOICE is “-otoo.” As with the Relative Complete middle
VOICE first PERSON singular, the Relative Incomplete middle VOICE first PERSON singular also retains the full base
SUFFIX and then adds the pronoun mi to the end. When compared with the other three inverted CONJUGATIONs this
is irregular. The Fule do this because they like the long vowel sound before mi. As with the Relative Complete
middle VOICE, the remaining three inverted CONJUGATIONs in the Relative Incomplete middle VOICE shorted the
base SUFFIX. It becomes “-oto,” and a lengthened form of the pronoun is added (i.e. -
aa, -
en, -
on). This is
necessitated for phonetical reasons by the presence of the remaining vowel (“o”) at the end of the shortened
SUFFIX.
99
The base SUFFIX for the Relative Incomplete passive VOICE FORM is “-etee.” The first person singular FORM
retains this base FORM to preserve the long vowel sound while adding the pronoun mi at the end. The remaining
three inverted CONJUGATIONs shorten the SUFFIX to “-ete” and then add an elongated form of the pronoun to the
end.
100
See Section 7.C.4, p. 51 for a discussion of the objected pronoun ma when used with the subject pronoun mi in
the Relative verb FORM. The reason the object pronoun ma is lengthen to maa is the same as explained in the two
footnotes above. The Fule like the long vowel sound before the pronoun mi and so go to great lengths to
procure it, even if it means changing the pattern of CONJUGATION, or in this case, elongating the object pronoun.

85
 B. Focus on Narrative:
As mentioned under the discussion of the General Complete, the first verb in
a narrative is normally in an ASPECT FOCUS FORM (usually the General
Complete), while the remainder of the verbs are OTHER FOCUS FORMs.
Unless one wants to FOCUS on the Negative, Stative, or Progressive, or
unless the Subjunctive is required, the remainder of the verbs in a narrative
will be in the Relative FORM. Robin Watson says the Relative FORM is the
“default FORM” in narrations as it marks unhighlighted descriptions. As such
the Relative seems to be the work-horse verbal FORM of Fulfulde narratives,
a kind of neutral FORM which allows the speaker and the listener to focus on
the event itself, or the actors in the event. The Ful
e are not overly
concerned with the exact timing of the events within a narrative.
The narrative is its own universe where the only concern with time is
whether or not an action is complete or incomplete relative to the ASPECT
introduced in the first verb (or two). If there is some reason to emphasize
time, adverbs or the Preterite are used.101 Note that when a person speaks in
a narrative, the verbs within the quote revert back to General FORMs.
This includes both direct speech (a quote) or indirect speech. In other words
the influence of narrative on the verb FORMs is temporarily suspended.
Other occasions when the use of the Relative is suspended in a narrative are
explained in Section 30, page 174. Examples:
Nde min ngaunoo1
oon bal
e see
a fu annabaajo bi’etee
o Agabus uuri2
Yahuudiya wari.3 O wari4 to amin, o hooi5 kaorgol Pol, o ha

i6 koy
e
makko e juu
e makko, o wi’i,7 “Alhuudiya’en ley Urusaliima ka

iran8 jom
ka

orgol ngol, ni
e kokkitira9 um yim
e
e nganaa Alhuudiya’en.”
Nde min nannoo10
um fu, minen e woe wone
oon, min ndookii11 Pol sanne
taa yaha Urusaliima. (Golleeji Nulaa
e 21:10-12)
Here is an analysis of the verb FORMS in the above text. Each verb is numbered.
The narration is in italics, the quotation is in normal type, and the Relative FORMS are
in bold.
1. Relative Complete with Preterite
2-7. Relative Complete
8. General Incomplete – part of a quote
9. Progressive – part of a quote
10. Relative Complete with Preterite – nan·unoo → nan·noo (“u” drops out between 2 “n’s”)
11. Relative Complete

101
See Section 23, p. 131 ff. for a discussion of the Preterite.

86
Nde min mburtinoo1, min njottii2 leydi fu, min nani3 leydi ngonndi4 ley maayo,
ndiin wi’etee5 Malta. Yime leydi ndiin cakkitorii6 min jam, e ngaddani7 min
yiite sabo uwoonde ina toa,8 jaangol ina woodi.9 Nde Pol hoounoo10 le

e,
ina watta11 ley yiite, ndeen foosokere wurtii12 ley le

e
een saabe nguleefi, nde
ati13 Pol, nde fiilii14 e junngo muu
um. Nde yime een nji’unoo15 mbooddi
ina fiilii16 e junngo Pol fu, e mbi’unduri17 hakkunde mae, “Een tennyori18
gorko o wo ittoowo19 yonkiiji. Fay si o dai20 ley maayo ngo du, sariya
accataa21 o o wuura.”22 Ndeen Pol fii23 junngo muu
um mbooddi ndiin
bo

ii24 ley yiite, Pol maataay25 huunde fuu ina naawa26
um. (Golleeji
Nulaa
e 28:1-5)
Here is an analysis of the verb forms in the above text. Each verb is numbered.
The narration is in italics, the quote is in normal type, and the Relative FORMs are in
bold.
1. Relative Complete with Preterite
2-3. Relative Complete
4. Participle Complete active VOICE for ndi
5. Relative Incomplete
6-7. Relative Complete
8. Progressive
9. Stative
10. Relative Complete with Preterite
11. Progressive
12-14 Relative Complete
15. Relative Complete with Preterite
16. Stative
17. Relative Complete
18. Stative – part of quote
19. Participle Incomplete active VOICE for o
20. Relative Complete (note fay si before verb)
21. Negative Incomplete – part of quote
22. Subjunctive – part of quote
23-24 Relative Complete
25. Negative Complete
26. Progressive

87
C. Focus on Interrogative Pronouns:
In questions formulated with an interrogative, OTHER FOCUSing is clearly
present. The speaker is concerned about who, where, when, etc.
Therefore an OTHER FOCUSed verb FORM must always be used. After an
interrogative pronoun the Relative Complete or Incomplete or the Negative
is used.

The o and
e classes have nouns for both humans and objects so moy and

eye can be used for both “who” and “which.” The interrogative pronouns
are found in Table 13.4.

Table 13.4 Interrogative Pronouns

who moy,
eye
what ume
when ndey
where toy
why ko saabi, ko wai
how noy
how much noy foti
which conjugated for each
noun class as follows
SINGULAR NOUN CLASSES
o moye (for persons)
oye (for things)
am ame
um ume
ka kaye
kal kale
ki kiye
ko1 koye
kol kole
nde ndeye
ndi ndiye
ndu nduye
nga ngaye
nge ngeye
ngi ngiyi
ngo ngoye
ngu nguye
ngal ngale
ngel ngele
ngol ngole
PLURAL NOUN CLASSES

e
eye
e eye
i iye
ko2 koye
koy koye

88
Examples of FOCUSing on an Interrogative Pronoun using the Relative
Complete - the relative pronouns are underlined and the verbs in Relative
Complete FORM are in bold type:
Moy laatii kaananke mae?
Who became their leader?

Moy kawruaa keean
akkol misiide nde?

Who did you meet yesterday beside the mosque?

eye njiiduaa naanen?

Who [plural] did you see a little while ago?

Ndey Burayma wari?

When did Burayma come?

Ndey kayniaa pobbi
i?

When did you spot the hyenas?

Toy ponndiaa?
Where were/are you headed (going)?

Toy njiiltowion faa hejjere hankin?

Where did you wander around until late last night?

Ko saabi cooduaa puccu nguuto?

Why did you buy that horse?

Ko saabi e ka
i?
Why did they fight?

ume woni?
What is it?

Noy gujjo yaltiri kasu?

How did the thief get out of prison?

Noy moiniruaa
um?

How did you fix this/that?

Noy foti cooduaa disaare nde?

How much did you pay for that cloth?

Cekke foti o jogii?

How many mats does she own?

Araawa ngaye daasi torkooru?

Which donkey pulled the donkey cart?

Ley suudu nduye nannuaa keesuwal?

In which hut did you put the trunk?

Lekki kiye fui?

Which tree sprouted/grew?

Ngele rimaa keean?

Which one [calf] was born yesterday?

89
Examples of FOCUSing on an Interrogative Pronoun using the Relative
Incomplete - the relative pronouns are underlined and the verbs in Relative
Incomplete FORM are in bold type::

Moy yarnata le

e?

Who will water the trees?

Moy laatotoo amiiru wuro?

Who will become chief of the village?

Moy kokkataa nagge maa faa o ira?

To whom will you give your cow so he can milk it?

Ndey ndemataa ngesa maa?

When will you plow your field?

Ndey ngarataa?
When will you come back?

Toy ponndotoaa?
Where are you headed?

Toy njippotoaa?
Where are you getting down/stopping?

Ko saabi o nyaamata maaro tan?

Why does he only eat rice?
Ko saabi o nyaamataa maaro?
Why won’t he eat rice?
Note: This example employs the Negative not the Relative Incomplete. Note the
similarity in spelling to the above example!

ume pilotoaa?
What are you looking for?

ume ngaataa laasaraaku?

What will you make in the afternoon?

Noy curki yaltirta?

How will the smoke get out?

Noy njaarataa Djibo?

How will you go to Djibo?

Noy mbiltortoaa golle o gilla jemma yottaaki?

How will you finish this work before night comes?

Noy foti cottataa nagge nge?

How much are you selling this cow for?

Yime foto njaarataa Matiakoali?

How many people will you take to Matiakoali?

Dewtere ndeye o dursitotoo?

Which book will he memorize?

Gese
eye e taata jaango?

Which fields will they harvest tomorrow?

90
 Besides functioning as interrogative pronouns, this same set of pronouns can
also function as adjectives and as relative pronouns. For example:

Interrogative: Nagge ngeye Yero wujji?

Which cow did Yero steal?

Adjective: O yeggitii nagge ngeye baabam hokki kam rawanin.

He forgot which cow my father gave me last year.

Relative Pronoun: Mi anndaa ngeye walaa kosam.

ngeye = nagge
I don’t know which (cow/one) doesn’t have any milk.

Salla a yi’ii nagge nge baabam hokki kam rawanin ley luumo Garango hannden
naa?
Did you see the cow (which my father gave me last year) in the Garango
market today?

Note that regardless of how these pronouns are functioning, they trigger a
Relative verb FORM in a positively stated clause. Furthermore, in the three
examples using the interrogative pronoun ngeye, the pronoun does not act as
a subordinator, while the relative pronoun nge in the fourth example does
subordinate the relative clause it introduces. In the third example ngeye
replaces nagge, while in the fourth example nge begins a parenthetical clause
telling us some additional information about the cow. This entire relative
clause acts as an adjective for the noun “cow.” Both the second and the
fourth examples use the pronoun in an adjectival way, however, the fourth
example introduces a clause where nge links the relative clause (nge baabam
hokki kam rawanin) to the independent clause (Salla a yi’ii nagge ley luumo
Garango hannden) while the second example is part and parcel of the
sentence – there is no dependent clause.

D. Focus on Relative Pronouns:

The Relative FOCUSes attention on the relative pronouns which are used to
create relative clauses. Relative clauses are one type of SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE.

Table 13.5 Relative Pronouns and Closure Markers

Relative Pronoun Closure Marker
when nde* ndee
where to* too
how no* nii
how much, how many no foti* koo
who (singular) mo oo
who (plural)
e ee
what ko
um

*Note: Technically “when,” “where,” “how” are adverbs, while “how much” or “how
many” are adjectives, not relative pronouns. However, in Fulfulde they function exactly
the same as relative pronouns, and so for the sake of simplicity are included in this section.

91
 Table 13.5 Relative Pronouns and Closure Markers continued
which SINGULAR NOUN CLASS
am
am
um
um
ka kaa
kal kal
ki kii
ko1 koo
kol kol
nde ndee
ndi ndii
ndu nduu
nga ngaa
nge ngee
ngi ngii
ngo ngoo
ngu nguu
ngal ngal
ngel ngel
ngol ngol
PLURAL NOUN CLASS

e ee
e
ee
i
ii
ko2 koo
koy koy
why
um saadi de,
um wa
i de …

*Note: um wai de and um saabi de are technically not relative pronouns, but are actually
relative phrases. However, they function as a relative pronoun would and so are included
in this list. Sometimes the “um” is dropped leaving wai de. For example:102

Sabo o yennii kam - wa
i de - piimi o.

Because he cursed me – [that] is why - I hit him.

O yennii kam,
um wa
i de piimi o.

He cursed me, that is why I hit him.

Sabo o remaay - wa
i de - sukaae makko njolbi.

Because he did not farm – [that] is why - his children are hungry.

However, NOT all phrases containing “
um wa
i de” are followed by a Relative
verb form, as the Stative, Progressive and Negative will all “trump” the Relative.
For example:

Matta 14:2 uum wai de ina waawi wade kaayeefiiji. (The verb FORM is Stative not Relative!)
Matthew 14:2 That is why he can do miracles.

102
The first and third examples contain the SUBORDINATING CONJUCTION sabo. I have underlined the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE in these examples. In the first example the General Complete is used because this is a SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE whose action is complete. The “wa
i de” is a relative phrase. It is an abbreviated form of “
um wa
i
de” meaning “that is why.” In the examples, “wa
i de piimi o” and “wa
i de sukaae makko njolbi” are relative
clauses. Note that these relative clauses are NOT SUBORDINATE CLAUSES! Without the
um they cannot stand
alone, but if the
um was inserted they could stand as INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.

92
Relative clauses have three characteristics in Fulfulde:
1) an opening relative pronoun (see Table 13.5)
2) a verb in a Relative FORM (see Tables 13.1-3)
3) a closure marker in some dialects (see Table 13.5)

In essence, Fulfulde likes to put brackets around relative clauses. This is

done by placing the relative pronoun before the clause and a closure marker
at the end of the clause. The closure marker is formed by lengthening the
final vowel (if it is vowel final) of the relative pronoun that opened the
clause. However, the closure marker is not used consistently in everyday
speech, being frequently dropped. There are a few additional exceptions that
must be noted:
1) If the clause is sentence final the closure marker is almost always dropped.
2) With the relative pronoun no the closure marker is nii and not noo.
While speaking of the relative pronoun no, it is worth pointing out that the
INFIX “-ir-/-or-” is always used in the Relative verb following no as it is
with the interrogative pronoun noy; e.g. O faamaay no ii nagge wurtorii
hoggo ie na’i. {He doesn’t understand how the calf got out of the calf
corral.}

NOTE: In checking with informants both from Djibo and Sebba it appears that these
“closure markers” are highly optional here in Burkina. In none of the examples below was I
told that omitting the “closure marker” had an adverse effect on the sense of the phrase.
The choice of whether or not to elongate the final vowel seemed to be somewhat personal.
Often our informants, particularly those from Djibo, would also use a referential pronoun
(see Section 8.H, p. 60) instead of a relative pronoun (see Table 13.5, p. 92). The use of a
referential pronoun gives a slightly different sense to the phrase and is only used in the
context of a discussion about something where the thing referred to has been previously
mentioned. In the following examples of the Relative Complete used in a relative clause,
the relative pronoun and closure markers are underlined. Optional words are marked with
brackets [ ] and optional letters with parentheses ( ). If a referential pronoun could be used I
have indicated that as well in the bracket. Finally, most of these examples contain an
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE with a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE in which the subordinator is the relative
pronoun. The SUBORDINATE CLAUSES have been marked with curly brackets {}.

Mi yi’ii {mo kokkumi lai am [ki(i)/kiin] [o/oon].}

I saw - the person to whom I gave my knife.

Mi yi’ii {mo njaadumi e mum luumo [oo/oon].}

I saw - the person with whom I went to market.

Suka {mo njaaruaa dokotoro keean [oo/oon],} kori o samtanaama.

The child - whom you took to the doctor yesterday - hopefully is feeling better.

Nyaw
o {mo kokkuaa safaare rawanin [oo/oon]} waalii ga nyannden.

The sick person – to whom you gave medicine last year - stayed here overnight the
other day.

{Nde ngonnoomi Pièla [ndee/ndeen]} mi sellaa fey.

When I was in Pièla - I was very sick.

{Nde ngarnoomi Djibo [ndee/ndeen],} mi nanataa Fulfulde fey.

When I came to Djibo then, - I couldn’t understand Fulfulde at all.

Mi amaay o {to o yiiti be’i makko
i.}

I did not ask him - where he found his goats.

93
 Aysata sanyan sekko {hono no Fatimata sanyiri rawanin nii.}
Aysata will weave a mat - like the one Fatimata wove last year.

Mi limii caakuuji maaro {foti njogiiaa}.

I counted - how many - sacks of rice - you own.

Mi yi’aay {ko Burayma hokki e [
um/
uum].}

I did not see - what Burayma gave to them.

Won {ko njiumi amude ma}.

There is - something that I want to ask you. (weak independent clause
)

Won {to e njaari o}.

There is - somewhere they took her.

Mi
o anndi {ko njiumi e majjum}, mi
o yi
i...

I know - what I want out of it, - I want...

Cogganaa kam ngaari {ndi coodumi luumo Djibo} {faa yaha So}.
Herd for me the bull - which I bought at the Djibo market - until (you) get to So.

Nokku {to garuwal amiiru woni} ina toowi.

The place - where the chief’s house was situated - is high.

Mi doggii, ngarumi law law,
um saabi de tampumi.103

I ran, I came quickly - that is why I am tired.

Examples of Relative Incomplete used in a relative clause:

Mawniiko, {mo nji’ataa fai jaango [oo/oon]}, wo caahii
o sanne.
His older brother - whom you will see the day after tomorrow - is a polite/
correct person.
Yime wuro [e(e)/een] fuu eggan, ko
owa {to gawri hoyi hikka [to(o)/toon]}.
The people will move and settle - where millet is cheap this year.

{No e njaarata nii,} Isiyaaka ami bammum Ibrahiima.

As they were walking along, - Isaac queried his father Abraham.

E. Focus on a Subordinate Clause:

There are two ways one can emphasize the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. The first
way involves using the Relative Complete verb FORM in the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE. The TRIGGER WORDS for these clauses are the SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS fay si and faa, and the subordinating adverb de.
Additionally, relative clauses, which are introduced by relative pronouns,
may be SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. As with the General Complete, the Relative
Complete is called for when the clause is a positive statement and the ASPECT
is complete. The difference is that the General Complete FORM FOCUSes on
the ASPECT (the completeness) of the clause, where the Relative FORM
FOCUSes on the who, what, why, where, and when of the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE. Often this difference in FOCUS is very subtle, and even a Pullo
would have a hard time explaining the difference.

103
Assuming this is someone’s statement, and not part of a story, this is an example of the speaker choosing to
place emphasis on his coming quickly because he could have said: Mi doggii, mi warii law,
um saabi de
tampumi. {I ran, I came quickly, because of this I am tired.}. However, the use of the Relative is an expected
choice in this phrase, especially if the person is late for something, as he would wish to underscore what an effort
he made to arrive quickly. Note that the structure
um saabi de does require a Relative FORM, which results in
two emphasized clauses in the sentence, neither of which are subordinate.

94
 1. In a conditional clause introduced by the subordinating conjunction
fay si (even if):
The TRIGGER WORDS fay si trigger the use of the Relative Complete.
Because of the intensifying particle (adverb) fay, the FOCUS of the
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE shifts from ASPECT (completeness) – which is
the FOCUS in a si clause – to the futile condition introduced by this
type of CONDITIONAL CLAUSE. In the examples the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSES are underlined and the Relative Complete FORMs are in bold
type:

Fay si neldumi Amerke, nde heataake sabo safaare durma walaa ley
adunaaru. {Relative Complete}
Even if I send to America for it, it cannot be had because medicine for
colds does not exist (anywhere) in the world.

Fay si kokkuaa e kaalisi e cuu
i fu, e eggan. {Relative Complete}

Even if you give them money and houses they will migrate.

2. In a subordinate clause introduced by the subordinating conjunction

faa (until, to the point of):104
As discussed under the General Complete, with a completed positively
stated action either the General Complete or the Relative Complete is
used when following the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION faa, depending
on whether or not the speaker wishes to emphasize the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE. If the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is to be emphasized then the
Relative Complete FORM is used. The SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are
underlined in the following examples:
Mi rookeke faa ke
umi.105 {Relative Complete}
I asked until I got it.

Mi rookeke faa mi heii.106 {General Complete}

I asked until/and I got it.

Ware njoo
eke faa laasara juulaa. {Relative Complete}

The ones (visitors) who came sat until the third prayer had been prayed.

3. In a subordinate clause introduced by the subordinating adverb de which

follows the use of the Emphatic in the independent clause:
Another case where the Relative FORM is used in a SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE, in order to emphasize the thought expressed by the
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, involves using the Emphatic FORM in the
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE, followed by the subordinating adverb de,
which means: so, so that, so then, then, therefore, that is why, for this

104
Remember that faa can serve as either a preposition or a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION. When it means “until”
and is relating to a noun or pronoun, it is functioning as a preposition: e.g. Faa hannden o waraay. {Until today
she has not come.}; Mi
owtete faa laawol. {I will go with you as far as the road.}. The faa in these two cases is
relating to hannden and laawol. Faa can also mean “until” and function as a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION;
Wa
u faa heewa. {Fix a lot. – lit. Do it until its a lot.}. Additionally the CONJUNCTION faa can mean “in order
to” or “so that.”
105
The focus of the sentence using the Relative Complete FORM is the message of the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: I got it.
106
The focus of the sentence using the General Complete is that these two things happened:
I asked,  I got it.
See Section 11.A.3.c, p. 72 for a discussion of the use of the General Complete verb FORM with the
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION faa.

95
 reason.107 Note in the examples below how the use of the Emphatic
FORM in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE necessitates an explanation.
Note how this is different than just recounting two things that
happened in sequence by contrasting the first two examples.
The SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined and the Relative Complete
FORMs are in bold type:

O doggu de o saami. {Emphatic – de – Relative Complete}

He ran, that is why he fell.

O doggii de o saamii. {General Complete – de – General Complete}

He ran and fell down.
O bonnu jawdi laamu de o nanngaa. {Emphatic – de – Relative Complete}
He ruined government property so he was arrested.

O jambi de o nanngaa. {Emphatic – de – Relative Complete}

He cheated so he was arrested.

4. In a subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun:

A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause, which is usually
subordinate. The relative pronouns are highlighted in bold type and
the SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined in the following examples:108
Mi anndaa mo o hai.
I don’t know who he fought with.

Mi yi’ii no e nyibirta buguuji.

I saw how they build grass houses.

Mumini hollii kam nagge nge o sonnata.

Mumini showed me which cow he is selling

Bureyma ina anndi to luumo woni hannden.

Bureyma knows where the market is today.

Nyaw
o mo kokku
aa safaare rawanin oo/oon waalii ga nyannden.

The sick person to whom you gave medicine last year stayed here
overnight the other day.

Aysata sanyan sekko hono no Fatimata sanyiri rawanin nii.

Aysata will weave a mat like the one Fatimata wove last year.

Nde ngarnoomi Djibo ndee/ndeen, mi nanataa Fulfulde fey.

When I came to Djibo, I couldn’t understand Fulfulde at all.

107
Make sure you understand how de is functioning in a given sentence! De in Fulfulde is generally used as a
COORDINATING CONJUNCTION, meaning simply: and, and then, but, however. It simply links two parts of a
COMPOUND SENTENCE together. In the vast majority of cases this is how de is used. The COORDINATING
CONJUNCTION de is often followed by a Relative verb FORM because it is often employed in narrative sequences –
it is not triggering the Relative FORM, it just happens to be there connecting thoughts. De can also be used as a
subordinating adverb, meaning: so, so then, so that, therefore, this is why, or for this reason; thus triggering the
use of the Relative Complete. That is how it is being used in the above examples. Be sure not to confound the
CONJUNCTION/adverb de with either the plural relative pronoun
e or the denasalized relative pronoun nde
meaning “when.” Gurmaare speakers routinely denasalize nde to de. However, many speakers in other dialects
also drop the initial “n” in rapid speech and even when they write in Fulfulde!
108
Remember, relative clauses are one type of SUBORDINATING CLAUSE. However, not all relative clauses are also
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES (see p. 92 for examples where the relative clause is not subordinate). The relative
pronouns usually function as subordinators – although they don’t always – and they clearly mark the clauses
where they are in usage as being relative clauses, which means the verb in the relative clause needs to be
rendered as a Relative FORM.

96
 5. Following a subordinate clause introduced by the subordinating
conjunction sabo (because):
A second way of placing emphasis on the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
involves using a Relative verb FORM in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE after
the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. This usage depends on the degree of
emphasis the speaker wants to give to the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.
The TRIGGER WORD for this type of construction is sabo. If the action
is complete the Relative Complete FORM is used, and if the action is
incomplete the Relative Incomplete FORM is employed. In both cases
the Relative verb in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE points back to the
“why” of the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. Note the question posed in
examples below and the two contrasting ways of responding to the
question. The emphasis is subtle. The SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are
underlined in the examples below and the Relative FORMs are in bold
type:
ume haata o yaade golle?
What stopped him from going to work?
O yaahataa golle sabo o sellaa. (No focus on subordinate clause.)
He didn’t go to work because he was not well.

Sabo o sellaa ha
ata o yaade golle. (Focus is on why he didn’t go to work.)

Because he was not well, [this] stopped him from going to work.109

Ko saabi e eggi?
Why did they move?
e eggii sabo kammu toaay. (No emphasis)
They moved because it didn’t rain.

Sabo kammu to
aay eggini
e. (Emphasis is on why they moved)

Because it did not rain [this] caused them to migrate.109

Ko wa
i piiaa o?
Why did you hit him?
Mi fiyii o sabo o yennii kam. (No emphasis.)
I hit him because he cursed me.

Sabo o yennii kam, piirumi o. (Emphasis is on why he hit him.)

Because he cursed me, I hit him.

109
Note that with the first two examples for the second clause to be considered an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE (one that
can stand alone as a sentence) one needs to assume that there is a
um, meaning “this,” implied. The third
example contains a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE followed by an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.

97
 F. Focus on a clause introduced by the auxiliary verb sanaa (it is necessary,
must):110
Sanaa, and its various forms, is an auxiliary to the verb. When the action of the
verb after the adverb sanaa is complete, the Relative Complete is used.111
The Relative Complete FORMs are in bold type in the examples:

Si wanaa nyalmiimi kaalisi de kemmi ko mi nyaama.

It was necessary for me to borrow money so that I could have something to eat.

Pa
e am kiin
ii faa timmii sanaa coodumi kese.

My old sandals are finished so I had to buy some new ones.

14. THE PARTICIPIAL

The Participial is an OTHER FOCUS plus ASPECT FOCUS FORM. The ASPECT FOCUS is
seen in that it conjugates for both complete and incomplete ASPECTs. Its OTHER FOCUS
is shown by the lengthening of the vowels in the SUFFIX and the changes in the word
order. Technically the subject of a participle is displaced after the verb ROOT similar
to the Relative or Subjunctive verb FORMS. For instance, in the participle nyaamoowo,
the final “o” is the 3rd PERSON singular pronoun.

Table 14.1 The Base Participial Suffixes Compared to the Relative Suffixes112
Aspect
Complete Incomplete
Voice
Active Middle Passive Active Middle Passive
Form  Other plus Aspect Focused
Relative -i -ii -aa -ata -otoo -etee
Participle -uo -iio -aao -oowo -otooo -eteeo

It is worth noting that Stative verbs only have Complete Participial FORMs while verbs
that either take Stative and Progressive FORMs, or just Progressive FORMs, will have
both Complete and Incomplete Participial FORMs.
In Fulfulde participles, or verbal nominals, are basically self-contained relative
phrases. They can frequently be translated by “the one who...” or “the thing that...”.
As such, they can function as nouns, serving as the subject or object of a sentence, or
they can modify a noun being used as a subject or object. For example:
Cooduo warii.
The buyer came (the one who bought came).

Mi yi’ii la
iio.
I saw the one who was shaved.

Hollam na’i
iraai.

Show me the cows that have been milked.

110
Sanaa is a contraction of si wanaa. Other variations of this TRIGGER WORD include: kanaa, say, and sey.
111
When the action of the verb after sanaa is incomplete the Subjunctive is used.
112
Note that four of the six participle endings are similar to the Relative FORM’S endings; i.e. those for the middle
and passive Complete and Incomplete.

98
Many participles appear to be common static nouns in the language such as duroowo
“herder” or demoowo “farmer.” However, it must be remembered that participles are
verbal nominals. The verbal characteristics of a participle are shown by the fact that
participles can be conjugated according to ASPECT and VOICE. Taking the three
examples above, we can analyze each of the participles as follows:

Verb Root + Voice/Aspect + Class = Participle

sood(ude) + -u- (active/complete) + o (o class) = cooduo
la
(aade) + -ii- (middle/complete) + o (o class) = la
iio

ir(eede) + -aa- (passive/complete) + i (i class) =
iraai

It is also possible for a participle to appear to be acting as a verb. One frequently

hears the following: “Mi jahoowo luumo.” {I am going to market.}. The meaning is the
same as the Progressive and is often used in place of the Progressive.113 However, the
full sentence should be as follows: Mi woni jahoowo luumo. I am the one who is
going to market. The woni is dropped in rapid speech causing the participle to appear
as if it is being used as a verb. The jahoowo is actually serving as a predicate noun.114

Participles are often created on-the-run, as the Ful
e often replace the verb with a
participle. For example:

Verb Noun Participle

yarude njaram (
am) - drink njaretee
am - drinking water
bonude bone (
e) - evil things na’i bon
i - bad cows
haalude haala (ka) - speech konngol kaalaangol - a word spoken
hoolaade hoolaare (nde) - trust koolii
o Laam
o - one who trusts in God
moude moere (nde) - goodness mobel moinaangel - the car that was repaired
faamude faamu (ndu) - understanding koongol paamaangol - a word that is understood
anndude anndal (ngal) - knowledge huunde anndaande - a thing that is known
hawrude kawral (ngal) - agreement kawru
o - a person who met someone
laaude laaal (ngal) - cleanliness kaakol laaungol - a clean dish
sellude cellal (ngal) - health nguurn
am cellu
am - healthy life
haude hao (ngo) - fight kaetee
o - warrior

A participle is formed by adding both a VOICE/ASPECT marker and a noun class ending
which agrees with the noun being modified to a verb ROOT. It is also necessary to
modify the initial consonant of a participle according to the rules stated for initial
consonant changes in the noun system.115

113
See Section 17, p. 111 ff. for a discussion of the Progressive verb FORM.
114
A predicate noun renames the subject and is used only with intransitive or “linking” verbs where there is no
object and no action (i.e. being verbs). For example: “He is the teacher.” where “teacher” is the predicate noun.
115
For convenience Table 5.1, p. 31 has been reproduced as Table 14.2 below. Check it for the details of initial
consonant changes in participles.

99
Example of the formation of a participle:
Noun Verb Root + Voice/Aspect + Class = Participle
116
nagge sakit- + -ii (middle complete) + nge = sakitiinge
nagge sakitiinge nge {the last cow}

neo s → cakit-117 + -otoo (middle complete)+ o/o = cakitotooo

neo cakitotooo o {the last person}

When forming participles one must remember to change the initial consonant in
accordance with the noun class it will fall into. These initial consonant changes are
regular. The initial consonant changes for the participles are the same as those for the
noun system. The transformations are the following:

Table 14.2 Initial Consonant Changes of Participles118

Initial GROUP I GROUP II GROUP III
Consonant
e, ko, nde e, i, um, kal, kol, am, ka, ki, ko, koy,
of Verb ndu, nge, ngo ngal, ngel, ngol, o ndi, nga, ngi, ngu
Root
b b b mb
d d d nd
g g g ng
j j j nj
f f p p
h h k k
s s c c
r r d nd
w w b mb
w w g ng
y y j nj
y119 y g ng

There are also rules for the formation of adjectives which are formed somewhat
similarly to participles. However, adjectives use somewhat different forms, do not
conjugate as to VOICE and ASPECT, but do conjugate according to the noun class of the
noun which they modify. These adjectives also have the same pattern of initial
consonant change used by participles and nouns.120

116
Nagge belong to the noun class nge, which is found in Group I. Consulting Table 14.2, one sees that verb
ROOTS being used to form a participle which begin with the letter “S” remain the letter “S.” So for the verb
ROOT √sakit- there is no initial letter change.
117
Because the word ne

o represents a person it is the o noun class, which is found in Group II. Consulting Table
14.2, one sees that verb ROOTS being used to form a participle which begin with the letter “S” change to “C.”
So the verb ROOT √sakit- is transformed to cakit-.
118
So despite being derived from a verb ROOT, the initial consonant changes in accordance with the noun paradigm.
Table 14.2 is the same as Table 5.1, page 31 found in the noun section.
119
None of the 160 verbs listed in the dictionary beginning with “y” form a participle in Group II with “g.”
Neither do I know of a verb beginning with “y” that forms adjectives which would use this “y → g → ng”
paradigm. So while in principle it might occur, practically speaking I don’t know of one case where it does
occur.
120
The adjectives are discussed in Section 26, p. 150.

100
 Table 14.3 Participle Endings
Aspect COMPLETE INCOMPLETE
Voice Active Middle Passive Active Middle Passive
Group I

e -(u)
e -ii
e -aa
e -oo
e -otoo
e -etee
e
ko1 -(u)ko -iiko -aako -ooho -otooko -eteeko
nde -(u)nde -iinde -aande -oore -otoonde -eteende
ndu -(u)ndu -iindu -aandu -ooru -otoondu -eteendu
nge -(u)nge -iinge -aange -oowe -otoonge -eteenge
ngo -(u)ngo -iingo -aango -oowo -otoongo -eteengo
Group II
e -(u)e -iie -aae -ooje -otooe -eteee
i -(u)i -iii -aai -ooji -otooi -eteei
um -(u)um -iium -aaum -oojum -otooum -eteeum
kal -(u)kal -iikal -aakal -oohal -otookal -eteelal
kol -(u)kol -iikol -aakol -oohol -otookol -eteekol
ngal -(u)ngal -iingal -aangal -oowal -otoongal -eteengal
ngel -(u)ngel -iingel -aangel -oowel -otoongel -eteengel
ngol -(u)ngol -iingol -aangol -oowol -otoongol -eteengol
o -(u)
o -ii
o -aa
o -oowo* -otoo
o -etee
o
Group III
am -(u)am -iiam -aaam -oojam -otooam -eteeam
ka -(u)ka -iika -aaka -ooha -otooka -eteeka
ki -(u)ki -iiki -aaki -oohi -otooki -eteeki
ko2 -(u)ko -iiko -aako -ooho -otooko -eteeko
koy -(u)koy -iikoy -aakoy -oohoy -otookoy -eteekoy
ndi -(u)ndi -iindi -aandi -oori -otoondi -eteendi
nga -(u)nga -iinga -aanga -oowa -otoonga -eteenga
ngi -(u)ngi -iingi -aangi -oowi -otoongi -eteengi
ngu -(u)ngu -iingu -aangu -oowu -otoongu -eteengu
*Note: In the Sebba region this form is contracted to -oo

Table 14.3 looks complicated at first glance, however note that in the middle and passive VOICEs, the
ASPECT markers (-ii-, -aa-, -otoo-, and -etee-) are the same as the Relative FORM SUFFIXes shown in
Table 13.1. Note too that the noun class endings are consistent except for the active Incomplete where
extensive but consistent changes are made. The Ful
e use participles a lot, so it is important to practice
making them yourself in your everyday speech. The data regarding the frequency of occurrence of
various nouns listed by noun class in Section 4 can help one focus on learning the ending for the three
most important single noun class markers:

o 29%
nde 21%
ngal 10%
60%

So if one focused on mastering initially the participle endings for the above three singular noun classes,
plus
e, one would know how to form participles for more than half of the cases one would normally
encounter in speaking.

101
Following are examples of participles formed with the three groupings of consonants
found in Table 14.2 to illustrate how these participles are formed.

Table 14.4 Participles with the Initial Consonants: b - d - g - j

Verb barkineede dartaade gasude jeyeede
Aspect incomplete incomplete incomplete complete
Group I
e barkinetee
e† dartotoo
e gasoo
e jeyaa
e
ko1 barkineteeko dartotooko gasooho jeyaako
nde barkineteende dartotoonde gasoore jeyaande
ndu barkineteendu dartotoondu gasooru jeyaandu
nge barkineteenge dartotoonge gasoowe jeyaange
ngo barkineteengo dartotoongo gasoowo jeyaango
Group II

e barkineteee dartotooe gasooje jeyaae

i barkineteei dartotooi gasooji jeyaai

um barkineteeum dartotooum gasoojum jeyaaum
kal barkineteekal dartotookal gasoohal jeyaakal
kol barkineteekol dartotookol gasoohol jeyaakol
ngal barkineteengal dartotoongal gasoowal jeyaangal
ngel barkineteengel dartotoongel gasoowel jeyaangel
ngol barkineteengol dartotoongol gasoowol jeyaangol
o barkineteeo dartotooo gasoowo jeyaao
Group III

am mbarkineteeam ndartotooam ngasoojam njeyaaam
ka mbarkineteeka ndartotooka ngasooha njeyaaka
ki mbarkineteeki ndartotooki ngasoohi njeyaaki
ko2 mbarkineteeko ndartotooko ngasooho njeyaako
koy mbarkineteekoy ndartotookoy ngasoohoy njeyaakoy
ndi mbarkineteendi ndartotoondi ngasoori njeyaandi
nga mbarkineteenga ndartotoonga ngasoowa njeyaanga
ngi mbarkineteengi ndartotoongi ngasoowi njeyaangi
ngu mbarkineteengu ndartotoongu ngasoowu njeyaangu

†
The above paradigm for barkineede show the “correct” conjugation for the various noun classes,
but in reality the Fule would drop the first “e” of the suffix; e.g. barkinteee, mbarkinteengu

102
 Table 14.5 Participles with the Intitial Consonants: f - h - s
Verb feewude heddaade sakitaade
Aspect incomplete complete complete
Group I
e feewoo
e heddii
e sakitii
e
ko feewooho heddiiko sakitiiko
nde feewoore heddiinde sakitiinde
ndu feewooru heddiindu sakitiindu
nge feewoowe heddiinge sakitiinge
ngo feewoowo heddiingo sakitiingo
Group II

e peewooje keddiie cakitiie

i peewooji keddiii cakitiii

um peewoojum keddiium cakitiium
kal peewoohal keddiikal cakitiikal
kol peewoohol keddiikol cakitiikol
ngal peewoowal keddiingal cakitiingal
ngel peewoowel keddiingel cakitiingel
ngol peewoowol keddiingol cakitiingol
o peewoowo keddiio cakitiio
Group III

am peewoojam keddiiam cakitiiam
ka peewooha keddiika cakitiika
ki peewoohi keddiiki cakitiiki
ko2 peewooho keddiiko cakitiiko
koy peewoohoy keddiikoy cakitiikoy
ndi peewoori keddiindi cakitiindi
nga peewoowa keddiinga cakitiinga
ngi peewoowi keddiingi cakitiingi
ngu peewoowu keddiingu cakitiingu

Participles are used frequently in Fulfulde, and in all sorts of situations.

Note that if the participle is modified, as with relative pronoun phrases, there is a
closure marker (see the first two examples below). In the examples below the
participles and closure markers are underlined:

Gar
o hankin o nyawii sanne.

The person who came last evening is really sick.
Toy duroowo Dule o yahata? O jahoowo luumo.
Where is Dule’s herder going? He is going to the market.

Wuye na keewi Abidjan, yoga nanngaae, yoga yoppaae mbujjan katin.

There are many thieves in Abidjan, some have been caught, some have been let go and
will steal again.
Hollam na’i iretee
i. aleewe e wuule wo
eewe tan keddii na iree.
Show me the cows that are being milked. Only the black one and white faced brown
one are still being milked.

103
 Table 14.6 Participles with the Initial Consonants: r - w - y
Verb reynude waanneede wonude yaa
aade
Aspect complete complete complete complete
e reynu
e waannaa
e won
e yaa
ii
e
ko1 reynuko waannaako wonko yaa
iiko
nde reynunde waannaande wonnde yaa
iinde
ndu reynundu waannaandu wonndu yaa
iindu
nge reynunge waannaange wonnge yaa
iinge
ngo reynungo waannaango wonngo yaa
iingo

e deynue baannaae gone jaa
iie

i deynui baannaai goni jaa
iii

um deynuum baannaaum gonum jaa
iium
kal deynukal baannaakal gonkal jaa
iikal
kol deynukol baannaakol gonkol jaa
iikol
ngal deynungal baannaangal gonngal jaa
iingal
ngel deynungel baannaangel gonngel jaa
iingel
ngol deynungol baannaangol gonngol jaa
iingol
o deynuo baannaao gono jaa
iio

am ndeynuam mbaannaaam ngonam njaa
iiam
ka ndeynuka mbaannaaka ngonka njaa
iika
ki ndeynuki mbaannaaki ngonki njaa
iiki
ko2 ndeynuko mbaannaako ngonko njaa
iiko
koy ndeynukoy mbaannaakoy ngonkoy njaa
iikoy
ndi ndeynundi mbaannaandi ngonndi njaa
iindi
nga ndeynunga mbaannaanga ngonnga njaa
iinga
ngi ndeynungi mbaannaangi ngonngi njaa
iingi
ngu ndeynungu mbaannaangu ngonngu njaa
iingu

Examples continued:
Mi
o maata luumngol araawa mbaatunga nga.
I smell the stench of that dead donkey.
Mi
o aawa toon siiji le

e keew
e faa mi eewa pu
ooje e
e pu
ataa e leydi toon
ndi.
I will try many species of trees to determine which will grow there and which will not.
Wanaa hu
o heaako fuu koy.
Hey, it’s not just any old grass.
Wanaa dewtere heaande fuu koy.
It’s not just any old book.

104
15. THE EMPHATIC

The Emphatic is an OTHER FOCUS FORM. Rather than FOCUSING on the ASPECT
(completeness vs. incompleteness) of an action, it draws attention to the meaning of
the verb. This FORM is sometimes used in conjunction with emphatic pronouns.121
The Emphatic is a subtle FORM that adds impact/emotion to one’s words, in fact it is
likely that until one is quite fluent in Fulfulde and familiar with Ful
e culture, one
would tend to use the FORM inappropriately.

Table 15.1 Conjugations of the Emphatic

Other Focused
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Emphatic -u/ø -i -a

The Emphatic verb FORM gives emphasis to the meaning of the verb. It is often used
to respond to somewhat challenging questions thus giving emphasis to one’s response.
The Ful
e use it invariably in certain situations, such as “o daani” (she sleeps).
In the examples below the verb being emphasized is in bold type and any emphatic
pronouns are underlined:
Fuu fotu.
It is/was all the same.

Kanko fii ma.

It was he who hit you.

O soodaay, o wujju!
He didn't buy it, he stole it!

Noy nga
u
aa nyiiri ndi? Mi nyaamu ndi!

What did you do with the cooked millet? I ate it!

Bintu nyaamu ndi!

Bintu ate it!

ume nga
u
aa de kaawu maa duki e maa?

What did you do so that your uncle argued with you?

Mi nyaamu nyiiri ndi!

I ate the cooked millet!

Mi yennu Baaba!
I said bad things to Father!

Mi yaa
u tummbude nde!

I stepped on the calabash!

Mi fukki!
I am lying down!

O aani!
She is sleeping!

A fiya naa?

121
See Section 8.F, p. 56 for a discussion of emphatic pronouns.

105
 You were hit?
Mi fiya!
I was hit!

O fiya de imo woya!

He was hit and he is crying!

Kanko ka, o nyaamu nyiiri ndi.

As for him, he ate the cooked millet.

16. THE STATIVE

The Stative is an OTHER FOCUS verb FORM. As implied by the name, the Stative verb
FORM FOCUSES attention on the status or state of being of someone or something.
The Stative has two indicators of OTHER FOCUSING. First, the SUFFIX is lengthen – this
is especially apparent in the middle and passive VOICEs. Secondly, the natural word
order is upset. That is the “locator” occurs ahead of the verb rather than in its more
natural position after the verb. Vallette explains that this FORM indicates that
something has here happened. The here, or “locator,” has a sort of combined
time/space meaning. Na is the locator in the first example and -o, attached to the
first person pronoun mi, is the locator in the second example.
Suudu ndu na mawni.
This hut [here/now] is big.
Mi
o woodi kolse.
I have a small herd.

Table 16.1 Conjugations of the Stative

Other Focused
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Stative -i -ii -aa
Negative Stative -aa ø122 ø122

The use of the Stative FORM is easy to spot because of the ever present “locators.”
If the subject of the sentence is a noun, the particle “na” (it is here) is the “locator.”
If the subject is a personal pronoun, the pronoun combines with the locator “o”
(here) to construct the long-form subject pronouns.123 If the subject is one of the noun
class pronouns, an “e-” or “i-” is added to the beginning of the pronoun. See Table
16.2 below for the long-form subject pronouns used in the northern dialects. In the
Moosiire dialect the locator na is always used with the normal subject pronoun (see
Table 16.3 below). See Table 16.4 for the form of the long-form subject pronouns
used in Mahadaga.

122
The middle and passive voices do not have a Negative Stative FORM, rather the Negative Complete FORM is used.
123
See Section 8.B, pp. 47-48 for a discussion of long-form subject pronouns.

106
 Table 16.2 Long-Form Subject Pronouns124
PERSON SINGUALAR PLURAL
FIRST mio Exclusive Inclusive
mien een
SECOND aa oon
THIRD
SINGULAR PLURAL
NOUN CLASS NOUN CLASS
o imo/omo e e
e/i
e

am eam/iam
e ee/ie

um eum/ium
i ei/ii
ka eke/iki ko2 eko/iko
ki eki/iki koy ekoy/ikoy
ko1 eko/eko
kal ekal/ikal
kol ekol/ikol
nde ende/inde
ndi endi/inde
ndu endu/indu
nga enga/inga
nge enge/inge
ngi engi/ingi
ngo engo/ingo
ngu engu/ingu
ngal engal/ingal
ngel engel/ingel
ngol engol/ingol

Table 16.3 Long-Form Subject Pronouns used in Moosiire125

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST na mi Exclusive Inclusive
na min na en
SECOND na a na on
THIRD na o na
e

Table 16.4 Long-Form Subject Pronouns used in Mahadaga

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST mino Exclusive Inclusive
minen enen
SECOND ana onon
THIRD omo e
e

124
The long-form pronouns are used only with the Stative and Progressive verb FORMS.
125
This way of forming long-form pronouns is used all over the country by the Fule, but it is the exclusive form
used in much of the Moosiire area.

107
A. Stative Indicates State of Being:
The Stative indicates a completed/accomplished state of being, a situation
that will not likely change. Examples:
Hamma Saydu na naywi sanne.
Hamma Saydu is very old (is in the state of being very old).

E
e anndi
um.

They know that (are in the state of knowing).

Mio yii soodude na’i e pucci.

I want to buy cows and horses (I am in the state of wanting, an accomplished
fact).

Bamako na woi.
Bamako is far away.

Suudu ndu na mawni.

That hut is big.

Indu mawni.
It (the hut) is big.

Nagge nge na fooi sanne.

That cow is very thin.

Enge fooi sanne.

It (the cow) is very thin.

Imo jogii na’i keew
i.

He owns many cows.

Maryama na fukkii.
Maryama is lying down/sleeping.

Mio anniyii yaade Sebba je

iire waroore.

I intend (am already in the state of intending) to go to Sebba next week.

Araawa nga na darii.

The donkey is standing up.

Inga darii.
It (the donkey) is standing up.

108
 The Stative forms what might be called “the many na’s,” which function
more or less as adjectives in Fulfulde. Technically they would be called
“predicate adjectives” in English. They may be preceded by a noun or
simply stated to describe some facet of the subject being discussed.
One can say “suudu ndu na mawni” or simply “indu mawni” if the subject is
obvious from the context. Commonly used na’s are the following:

Contrasting Statives
na adii - it’s near na wo

i - it’s far
na boni - it’s bad na moi - it’s good, nice, okay
na uui - it’s cold na wuli - it’s hot
na feewi - it’s cold, well made
na darti - it’s straight, true na onyii - it’s crooked
na
eppi
i - it’s flat na tamii - it’s round
na faa
i - it’s narrow na yaaji - it’s wide
na fam
i - it’s small na mawni - it’s big
na hoyfi - it’s light na teddi - it’s heavy
na juuti - it’s long na rai
i - it’s short
na toowi - it’s tall
na laai - it’s clean na tuuni - it’s dirty
na muddi
i - it’s blunt na seei - it’s pointed
na weli - its sharp
na naawi - it’s painful na weli – it is pleasurable
na haa
i – it is bitter na weli - it’s good (tasting)
na selbi - it’s dilute na tekki - it’s thick
na sewi - it’s thin
na ar
i - it’s beautiful na
aayi – it’s ugly
na woo
i - it’s pretty, good
na taa
i - it’s slow, too late na yaawi - it’s fast
na tii
i - it’s difficult, expensive na yaafi - it’s easy, cheap
na teei - it’s tight na yoli – it’s loose
Miscellaneous Statives
na haaynii - it’s amazing na heewi - it’s plenty
na hea - it’s enough na lokki
i - it’s weak
na luggi - it’s deep na nafa - it’s useful
na woodi - it’s in existence na woowi - it’s normal, used to it

B. Stative used with Locators:

o, ga, to: Long-form subject pronouns can be used with a locator such as
o, ga, or to to indicate location of someone or something.126 The verb
(probably wonude) has been dropped from the sentence which certainly
would have been in the Stative FORM. Examples:
Mi
o woni ga. → Mi
o ga. I am here.

Imo woni toon. → Imo toon. He is there.

Ee
o. They are here.

Ina ga. It is here.

126
See Section 8.G, p. 58 for a discussion of locators.

109
 C. In Subordinate Clauses:
All the various subordinating TRIGGER WORDS (except faa) mentioned under the
General Complete, Negative Complete, Relative Complete and Progressive can also
call for a Stative verb FORM. This includes si, fay si, sabo, yalla and salla. In other
words, if a Stative verb FORM is called for this will “trump” the use of either the
General Complete, Relative Complete or Progressive verb FORMs, in a positively
stated sentence, despite the presence of these TRIGGER WORDs. Likewise the Stative
Negative will “trump” the Negative Complete if the clause is stated negatively.
In the examples the SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined and the Stative FORMs
are in bold type:

Si ngenndi na mawni mi lallan.

If the city is big I will get lost.

Fay si ngenndi na mawni a lallataa.

Even if the city is big you won’t get lost.

Sabo henndu hannkin na hul
inii wa
i de mi wuurtaaki suudu am.

Because the wind last night was frightening is why I didn’t leave my
house.

Sabo uwoonde na to
a sanne lee toon na maawni.127

Because it rains a lot the trees there are big.

O haalaay {Neg. Complete} yalla galle makko na mawni {Stative} naa

mawnaa {Stative Neg.}.
He did not say whether his compound is big or not.

D. Negative Stative:
The Stative has its own negative, as can be seen in both the Master Verb Chart and
in Table 16.1. It is formed by the addition of the SUFFIX “-aa” to the verb ROOT,
and connotes the meaning of not-being-in-the-state-of and the-state-of-being-is-not-
likely-to-change in the future. Note that the Negative Stative is only used for active
VOICE verbs. Middle and passive VOICE verbs use the Negative Complete to form
their negatives. The long-form pronouns are not used, this being consistent since
the state of being is not here/now existing. A frequently used Negative Stative is
wonaa, often appearing as wanaa or walaa, which is translated differently in
different contexts, but is basically the negative of wonude “to be, to exist.”
Examples:

e anndaa
um.
They don’t know that (and probably will not in the future).

Suudu ndu mawnaa.

The hut is not big (and obviously will not get bigger).

Ndu mawnaa.
It (the hut) is not big.

Cofal ngal famaa.

The chicken is not small.

127
Of the various subordinators, sabo is the least fastidious in requiring a certain verb FORM in the two halves of a
COMPLEX SENTENCE (a sentence with a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE in it). So it should not be too surprising that this
example has a Stative FORM in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.

110
 Ngal famaa.
It (the chicken) is not small.

Ouagadougou woaa fey.

Ouagadougou is not far away at all (and will not get farther away).

Mi walaa kaalisi.
I don’t have any money.

um walaa nafaa.

It has no use.

Pobbi ngalaa ga joonin.

There are no hyenas in the area now.

17. THE PROGRESSIVE (HABITUAL)

The Progressive is an OTHER FOCUS verb FORM. It either FOCUSes attention on an

incomplete action – one which is in progress – or upon a habitual action.
The Progressive has two indicators of OTHER FOCUSING. The SUFFIX is lengthened,
especially in the middle and passive conjugations, and the natural word order is upset.
As with the Stative, there is a “locator” which occurs ahead of the verb indicating that
something is happening here. The Progressive uses the same locative particle “na”
and the same locative long-form pronouns as the Stative verb FORM. Na is the locator
in the first example and -o, attached to the first person pronoun mi, is the locator in
the second example.
Fajiiri fuu tuubaaku oon na du’oo
Every morning that white persons prays [habitually].

Mi
o una gawri.

I am [here/now] pounding millet.

Table 17.1 Conjugations of the Progressive

Other Focused
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Progressive -a -oo -ee

A. Used in Ongoing Action:

The Progressive indicates an ongoing action which is in process.
It can also indicate the very immediate future. If the latter is the
case, the phrase si Alla/Laamo ja
ii or “if God wills” is frequently added
to the sentence. Examples:
Burayma na yaha misiide nde.
Burayma is going to the mosque.

Mien moina torkooru makko, si Laam
o jaii.

We will fix his donkey cart, if God agrees.

Lekki ki na mawna joonin.

This tree is growing now.

111
 Eki mawna joonin.
It (the tree) is growing now.

E
e pornyoo Kouri.

They are returning to Kouri.

Fatimata na roondoo tummbude kosam nde.

Fatimata is carrying the calabash of milk on her head.

Na’i
i na mbaaloo.
The cows are lying down.

Ei mbaaloo.
They (the cows) are lying down.

Gujjo na nanngee!
A thief is being caught!

Si gawri na unee, a
a anndi laasara wari.

If millet is being pounded, you know that it is late afternoon.

B. Used for Habitual Actions:

When describing regularly reoccurring or habitual actions the Progressive
FORM is employed. Examples:

Burayma na yaha misiide nde Aljuma fuu.

Burayma goes to the mosque every Friday.

Na’i
i na mbaaloo ley cukkuri kiikii
e fuu.

The cows lay down in the thicket every afternoon.

Imo una gawri laasara fuu.

She pounds millet every evening.

Rik na rema ngesa mu

um salifana fuu.

Rick hoes in his field every afternoon.

C. Use of Participial as Substitute for the Progressive:

There is one usage of the Participial FORM which occurs quite frequently that
serves as a substitute for the Progressive and has the same progressive
meaning.128 Here are a few examples:
Mi jahoowo unndu ndu.
I am going to the well.

On nyaamoo
e naa?
You are eating now?

On yiidoo
e? A’aa, bisimilla, min gaajotoo
e tan.

Are you having a private discussion? No, welcome (come on in) we are just
talking.

128
See also Section 14, p. 99.

112
 D. In Sentences with Subordinate Clauses:
1. Following conditional si (if) clauses:
Either the Progressive or the General Incomplete can be used in the
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE following a CONDITIONAL si CLAUSE if the action
of the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is incomplete.129 The General Incomplete
FORM would be used in cases where the action is future (to our way of
thinking). The Progressive FORM would be used if the action is
ongoing or habitual. The CONDITIONAL (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSES are
underlined in the following examples and the Progressive FORMS are in
bold type:
Si o yehii luumo imo soodana sukaae kurakuraaji.
If he goes to market he buys (habitually) the children peanut rings.

Si imo wara wuro
o imo nyaama, imo fukkoo tan.

If he comes here he only eats and sleeps.

Si e ira na’i mae i
e ka

a ie na’i
i e koy
e inniraae majji.
If they milk their cows they tie the calves to the legs of their mothers.

Si polisi’en na ndaara talki yahooe e keekoy fu, i
e teeta keekoy

keewkoy, i
e ndesa
i faa
i njoanee.
If the police are looking at the paper of those going on bikes they seize
lots of bikes, they store them until the fine is paid.

2. Following conditional fay si (even if) clauses:

Either the Progressive, General Incomplete, or Relative FORMS may be
used in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE following a CONDITIONAL
(SUBORDINATE) CLAUSE using the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION fay si
(even if). The SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is underlined and the Progressive
FORM is in bold type in the examples:

Fay si jannginoowo walaa toon sukaae na njaha leekol.

Even if the teacher isn’t there the children go to school.

Fay si/ko batiki ommbaa yime na njaha toon nyannde fuu.

Even if/that the store is closed, people go there every day.

Fay si coggu gawri na tii
i yime na cooda faa heewi.

Even if the price of millet is high people buy lots of it.

129
For discussion of the General Incomplete in CONDITIONAL CLAUSES where the action is incomplete see Section
11.B.2.a, p. 74.

113
3. In subordinate clauses introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions yalla or salla (whether or not):
Yalla and salla has two usages that involve the Progressive:
a. Yalla or salla meaning “whether or not”:
The conjunction yalla or salla can have the meaning “whether,”
“whether or not,” or “if.” If these words are found in a COMPLEX
SENTENCE they function as subordinators. When the verbal action is
complete and positively stated the General Complete is used.
When relating to a Stative verb the Stative or Participial Complete
verb FORMs are used. When the action is incomplete and positively
stated either the Progressive or the General Incomplete is used.
In the examples below the verb being acted on by the conjunction is
in bold type and the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is underlined:
Deekiiko amii kam salla o hewtii naa o hewtaay. (Gen. & Neg. Complete)
His wife asked me whether he arrived or not.

O haalaay salla mobel makko na yaawi naa yaawaa. (Stative & Stative Neg.)
He didn’t say whether his car is fast or not.

O haalaay salla mobel makko wo kesel naa kiinngel. (Participial)

He didn’t say whether his truck was new or used.

Mi anndaa yalla imo nyi
a benal hikka. (incomplete action – Progressive)

I don’t know whether he will build a brick house this year.

O amii ma yalla hoore maa na naawa. (incomplete action – Progressive)

He asked you whether (or not) your head hurts.

amaa o yalla o hirsan ndamndi naa o hirsataa . (incomplete action – Gen. Inc.)
You should ask him whether (or not) he will butcher a (male) goat.

b. Yalla or salla meaning “so that’ or “in order that”:

“Yalla” or “Salla” can also serve as a subordinator having the
meaning “so that” or “in order that,” after which the Progressive is
used. In the examples the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is underlined and
the Progressive FORMS are in bold type.
Imo golla to tuubaaku yalla imo he
a ko o nyaama.
He is working for the white man so that he will have something to eat.

e ngaddii o Tenkodogo yalla imo he
a safaare.

They brought her to Tenkodogo so that she could get medicine.

Yim
e wuro
e ndokkeke Laamo yalla kammu na to
a.

The people of the town prayed to God so that it would rain (or prayed to
God for rain).

Ndaroen ga yalla pucci i na poofta.

Let’s stop here so the horses can rest.

Piloen
oggi ii yalla dabaaji i na njarnee law.

Let’s get two well ropes so that the animals can be watered in a hurry.

114
18. THE SUBJUNCTIVE

The Subjunctive can be a slippery FORM which appropriately has no complete ASPECT
and permits a speaker to be vague and non-committal about the present and future.
It allows that something could happen, or should happen, or may happen, but makes
no promises. The Subjunctive keeps the speaker from appearing to prescribe fate, to
play God. It is clearly an OTHER FOCUS FORM seeming to FOCUS on its own
indefiniteness.

In spite of the indefiniteness of the Subjunctive, many of its uses are in very regular
clearly discerned contexts, such as after faa or sanaa and so forth (A-F below).
At least 60% of the battle for the Subjunctive can be won by simply using it correctly
in these more fixed contexts. There are, however, some usages (G-H below) which
are less consistent or less easily explained. These more slippery usages appear to have
a common characteristic in that the sentences in which they appear seem to portray, in
a Pullo’s mind, some sort of cause and effect linkage. The effect or result is then
generally put in the Subjunctive FORM, although at times it may be in some other
incomplete FORM.

The Subjunctive clearly demonstrates the lengthening feature of OTHER FOCUS FORMs,
but it only demonstrates the word order changes in three of the seven PERSONs rather
than in four of the seven as in the Relative.

Table 18.1 Basic Conjugations of the Subjunctive130

Other Focused
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Subjunctive -a -oo -ee

Table 18.2 Full Subjunctive Paradigm

Active Middle Passive
Verb suuude suuaade suueede
PERSON 
Singular
FIRST mi suu-a mi suu-oo mi suu-ee
SECOND cuu-aa cuuo
-aa cuu-e
aa
THIRD o suu-a o suu-oo o suu-ee
Plural
FIRST min cuu-a min cuu-oo min cuu-ee
EXCLUSIVE
FIRST cuu-en cuu-o
en cuu-e
en
INCLUSIVE
SECOND cuu-on cuu-o
on cuu-e
on
THIRD
e cuu-a
e cuu-oo
e cuu-ee

130
Note that the Subjunctive SUFFIXes are exactly the same as those of the Progressive FORM. However, unlike the
Progressive FORM, the Subjunctive does not use locative particles in conjunction with the verb.

115
The subjunctive is used in the following 8 situations:
• after verbs of obligation when the action required is incomplete
• after faa when the action is incomplete
• with indirect discourse when action is incomplete
• after yi
ude
• after a verb in the Imperative FORM
• with polite commands
• after the relative pronoun ko
• in a series of verbs

As can be seen by a perusal of this list, the Subjunctive is the verb FORM often pressed
into service when the action described by the verb is incomplete. Here are the details:

A. After Verbs of Obligation:

The Ful
e use a variety of verbs to denote obligation. The weakest
expression of obligation would be the verb haanude (should). Then come the
auxiliary verb sanaa and its synonyms (should, must).131 Even more forceful
are the auxiliary verbs tilay and waajibi, and the verbs tilsude and
waajibaade (absolutely must do). When the action is incomplete, the
Subjunctive is always used after these verbs of obligation. When the action
is complete the Relative Complete is used.132 In the examples the verbs of
obligation are underlined and the Subjunctive forms are in bold type:
Na haani mi otta yaade luumo ngo hannden.
I should rest from going to the market today.

Na haani o sooda puccu nguun.

He should buy the horse [that we have been talking about].

Sanaa mi suddoo sabo jaangol na heewi.

I must (it is necessary for me to) cover up because it is cold.

Sey mi sooda na’i sabo mi
o ho
i ley pulaaku.

I must buy cows since I am living in the Fulbe community.

Kanaa mi nyalmoo kaalisi faa mi hea ko mi nyaama.

I must borrow some money so that I will have something to eat.

Tilay mi waala gese hannden sabo na’i kewtii
akkol ngesa am.
I must spend the night in the fields because some cows have arrive next to my
field.

Waajibi kokkitaa o sabo kanko jey.

You must give [it] to him because it is his.

Joonin kaa na tilsi njoppen golle o sabo jemma warii.

Now we must stop this work because night has come.

Na waajibii e ngara
o iidi fuu.

They must come here for every religious feast.

131
Sanaa is a contraction of si wanaa. Other forms of this adverb are: kanaa, say, sey.
132
See Section 13.F, p. 98 for a discussion of the use of the Relative Complete with sanaa.

116
 B. After faa:133
When the action described is incomplete, a verb after faa (until/so that) will
nearly always take the Subjunctive. When the action is complete, the
General Complete is used.134 Contrast the first two examples. In the first
example the action in the subordinate clause introduced by faa is incomplete,
hence the Subjunctive is used. In the second example the action in the clause
is complete so the General Complete verb FORM is employed. The SUBOR-
DINATE CLAUSES are underlined in the examples and the Subjunctive FORMs
are in bold type.
e ngollan faa e tampa.
They will work until they are completely worn out.
e ngollii faa e tampii.
They worked until they were completely worn out.

Dewte Fulfulde e njanngata faa e
eyda paamu.

It’s Fulfulde books they will study until/so that they increase their
understanding.

Si o yi’ii tuubaaku o eydan coggu faa tiia.

If/when he sees a white person he will increase the price so that it is very
expensive.

C. In Indirect Discourse:
When the action described is incomplete, the Subjunctive is used in indirect
discourse, that is after such constructions as “He said that...”, “I heard
that...”, etc.135 In the examples below the phrases indicating the indirect
discourse are underlined and the Subjunctive FORMs are in bold type:
Mi nanii o wa’owii hu
o faa o nyi
a suudu deekiiko.136
I heard he went to cut grass so that he can build a hut for his wife.

O wi’ii iyiiko sotta na’i mum faa laa
a.136

He told his son to sell all his cows (until not one was left).

D. After yi
ude:
The Subjunctive is often used after yiude (to want/to need). This can take
on the form of a Polite Imperative or simply express a desire. For example:
Mi
o yi
i coodanaa kam somay to luumo toon.
I want you/would like you to buy some ingredients for the sauce at the market
for me.

Mi
o yi
i ngaddanaa kam caaku mo coodumi hecci keean.

I want you/would like you to bring the sack I bought the day before yesterday.

133
It should be noted that the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION taa functions as the negative counterpart to faa,
literally meaning “so that not.” See Section 20D, p. 127 for a discussion of taa used with the Imperative.
134
See Section 11.A.3.c, p. 72 for a discussion of the use of the General Complete with faa.
135
When the action is complete, the General Complete is used - see Section 11.A.4, p. 73.
136
Nyia and laaa are cases of the Subjunctive used after the CONJUNCTION faa in a situation where the action is
incomplete – see point 18.B above.

117
 Mi
o yi
i paaboaa kam e golle o.
I want you/would like you to help me with this work.

Dokotoro o na yi
i mi yaha Abidjan.

The doctor wants me to go to Abidjan.

E. After an Imperative:
The Subjunctive is often used after an Imperative.137 Examples:
Yah lootaa yeeso maa!
Go and wash your face!

War nanngaa oggol ngol!

Come take this rope!

Accu mi yaha to baabam.

Let me go to my father.

Yoppu nge yara faa haara.

Let it (the cow) drink until it’s full.

War nyaamen!
Come, let’s eat!

F. Used with Polite Commands:

The Subjunctive is used for polite commands and with polite negative
command.138 Some further examples:
Coodanaa kam caaku maaro Fada.
Please buy me a sack of rice in Fada.

Njehen njuulen misiide.

Let’s go pray at the mosque.

Ndiiwen baali
iin taa
i mbonna jardin.

Let’s chase the sheep away so that they do not ruin the garden.

Taa accon baali
iin mbonna sardie am!

Don’t let those sheep ruin my garden.

G. After the Relative Pronoun ko:

The Subjunctive is used after the relative pronoun “ko” when the relative
clause describes the fulfillment of a need such as eating, drinking, to buy
something, etc. In the examples the relative clauses are in bold, and the
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined:

O yehii luumo faa o filoo ko o nyaama.139

He went to the market in order to look for that which he could eat.

137
This usage is explained more fully in Section 20.C, p. 126 on the Imperative.
138
Also see Section 20.B, p. 125. In reality the Fule rarely use such polite expressions.
139
In diagramming this sentence, O yehii luumo is the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. “Faa” is acting as a subordinator so
everything following it is underlined as a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. However, within this particular SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE is a relative clause (bold type). Remember, relative clauses are often SUBORDINATE CLAUSES – so we
have a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE within a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE! Finally note that the relative clause acts as the
object of the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.

118
 O heewaa kaalisi, kaa o heii ko o nyaama.140
He doesn’t have a lot of money, but (at least) he has that which he can eat.

Mi
o yi
i baaji ko mi nyi
toroo suudu am.141

I would like some bark rope with which I can rebuild my hut.

Imo yi
i ko o nyaama tan.142

He only wants that which he could eat.

H. With a Series of Verbs:

Where a series of verbs is used to describe an action, or series of closely
related actions which are habitual or could/might happen, the Subjunctive is
used for all the verbs except the following: for the first verb (which usually
indicates the ASPECT), in cases where some other facet of the action might
need to be emphasized such as Progressive or Negative, or the presence of
some other grammatical feature in the sentence which requires something
other than the Subjunctive (in a sense overrides the Subjunctive) - as after
yalla or salla. This is clearly one of the more difficult uses of the
Subjunctive. The Subjunctive FORMs in the examples are in bold type:
Nyannde fuu nde rewe een pinii fajiri, e loowan jollooji mae kosam, e
njonka faa aata de e ndoondoo, e njaara luumo. e nyalla, ee njiiltoo faa
ter
e mae taa. Haya, si e keii kaalisi, ndeen kaa e comoo, e cooda
somay de e ndoondoo tummbu
e mae, hono noon e koota cuu
i mae.

Every day when the women get up, they fill up their (butter churns) calabashes
with milk, they churn it until smooth (soft), then they put their load of milk on
their head and bring it into the market. They stay there all day, they wander
around until they are very tired. Anyway, if they earn some money, then they
look for condiments, they buy condiments, then they put their calabashes on
their heads and like this they return home.

Nyannde fuu si duroowo nyallii, na dura faa sallifana fu, wartan de hooya
lokuurem de yaha ulli de wecca walka faa heewa de na’i muu
um ngara njara
faa omita de riiwa na’i iretee
i yaara wuro de hooa tummbude muu
um,

ira na’i
iin de nanna suudum, tawa deekum defii de nyaama faa haara de
to

a.
Every day if a herdsman spends the day herding until early afternoon [he] will
the take his calabash and rope and go to the well and fill the water trough so
that his cows can come and drink until [they] are no longer thirsty, then he
chases the milking cows home and he takes his calabash and milks those cows,
then he enters his house and finds his wife has cooked a meal that [he] eats
until he is full, then he mixes what’s left with milk [and drinks it].

140
This is a COMPOUND SENTENCE . The second INDEPENDENT CLAUSE however, has a relative clause within it.
As in the above example the relative clause is the object of this INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.
141
This is a COMPLEX SENTENCE composed of an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE and a relative (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSE.
In this case the relative clause functions as an adjective describing the noun baaji.
142
Imo yi
i is a INDEPENDENT CLAUSE and ko o nyaama tan is a relative (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSE. This relative
clause functions as the direct object of the sentence.

119
19. THE INFINITIVE

English and French speakers tend to think of the infinitive as the ROOT of the verb
while in Fulfulde the Infinitive is a conjugated form, that is, there are endings that are
added to the verb ROOT to create the Infinitive.143 In English we have one Infinitive
FORM which is the lexical form (the word listed in the dictionary).144 In Fulfulde there
are two Infinitive verb FORMs. In the dictionary the first Infinitive FORM is the lexeme
and is listed in bold type. The second Infinitive FORM is listed in italics right behind
the first Infinitive FORM. Despite these differences, the usage of the Infinitive is very
similar to that in English or French. In English Infinitive FORMs are used when two
verbs are used in tandem, with auxiliary verbs, and also can serve as nouns.
In Fulfulde the first Infinitive FORM is used in all three of those cases and the second
Infinitive FORM serves as a verbal nominal. The Infinitive verb FORMs are NON-
FOCUSed. They are ASPECT neutral and thus ASPECT can only be shown by
accompanying verbs or context.

Table 19.1 Conjugations of First & Second Infinitive Forms

Non-Focused
Voice
Active Middle Passive
First Infinitive -ude* -aade -eede
Second Infinitive -ugol* -agol -egol

*Note that in different dialects of Fulfulde the active VOICE -u- may or may not be present. The -u is
generally retained for roots ending with a double consonant or a consonantal stop such as b,
, d , g, k,
p, and t, whereas it tends to be dropped for the other consonants.

A. As Second Verb:
In sentences in which two verbs are used in tandem, the second verb will
take the first Infinitive FORM, if the second verb is functioning as a verb.
If the second verb functions as a noun then they would use the second
Infinitive FORM. The Infinitive FORMS are in bold type:
O yehii noddude Saadu.
He went to call Saadu.

O warii jooaade yeeso kawrital.

He came to sit in front of the meeting.

Mayrama yehii tufeede.

Mayrama went to be injected.

Mayrama yehii tufegol.

Mayrama went to the vaccination program.

143
Generally English infinitives are the present tense form of the verb.
144
Actually the Infinitive FORM of English verbs includes “to” where the lexical form is listed without the “to.”

120
B. With Auxiliary Verbs:
The first Infinitive FORM is often used with an auxiliary verb.
Some common auxiliary verbs are listed below in Table 19.2.

Table 19.2 Auxiliary Verbs

Active Voice
anndude to know
haanude should do
ha
ude to hinder, prevent
heude to have, obtain
hesude about to, almost
jaude to agree
suusude to dare
tilsude must do
waawude can, able to
wayrude to be awhile since
woowude to be used to
yi
ude to need, like, love
Middle Voice
anniyaade intend to do
fellisaade to decide to do something brave
filaade to look for
heindaade to have time, be able to
heddaade to remain, still be
Passive Voice
haajeede to need
hilleede to care about

The auxiliary verbs are conjugated and underlined in the examples while the
first Infinitive FORMS are in bold type:
Mi waawaa warde joonin.
I cannot come now.

Mi
o yi
i soodude puccu.

I want to buy a horse.

O hesii yaa
ude mboddi ndi.

He just about stepped on the snake.

Mi
o woowi yaade toon.

I am used to going there.

Mi jaaay nyaagaade moodibbo o fey.

I didn’t agree at all to plead with the marabout.

Imo anniyii dursitaade dewtere nde fuu.

He intends to memorize the whole book.

A
a heddi waawude ummaade naa?

You can still get up?

Suka oon suusii tufeede.

That child was brave to be injected.

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 C. Infinitives with fadde:
The adverb fadde (before) deserves special mention because of the unique
way it is used, often involving Infinitive FORMS. Fadde is used with one of
two formulations:

1. It is used with a possessive pronoun plus and Infinitive verb FORM.

For example:
Pilo
on, nji'on o fadde mon runnyude.
Look for and see him before you leave.

Fadde am runnyude gese mi yahan suudu makko.

Before I go to the fields I will go to his house.

2. It is also use with time (fadde + time). For example:

Fadde futuro ngaraa.
Before sundown [you] come.

Fadde Ase warde tawan mi runnyii.

Before Saturday comes it will be found that I have left.

D. Infinitives as Nouns:
Verbal Infinitives can also function as nouns in a sentence.145 Both the first
and second Infinitives are often used in this capacity. In the examples the
Infinitive FORMS are in bold type:146
Yo
ude lampo na tii
i.
Paying taxes is difficult.

Waayde yarde woni naawalla Korka.

To go without drinking is the hard part of Ramadan.

Jooaade heese na tii
i e suka oon.

Sitting still is hard for that child.

Mooreede na weli o sanne.

Having her hair done pleases her a great deal.

O wa
ii kile keew
e e suuugol nyawu makko. (suuude)

On many occassion he hid his disease.

O yarii oo
e kile keew
e e suuagol. (suuaade)

He took drugs many times while hiding.

O nyaamii toon e suuegol. (suueede)

He ate there while being hidden.

145
In Section 14, p. 98 ff. we saw how the Participial FORM also uses verbs as nominals.
146
In translating these Infinitive nominal FORMS we can generally use either the Infinitive FORM in English, e.g. to
go, or the gerund FORM, e.g. going.

122
 E. Forming Nouns from Verbs
Beside using the Second Infinitive SUFFIXes (-ugol, -agol, egol) to create
nouns, there is a series of other SUFFIXes that can be added to various words,
usually a verb ROOT, to create a noun. This is very similar to the -er (baker),
-ist (evangelist), -ism (heathenism), and other SUFFIXes in English with
which anyone can create words (creationist, reformism) if need be.
In Fulfulde, as in English, many of these nouns are fixed words with fixed
usages, but in other cases these SUFFIXes can be added to a verb ROOT or a
noun to create a new word to meet the needs of the occasion. Natirgal, for
example, can be used to designate a “camera,” for which there is no word in
Fulfulde. -nkoo
e could be added to any town or region name to indicate the
people that come from that town or area. The first three examples below
use the INFIX -ir- to give the meaning “the-thing-with-which” or “the-place-
where” one does something. These SUFFIXes are listed in the far left column
of Table 19.3 below.

Table 19.3 Suffixes Added to Verb Root to Create Nouns

suffix meaning example meaning
-irde a place janng-irde school
-irgal a thing nanng-irgal a thing for taking out, tweezers for
example, also a camera
-orde a thing ha

-orde hobble for a horse
-aaku/-aagu a place loot-orde bathing area
a quality of being kiikii-aaku during the afternoon
pul-aaku of being Fule, Fule community
ngorg-aaku courage, of being manly
haasid-aaku jealousy
neetar-aaku impoliteness
-nkooe a people Moosink-oo
e Mossi people
Gurmank-oo
e Gourma people
-nke a person Moos-inke a Mossi
Gurm-anke a Gourma
-nkoore a language Farans-inkoore French language
Moos-inkoore Moré
Gurm-ankoore Gourmanche

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20. THE IMPERATIVE

As in most languages, the Imperative is used to give commands. However, there is a

difference between our usage and Ful
e usage of this verb FORM. Simply stated Ful
e
use the Imperative much more quickly and in many more situations than we would.
The reasons for this are cultural. Some of us find direct commands to be impolite
unless one knows the individual well or the person addressed is much younger than
oneself. Whereas the Ful
e, living as they do in closely inter-tangled communities
where nearly everyone is a relative or known well to the speaker, have developed a
frank (blunt?) style of speech. There exists a polite form of imperative described in
this section, but many of us would want to over use the polite form. If one wants to
speak good Fulfulde note how the Ful
e use the Imperative and imitate them.

Table 20.1 Conjugations of Imperative Form

Non-Focused
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Singular -u/ø -a -e
Plural -ee -ee -ee
Imperative Negative taa/tinna taa/tinta followed by the Imperative

A. In Urgent Commands:
The Imperative verb FORM is used to both express a command to someone
else and to convey a sense of urgency at the same time. Examples:
Hootu!
Go home!

Nanngu daago ngo!

Grab that mat!
War ga!
Come here!

Yah to!
Go there!
Nyaam faa kaaraa!
Eat until you are full!

Doggu law!
Hurry up!
Joo
a dow daago ngo!
Sit on the mat!
Henya law!
Hurry up (get it quickly)!

Umma gilla o waraay!

Get up before he comes!
Dara caggal taabawal ngal!
Stand behind the table!

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 Kootee!
Go home!
Nanngee daago ngo!
Take the mat!

Ngaree ga!
Come here!
Njahee to!
Go there!

Nyaamee faa kaaron!

Eat until you are full!
Ndogee law!
Hurry up (get it quickly)!

Njoo
ee dow daago ngo!

Sit on the mat!
Kenyee law!
Hurry up!

Ummee gilla o waraay!

Get up before he comes!

B. The Polite Imperative:

The Polite Imperative is formed with the Subjunctive. It softens the force of
the Imperative by taking on the sense of “you should” or in the plural of
“let’s.” It also is less urgent. If you want someone to do something in a day
or in a month this is the tense to use. Full conjugations for the Polite
Imperative, formed with the Subjunctive, are shown below in bold in Table
20.2. The third person singular and plural would only be used in the case of
the third PERSON Imperative (see 20.E below).

Table 20.2 Full Conjugations for Polite Imperative Form (Subjunctive)

Active Middle Passive
Verb
suu
ude suu
aade suu
eede
PERSON 
Singular
FIRST mi suu
a mi suu
oo mi suu
ee
SECOND cuu
aa cuu
o
aa cuu
e
aa
THIRD o suu
a o suu
oo o suu
ee
Plural
FIRST EXCLUSIVE min cuu
a min cuu
oo min cuu
ee
FIRST INCLUSIVE cuu
en cuu
o
en cuu
e
en
SECOND cuu
on cuu
o
en cuu
e
on
THIRD e cuu
a e cuu
oo e cuu
ee

Note that for the active VOICE the -u is generally retained for roots ending with a double consonant or a consonantal
stop such as b, , d,
g, p and t, whereas it tends to be dropped for the other consonants.

125
 Examples:
Kootaa.
Go home/you should return home.

Nanngaa daago ngo.

Take the mat/you should take the mat.
Nanngen daage
e.
Let’s take the mats.

Ngaraa ga.
Come here/you should come here.
Njahaa to.
Go over there/you should go over there.

Njehen to.
Let’s go over there.
Njoo
o
aa dow leeso ngo.
Sit on the bed/you should sit on the bed.

Njoo
o
en dow leeso ngo.

Let’s sit on the bed.
amaa o.
Ask him/you should ask him.
amen o.
Let’s ask him.

C. Two Imperatives Used Together:

When two Imperatives are used together, the second is often in the
Polite or Subjunctive FORM. If the first verb is a Polite FORM, then the
second must also be a Polite FORM. Examples:

Ngaree, nyaamen.
Come, let’s eat.

War, njoo
o
aa dow leeso ngo. OR War, joo
a dow leeso ngo.
Come sit on the bed.
Yah to, nanngaa daago ngo.
Go there and take the mat.

Njehon, amon o. OR Njehee, amee o. OR Njehee, amon o.

Why don’t you go ask him. OR Go ask him. OR Go ask him

126
 D. The Negative Imperative:
All of the above FORMS, both the regular Imperative and the Polite
Imperative, can be put in the negative by placing taa at the head of the
sentence.147 It should be noted that when taa is used with the Imperative it
acts as a negative auxiliary to the verb. But when it is used with either the
Negative Polite Imperative (Subjunctive) or the Desiderative it acts as a
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION. However, taa does not subordinate when
used with the Negative Imperative. Examples:
Taa yah toon!
Don’t go there!

Tinta nyaam
um!

Don’t eat that!
Tinna taa kootaa tafon, ngaajo
en see
a.
Don’t return home yet, let’s talk for awhile.

Taa joo
a, yaare na toon!

Don’t sit down, there’s a scorpion there!

E. A Third Person Imperative:

Used when a third party is passing on the orders or commands of another.
Either the Imperative or the Subjunctive (polite form) could be used.
The Imperative FORM is in bold type in the examples below:
Sule wi’ii e, “Jom na’i wi’ii taa duroowo accu na’i muu
um
njolba naa dom
a.” (Imperative)
Sule said to them, “The owner of the cows said that the herdsman
must not allow his cows to be either hungry or thirsty.”

Sule wi’ii e, “Jom na’i wi’ii taa duroowo acca na’i muu
um
njolba naa dom
a.” (Subjunctive)
Sule said to them, “The owner of the cows said that the herdsman
should not allow his cows to be either hungry or thirsty.”

Wi’u o naata.
Tell him to enter.

21. THE DESIDERATIVE

The Desiderative verb FORM is used in certain situations to express wishes or desires.
It is especially used in the many expressions of Godspeed or blessing which are
continually expressed by the Ful
e. As you will soon notice, Alla/Laamo is very
central to the Ful
e. They do not know him in a personal way as Christians might
since Alla and fate are closely linked and very impersonal in Ful
e theology.
However, he is seen as the author of both good and evil, and very much in control of
all things. Therefore, the Ful
e do two things: one, they frequently express their hope
that Alla or fate will be positively disposed towards another’s situation by using many
wishful expressions in the Desiderative FORM. Two, they hedge their bets on the

147
Cognates of taa include: tinna taa or tinta. In the Sebba region ta and to are also used.

127
future by frequently adding “si Alla ja
ii” or “if God agrees,” whenever describing
plans for the future.

The Desiderative FORM is more or less ASPECT neutral. It does not exactly parallel the
DECLARATIVE verbal FORMS as it does not affect the word order in sentences, and it
does not have complete/incomplete FORMS, but it does lengthen the SUFFIX in the
middle and passive VOICEs. The latter may simply signal that there is certainly no
more than weak ASPECT FOCUS, since in actuality this FORM is rather indifferent to
ASPECT/time altogether.

Table 21.1 Basic Desiderative Conjugations

Non-Focused
Voice
Active Voice Middle Voice Passive Voice
Desiderative Mood -u/ø -o -e
Desiderative Negative taa/tinna taa/tinta followed by the Desiderative

A. In Expressions of Blessing and Godspeed:

In these expressions the wo/yo (check which of these is used in your area)
may or may not be used depending on the speaker; it has been included in the
following examples more or less randomly. It could be translated as “may.”
There are several possible responses to these sayings, all of which are valid
in any situation: aamiin, aamiina yaa Allaahu, amina yaarabbi. A response
must be given, sometimes if one is inattentive another will give a response or
the blessing will be repeated until a response is received. Examples of
commonly used blessings are:
Wo Alla eydu jam!
May God increase (your) peace!
Alla yaafin!
May God ease your way!

Alla fam
in!
May God diminish (your trouble)!
Alla newnu!
May God ease/make gentle your way!

Wo Alla moin!
May God fix it (make it good)!
Wo Alla hokku!
May God give it!

Wo Laam
o dannu en!

May God deliver us!
Wo Alla dannu en baasi mum!
May God deliver us from this evil!
Wo Laam
o reendu en!
May God protect us!

128
 Alla jau!
May God agree!
Alla jaabo!
May God answer!

Wo Alla humtu haaje maa!

May God cause you to succeed with your affairs!
Wo Alla humtene haaje maa!
May God cause you to succeed with your affairs!

Wo Alla moou!
May God keep/protect (them/it)!
(Said when cows or larger items are lost.)
Wo Alla hollu en ndeen!
May God show us/save us until then!

Wo Laam
o hinno o, yaafo o!

May God save him, forgive him! (Said at funerals or to relatives or friends of
the deceased when news of a death arrives.)
Jam wonan en!
May we all find peace!

B. The Desiderative Negative:

In phrases where the prevention of something occurring is the expressed
desire, the Desiderative FORM is used with the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION
taa.148 It is indeed similar in meaning and in its effect to the Negative
Imperative and is often used following an imperative expression, but in this
case the taa is followed by the Desiderative verb FORM rather than the
Imperative. In the examples the SUBORDINATE CLAUSEs have been
underlined:
Nanngen araawa nga taa nga bonnu gawri ndi.
Let’s catch the donkey so that it does not ruin the millet.

e kullan tinta a waasu hokkude.

They are afraid you will not give.
Kooten tinna taa jemma tawu en
o.
Let’s return home before night finds us here.

Suu
owa taa kumaandaw o sue!

Go hide so that the Commandant doesn’t choose you!
A hokkii o kaalisi taa o nyamlo go

o?
You gave her money so that she won’t borrow from someone else?

Kaalanaa o taa o hapto.

Explain it to him so that he does not get angry.

148
Cognates of taa include: tinna taa, tinta. It means “so that it does not.” See also Section 25, p. 145, on
subordination.

129
22. THE PASSIVE VOICE
The passive VOICE has more or less the same function in Fulfulde as in English or
French, in other words the action of the verb was meted out on the subject. The main
difference may be that in Fulfulde the agent who did the action is usually not stated.
If there is a known agent, and it is stated, then the verb is usually in the active VOICE.
For example, instead of saying “o fiyaama Burayma,” “he was hit by Burayma,” it
would be stated as “Burayma fiyii o,” “Burayma hit him.”
The passive is used quite often and in all the same places and with the same rules and
guidelines as for the other voices. In other words, there are no special rules for the
passive that override the usages of the Relative or the Subjunctive or other verb
FORMS.

See Table 9.1 on page 64 for a full listing of the passive VOICE base FORMs.

The following are a collation of examples scattered throughout this grammar, along
with a few other useful expressions (the passive verb FORMs are underlined):
Mi nanii wi’aama...
I have heard it said...

Fatimata rimaama gilla mi ho
aay Tenkodogo.149

Fatimata was born before I came to live in Tenkodogo.

Keean tan nyalehel ngel rimaa.150

It was just yesterday that this calf was born.
Ngele rimaa keean?151
Which one [calf] was born yesterday?

Ware joo
eke faa laasara juulaa.152

The ones who came (visitors) sat until the third prayer had been prayed.
O bonnii jawdi laamu de o nanngaa.153
He embezzled government funds so he was arrested.
Wuye na keewi Abidjan, yoga nanngaae, yoga yoppaae mbujjan katin.154
There are many thieves in Abidjan, some have been caught, some have been let go and
will steal again.

Hollam na’i iretee
i. aleewe e waale-wo
eewe tan keddi na iree.154

Show me the cows that are being milked. Only the black one and white faced brown
one are still being milked.
Gujjo na nanngee!155
A thief is being caught!

Si gawri na unee, a
a anndi laasara wari.155

If millet is being pounded, you know that it is late afternoon.

149
General Complete, Section 11.A.1, p. 67
150
Relative Complete, Section 13.A, p. 84
151
Relative Complete, Section 13.C, p. 89
152
Relative Complete, Section 13.E.2, p. 95
153
Relative Complete, Section 13.E.3, p. 96
154
Participial, Section 14, p. 103
155
Progressive, Section 17.A, p. 112

130
23. THE PRETERITE
The Preterite is the only true TENSE in Fulfulde. It indicates that an event definitely
occurred in the past. It is the equivalant to the English Past Perfect tense, which is
usually rendered as “had.” It can be added to most verb FORMs including the
Participial. The Preterite does have OTHER FOCUSed and ASPECT FOCUSed FORMs,
although the lengthening of the OTHER FOCUSed FORMs is not always carried out
consistently.

The Preterite is formed by adding either the SUFFIX “-no” or “-noo” to the conjugated
verb. A listing for the base SUFFIXes added to the verb ROOT are listed in Table
23.1.156 Note the SUFFIXes in Table 23.1 are an amalgamation of the verb FORM’s
normal SUFFIX with the Preterite SUFFIX. Which verb FORM is being used will
determine where the Preterite SUFFIX is added. It is worth noting that for the General
and Negative FORMs a simple Preterite SUFFIX “-no” is tacked on to the end of the
normal verb FORM’s SUFFIX. With the Relative, Stative and Progressive FORMs the
Preterite affects the normal verb FORM’s SUFFIX, especially in the active VOICE.
Generally the normal verb FORM’s SUFFIX is simply shortened in the middle and
passive VOICE CONJUGATIONs. With the Participial FORM the Preterite’s SUFFIX is
actually inserted between the VOICE/ASPECT marker and the class marker.157 There is
the same shortening of the normal verb FORM’s SUFFIX in the middle and passive
voices for the Participial’s Preterite endings. The Participial’s normal active FORM
SUFFIX is not affected by the Preterite’s SUFFIX. Finally, note that not all the verb
FORMs listed in the master verb chart (Table 9.1 and Table 23.1 below) use the
Preterite.

Table 23.1 Basic Conjugations for the Preterite

Aspect
Complete Incomplete
Voice
Active Middle Passive Active Middle Passive
Form  Aspect Focused
General -ii·no -eke·no -aama·no -an·no -oto·no -ete·no
Other plus Aspect Focused
Negative -aay·no -aaki·no -aaka·no -ataa·no -ataako·no -ataake·no
Relative -u·noo -i·noo -a·noo -an·noo -oto·noo -ete·noo
Participial -u·noo·
o -i·noo·
o -a·noo·
o -oowo·no -oto·noo·
o -ete·noo·
o
Other Focused
Voice
Active Middle Passive
Emphatic -u/ø·no -i·no -a·no
Stative -u·noo -i·noo -a·noo
Negative Stative -aa·no ø ø
Progressive -a·nnoo -o·noo -e·noo
Subjunctive No Preterite
Non-Focused
First Infinitive No Preterite
Second Infinitive No Preterite
Imperative No Preterite
Desiderative No Preterite

156
As with all the verb charts in this grammar, the “base” conjugation would be either the conjugation for a given
VOICE with verb FORMs that do not have different PERSON and NUMBER forms, or the third person singular
conjugation for those who do.
157
See diagram of how a participle is constructed on p. 99.

131
 A. The Preterite with the General:
Here are some examples of the Preterite used with the General Complete and
Incomplete.
Mi soodiino baali de i fuu mbaatii. (General Complete – Active Voice)
I had purchased some sheep but they all died.
O fukkekeno bal
e tati sabo o sellaano. (General Complete – Middle Voice & Neg. Stative –
Active Voice)
She was lying in bed for three days because she had been sick.

Suka lootaamano de maawniiko
o

ini o ley loofal. (General Complete – Passive Voice)
The child had been washed but his older sibling knocked him into the mud.

Mi loonnowanno de uwoonde ummeke. (General Incomplete – Active Voice)

I was going to do laundry but it started to rain.
Mi fukkoytono ley suudu de tawumi pobbi naatii galle amin. (General Incomplete – Middle Voice)
I was going to lie down in the house when I discovered hyenas had come into our yard.

Na’i nanneteno ley hoggo de araaji panti, cankiti na’i
iin. (General Incomplete – Passive Voice)
The cows were going into the corral but the donkeys passed by and scattered them.

One additional bit of helpful information about the use of the Preterite with
the General verb FORM relates to the case when one is using the object
pronoun ma with the first PERSON singular mi in either the active or middle
VOICEs of the General Complete and Incomplete.158 Note that while the
objective pronoun ma is not tacked on to the end of General Complete FORM,
when the Preterite is added to the active VOICE of the General, the object
pronoun ma is also assimilated. Some like to put the pronoun first, followed
by the Preterite, some like the inverse (see example below). However, the
object pronoun ma is not assimilated with the middle VOICE conjugations of
the General Complete. With the General Incomplete FORM the object pronoun
ma is assimilated into the SUFFIX with both active and middle VOICE verbs.
So when the preterite is added it is simply added to the end of the verb.

General Complete
mi suuii ma → mi suu-ii·ma·no or suu-ii·no·ma
mi rook-eke ma → mi rook-eke·no ma

General Incomplete
mi suu-an ma → mi suu-ete → mi suu-ete·no
mi rook-oto ma → mi rook-ete → mi rook-ete·no

B. The Preterite with the Negative:

Here are some examples of the Preterite with the Negative Complete and
Incomplete:
Min nyaamaayno nyiiri de min ngari Burkina. (Negative Complete – Active Voice)
We had not eaten nyiiri when we came to Burkina.
Weere mae ngarii law de tawi e ummaakino tafon. (Negative Complete – Middle Voice)
Their guest arrived early and found they had not gotten up yet.

Sukaa
e njoppaakano de
e njehi leekol Niamey. (Negative Complete – Passive Voice)

The children had never been left before they went to school in Niamey.

158
See Section 8.C.1, p. 50 for a discussion of this particular grammatical feature.

132
 O remataano ngesa ngaao hikka. (Negative Incomplete – Active Voice)
He was not going to plant this field here this year.

O hokkataamano ngaari ndi. (Negative Incomplete – Middle Voice)

He was not going to give you that bull.

Kamanaari awataakeno ley gese mae gilla maamiie maayi. (Neg. Inc. – Passive Voice)
Corn has not been planted in their fields since their grandfather died.

Also note the use of the object pronoun ma with the active VOICE
CONJUGATIONs of the Negative Complete and Incomplete when the Preterite
is added to the negation. Remember, when the Preterite is not in use the
object pronoun ma is NOT assimilated into the verb with either the Negative
Complete or Incomplete. However, when the Preterite is used with either the
Negative Complete or Incomplete active VOICE, the object pronoun ma is
assimilated into the verb. Some prefer to add the ma between the negative
SUFFIX and the Preterite, and some prefer the inverse. The object pronoun
ma is NOT assimilated into the verb when the Preterite is used with either
the Negative Complete or Incomplete middle VOICE verbs.
Negative Complete
mi suu-aay ma → mi suu-aay·ma·no or suu-aay·no·ma
mi rook-aaki ma → mi rook-aaki·no ma

Negative Incomplete
mi suu-ataa ma → mi suu-ataa·ma·no
mi rook-ataako ma → mi rook-ataako·no ma

For example:
Mi suu
ataamano kabaaruuji am fuu arande de joonin mi suuete.
I have not been hiding anything about myself but now I will hide [my information.]

Mi rookataakono ma arande e joonin fuu.

I was not asking you before and I am not now.

C. The Preterite with the Relative:

Full conjugations of the Preterite with the Relative verb FORMs are shown in
Tables 23.2 and 23.3. Some examples of the Relative Complete with the
Preterite:
Nde kewtunoomi ladde toon, tawi huo nyaametenooko toon wooaa.
(Relative Complete- Active Voice & Progressive – Passive Voice)
When I had arrived in the bush there all the grass they were eating was bad.

Wo puccu ngu jooro wa

inoo faa o yaha to laamu, holla
e kabaaru rafo ma

e.
(Relative Complete – Active Voice)
It was that horse the chief had ridden in order to go to the goverment to show them the
news of their famine.

Na’i iin tampanoo ley ladde. (Relative Complete – Passive Voice)

The cows had been suffering in the bush.

133
 Table 23.2 The Relative Complete with & without the Preterite
Voice Active‡ Middle† Passive§
Verb suu
ude suu
aade suu
eede
Singular
1st Non-Preterite cuu
-u·mi159 cuu
-ii·mi159 cuu
-aa·mi159
1st with Preterite cuu
-u·noo·mi160 cuu
-i·noo·mi160 cuu
-a·noo·mi160
2nd Non-Preterite cuu
-u·
aa cuu
-i·
aa cuu
-a·
aa
2nd with Preterite cuu
-u·no·
aa cuu
-i·no·
aa cuu
-a·no·
aa
3rd Non-Preterite o suu
-i o suu
-ii o suu
-aa
3rd with Preterite o suu
-u·noo o suu
-i·noo o suu
-a·noo
Plural
1 exclusive Non-Preterite min cuu
-i min cuu
-ii min cuu
-aa
1st exclusive with Preterite min cuu
-u·noo min cuu
-i·noo min cuu
-a·noo
1st inclusive Non-Preterite cuu
-u·
en cuu
-i·
en cuu
-a·
en
1st inclusive with Preterite cuu
-u·no·
en cuu
-i·no·
en cuu
-a·no·
en
2nd Non-Preterite cuu
-u·
on cuu
-i·
on cuu
-a·
on
2nd with Preterite cuu
-u·no·
on cuu
-i·no·
on cuu
-a·no·
on
3rd Non-Preterite e cuu
-i e cuu
-ii e cuu
-aa
3rd with Preterite e cuu
-u·noo e cuu
-i·noo e cuu
-a·noo

For contrast, the normal Relative Complete CONJUGATIONs, and the Relative Complete
with the Preterite CONJUGATIONs for all three VOICEs, singular and plural, are shown in
Table 23.2. The key is that the Preterite’s SUFFIX is placed after the normal Relative
Complete FORM’s SUFFIX, but before any of the inverted pronouns that are tacked on
the end in four of the seven CONJUGATIONS. For a lot of people this is all the
information you want to know. For those who enjoy grammar the small print has the
grim details of what is happening in each VOICE. Proceed at your own risk!

‡
Note the following regarding the changes that occur to the Relative Complete active VOICE SUFFIXes when the
Preterite’s SUFFIX “-noo” is added – for convenience sake, some information covered in Section 13 is covered again
here:
For the three base active VOICE forms (3s, 1p-ex., 3p) the normal non-Preterite SUFFIX is “-i.” With the addition of
the Preterite’s SUFFIX “-noo,” the “i” morphs to “u,” rendering “-u·noo.”161
3s, 1p-ex, 3p -i + -noo → -u + -noo → -u·noo
The diagram below shows both how the non-Preterite Relative Incomplete SUFFIX is arrived at (left column) for the
three regular inverted CONJUGATIONs (2s, 1p-in, 2p) and how the Preterite interacts with those endings (right
column). The pronoun is added to the end of these CONJUGATIONs, hence the appellation “inverted.” With the non-
Preterite CONJUGATIONs, the three regular inverted CONJUGATIONs morph to “-u” to distinguish them from those of
the middle VOICE. With the Preterite FORM, the Preterite’s SUFFIX is shortened to “-no” in these three
162
CONJUGATIONs and the lengthened pronouns are added at the end.
2s -i + -
aa → -u + -
aa → -u·
aa -u + -noo + -
aa → -u + -no + -
aa → -u·no·
aa
1p-in -i + -
en → -u + -
en → -u·
en -u + -noo + -
en → -u + -no + -
en → -u·no·
en
2p -i + -
on → -u + -
on → -u·
on -u + -noo + -
on → -u + -no + -
on → -u·no·
on

159
Don’t forget that the object pronoun ma is inserted between the Relative Complete’s various VOICE SUFFIXes and
the inverted first PERSON pronoun mi; e.g. cuu
-(VOICE SUFFIX)·mi+ma → (3 VOICEs) cuu
-u·maa·mi; cuu
-
ii·maa·mi; cuu
-aa·maa·mi. See section 7.C.4, p. 51 for a discussion of the objected pronoun ma when used
with the subject pronoun mi in the Relative verb FORM. The reason the object pronoun ma is lengthen to maa is
the Fule like the long vowel sound before the pronoun mi and so go to great lengths to procure it, even if it
means elongating the object pronoun.
160
With the Preterite the object pronoun ma is inserted between the Preterite’s SUFFIX and the first person pronoun
mi; e.g. (3 VOICEs) cuu
-u·no·maa·mi; cuu
-i·no·maa·mi; cuu
-a·no·maa·mi. With the elongated object pronoun maa
supplying the elongated vowels before the subject pronoun mi, the Preterite shortens to –no, as with the other inverted forms.
161
If the base SUFFIX did not morph to “u” it would be impossible to distinguish the three regular inverted active
VOICE FORMs of the Relative Complete from those of the middle VOICE FORM: “cuu
i
aa” vs. cuu
i
aa.
162
Apparently the Fule didn’t like the long vowel sound before the implosive “
” as they consistently shorten the
base FORMs or the Preterite’s FORM to shorten the vowel sounds before the “
.”

134
The 1s is an inverted FORM too, but it is not regular – that is, it is not the same as the other three inverted FORMS.
The reason for this irregularity is that while the Fule do not like the long vowel sound before the implosive “
”
they do like it before the pronoun mi when it occurs at the end of a word. So rather than follow the same pattern
used with the other inverted CONJUGATIONs they alter the pattern in all three VOICEs to insure the mi sound is
preceded by a long vowel sound. The non-Preterite Relative Complete active VOICE 1s ending would be “-u·mi.”
When the Preterite is in use the way the Fule maintain the long vowel sound before mi is to retain the Preterite’s
SUFFIX “-noo” without shortening it, and the pronoun tacked on the end.
1s -i + -mi → -u + -mi → -u·mi -u + -noo + -mi → -an·noo·mi

†
Note the following regarding the changes that occur to the Relative Complete middle VOICE SUFFIXes when the
Preterite’s SUFFIX is added – for convenience sake, some information covered in Section 13 is covered again here:
The base (3s, 1p-ex, 3p) non-Preterite Relative Incomplete middle VOICE SUFFIX is “-ii.” When the Preterite’s
SUFFIX (-noo) is added it causes the normal Relative Incomplete to shorten to “-i.”
3s, 1p-ex, 3p -ii + -noo → -i + -noo → -i·noo
Remember, the shorted Relative Complete middle VOICE SUFFIX “-i” is already the normal SUFFIX for the three
regular inverted FORMS (2s, 1p-in, 2p). So nothing changes there when the Preterite is added. Rather the
Preterite’s SUFFIX is shortened to “-no” and the lengthened pronouns (-
aa, -
en, -
on) are tacked on the end.
The non-Preterite Relative Complete CONJUGATIONs are on the left and the Relative Complete with the Preterite
CONJUGATIONs are on the right. The CONJUGATIONs on the right build from the CONJUGATIONs on the left, with the
insertion of the Preterite between the non-Preterite SUFFIX and the inverted pronouns.
2s -ii + -
aa → -i +
aa → -i·
aa -i + -noo + -
aa → -i + -no + -
aa → -i·no·
aa
1p-in -ii + -
en → -i +
en → -i·
en -i + -noo + -
en → -i + -no + -
en → -i·no·
en
2p -ii + -
on → -i +
on → -i·
on -i + -noo + -
on → -i + -no + -
on → -i·no·
on
The non-Preterite Relative Complete middle VOICE 1s SUFFIX is inverted, but irregular (when compared to the other
three inverted CONJUGATIONs). This is because the Fule like the sound of the long vowel before the pronoun mi.
So when the Preterite is not in play, the base ending (“-ii’) is used with the pronoun added on the end: “-ii·mi.”
However, when the Preterite is added to the Relative Complete middle VOICE 1s, the same short form as used with
all the other persons is used (-i), principally because the double vowel sound of the base SUFFIX is not needed with
the Preterite as the Preterite’s SUFFIX will supply it. In order to retain the long vowel sound before the pronoun mi
the Preterite’s SUFFIX is not shortened as with the other inverted FORMs. The non-Preterite Relative Complete
CONJUGATION is on the left and the CONJUGATION with the Preterite is on the right:
1s -ii + -mi → -ii·mi -ii + -noo + -mi → -i + -noo + -mi → -i·noo·mi

§
Note the following regarding the changes that occur to the Relative Incomplete passive VOICE SUFFIX when the
Preterite’s SUFFIX is added – for convenience sake, some information covered in Section 13 is covered again here:
The base (3s, 1p-ex, 3p) Relative Complete passive VOICE SUFFIX is “-aa.” As with the middle VOICE, this base
SUFFIX is shortened when the Preterite is used. The Preterite’s SUFFIX (-noo) is tacked on the end of this shortened
base SUFFIX.
3s, 1p-ex, 3p -aa + -noo → -a + -noo → -a·noo
The three regular inverted FORMs (2s, 1p-in, 2p) already use the shorted base Relative Incomplete SUFFIX “-a” so
there is no change. However, the Preterite’s SUFFIX “-noo” is shortened to “-no” (remember the Fule don’t like
the long vowel sound before the “
”) and added to the shortened base SUFFIX, with the lengthened pronouns
(-
aa, -
en, -
on) being added on after the Preterite’s SUFFIX. The non-Preterite Relative Complete FORMs are on
the left and those with the Preterite on the left. The CONJUGATIONs on the right build from the CONJUGATIONs on
the left, with the insertion of the Preterite between the non-Preterite SUFFIX and the inverted pronouns.
2s -etee + -
aa → -ete + -
aa → -ete·
aa -ete + -noo + -
aa → -ete + -no + -
aa → -ete·no·
aa
1p-in -etee + -
en → -ete + -
en → -ete·
en -ete + -noo + -
en → -ete + -no + -
en → -ete·no·
en
2p -etee + -
on → -ete + -
on → -ete·
on -ete + -noo + -
on → -ete + -no + -
on → -ete·no·
on
As with the middle VOICE, the irregular Relative Incomplete passive VOICE 1s shortens the normal base SUFFIX with
the long vowel sound (in this case it is “-etee”) before the Preterite’s SUFFIX. The Preterite’s SUFFIX remains long
to retain the long vowel sound before mi and the pronoun is tacked on the end. The non-Preterite CONJUGATION is
to the left and the CONJUGATION with the Preterite is to the left.
1s -etee + -mi → -etee·mi -etee + -noo + -mi → -ete + -noo + -mi → -ete·noo·mi

135
 Table 23.3 The Relative Incomplete with & without the Preterite
Voice Active‡ Middle† Passive§
Verb suu
ude suu
aade suu
eede
Singular
1st Non-Preterite cuu
-am·mi163 cuu
-otoo·mi163 cuu
etee·mi163
1st with Preterite cuu
-an·noo·mi164 cuu
-oto·noo·mi164 cuu
-ete·noo·mi164
2nd Non-Preterite cuu
-at·aa cuu
-oto·
aa cuu
-ete·
aa
2nd with Preterite cuu
-an·no·
aa cuu
-oto·no·
aa cuu
-ete·no·
aa
3rd Non-Preterite o suu
-ata o suu
-otoo o suu
-etee
3rd with Preterite o suu
-an·noo o suu
-oto·noo o suu
-ete·noo
Plural
1 exclusive Non-Preterite min cuu
-ata min cuu
-otoo min cuu
-etee
1st exclusive with Preterite min cuu
-an·noo min cuu
-oto·noo min cuu
-ete·noo
1st inclusive Non-Preterite cuu
-at·en cuu
-oto·
en cuu
-ete·
en
1st inclusive with Preterite cuu
-an·no·
en cuu
-oto·no·
en cuu
-ete·no·
en
2nd Non-Preterite cuu
-at·on cuu
-oto·
on cuu
ete·
en
2nd with Preterite cuu
-an·no·
on cuu
-oto·no·
on cuu
-ete·no·
on
3rd Non-Preterite e cuu
-ata e cuu
-oto·noo e cuu
-ete·noo
3rd with Preterite e cuu
-an·noo e cuu
-oto·noo e cuu
-ete·noo

Hikka ngaari lobbiri keannoomi saabe golle am. (Relative Incomplete – Active Voice)
This year I was going to have a nice bull because of my work.

Na’i yigoo am aanotonoomi faa ladde horoore. (Relative Incomplete – Middle Voice)
I was going to herd my friends cows in the south.

Huo nafooho sonnetenoo toon. (Relative Incomplete – Passive Voice)

Good grass was being sold there.

For contrast the normal Relative Incomplete CONJUGATIONs and the Relative Incomplete with
the Preterite for all three voices, singular and plural, are shown in Table 23.3. The key is that
the Preterite’s SUFFIX is placed after the normal Relative Incomplete FORM’S SUFFIX, but
before any of the inverted pronouns that are tacked on the end in four of the seven
CONJUGATIONs. For a lot of people this is all the information you want to know. For those
who enjoy grammar the small print has the mind numbing details of what is happening in each
VOICE. Proceed at your own risk!

‡
Note the following regarding the changes that occur to the Relative Incomplete active VOICE SUFFIXes when the
Preterite’s SUFFIX “-noo” is added – for convenience sake, some information covered in Section 13 is covered again
here:
For the three base active VOICE CONJUGATIONs (3s, 1p-ex., 3p) the normal non-Preterite SUFFIX is “-ata.” With the
addition of the Preterite’s SUFFIX “-noo,” the final “a” of the Relative Incomplete SUFFIX is dropped and the “t”
morphs to “n” to harmonize phonetically, rendering “-an·noo.”165
3s, 1p-ex, 3p -ata + -noo → -at + -noo → -an + -noo → -an·noo
The diagram below shows both how the non-Preterite Relative Incomplete SUFFIX is arrived at (left column) for the
three regular inverted CONJUGATIONs (2s, 1p-in, 2p) and how the Preterite interacts with those endings (right
column). The pronoun is added to the end of these CONJUGATIONs, hence the appellation “inverted.” With the non-
Preterite CONJUGATIONs, the three regular inverted CONJUGATIONs drop the final “a” of the base SUFFIX “-ata,”

163
Don’t forget that the object pronoun ma is inserted between the Relative Incomplete various VOICE SUFFIXes and
the inverted first PERSON pronoun mi; e.g. cuu
-(VOICE SUFFIX)·mi+ma → cuu
-am·maa·mi; cuu
-oto·maa·mi;
cuu
-ete·maa·mi. See Section 7.C.4, p. 51 for a discussion of the objected pronoun ma when used with the
subject pronoun mi in the Relative verb FORM. The reason the object pronoun ma is lengthen to maa is the
Fule like the long vowel sound before the pronoun mi and so go to great lengths to procure it, even if it means
changing the pattern of CONJUGATION, or in this case, elongating the object pronoun
164
With the Preterite the object pronoun ma is inserted between the Preterite’s SUFFIX and the first person pronoun
mi; e.g. cuu
-an·no·maa·mi; cuu
-oto·no·maa·mi; cuu
-ete·no·maa·mi. Note how the Relative Incomplete’s
SUFFIX “-am” morphs to “ -an” to harmonize with the Preterite’s “n.” With the elongated object pronoun maa
supplying the elongated vowels before the subject pronoun mi, the Preterite shortens to –no, as with the other inverted forms.
165
Both the “t” and “
” can be seen to be weak consonants in this discussion. The “t” will harmonize when in
contact with another consonant.

136
leaving “-at,” and the “
” of the pronoun is also dropped for phonetical reasons, with the remaining vowels from
the pronoun added on the end (-aa, -en, -on).166 With the Preterite, the Preterite’s SUFFIX is shortened to
“-no” in these three CONJUGATIONs.167 Having the “n” of the Preterite’s SUFFIX next to the “t” of the Relative
Incomplete’s SUFFIX causes the “t” to harmonize to “n.” However, because the Preterite’s SUFFIX ends with a
vowel (“o”) the “
” of the inverted pronoun reappears.
2s -ata + -
aa → -at + -aa → -at·aa -at + -noo + -
aa → -an + -no + -
aa → -an·no·
aa
1p-in -ata + -
en → -at + -en → -at·en -at + -noo + -
en → -an + -no + -
en → -an·no·
en
2p -ata + -
on → -at + -on → -at·on -at + -noo + -
on → -an + -no + -
on → -an·no·
on
The 1s is an inverted FORM too, but it is not regular – that is, it is not the same as the other three inverted FORM.
The reason for this irregularity is that while the Fule do not like the long vowel sound before the implosive “
”
they do like it before the pronoun mi when it occurs at the end of a word. So rather than follow the same pattern
used with the other inverted CONJUGATIONs they alter the pattern in all three voices to insure the mi sound is
preceded by a long vowel sound. The non-Preterite Relative Incomplete active VOICE 1s ending would be
“-am·mi.” As stated above, the base Non-Preterite Relative Incomplete ending is “-ata,” but as with all the
inverted FORMS, the final “a” is normally dropped and the “t” morphs to “m” for purposes of harmonization. When
the “t” of the base ending finds itself next to the “n” of the Preterite’s SUFFIX it harmonizes to “n” as well. In this
case the way the Fule maintain the long vowel sound before mi is to retain the Preterite’s SUFFIX “-noo” without
shortening it, and the pronoun tacked on the end.
1s -ata + -mi → -at + -mi → -am + -mi → -am·mi -am + -noo + -mi → -an + -no + -mi → -an·noo·mi
†
Note the following regarding the changes that occur to the Relative Incomplete middle VOICE SUFFIXes when the
Preterite’s SUFFIX is added – for convenience, some information covered in Section 13 is covered again here:
The base (3s, 1p-ex, 3p) non-Preterite Relative Incomplete middle VOICE SUFFIX is “-otoo.” When the Preterite’s
SUFFIX (-noo) is added it causes the normal Relative Incomplete to shorten to “-oto.”
3s, 1p-ex, 3p -otoo + -noo → -oto + -noo → -oto·noo
Remember, the shorted Relative Incomplete middle VOICE SUFFIX “-oto” is already the normal SUFFIX for the three
regular inverted FORMs (2s, 1p-in, 2p). So nothing changes there when the Preterite is added. Rather the
Preterite’s SUFFIX is shortened to “-no” and the pronouns (-
aa, -
en, -
on) are tacked on the end. The non-
Preterite Relative Incomplete CONJUGATIONs are on the left and the Relative Incomplete with the Preterite
CONJUGATIONS are on the right. The CONJUGATIONs on the right build from the CONJUGATIONs on the left, with the
insertion of the Preterite between the non-Preterite SUFFIX and the inverted pronouns.
2s -otoo + -
aa → -oto +
aa → -oto·
aa -oto + -noo + -
aa → -oto + -no + -
aa → -oto·no·
aa
1p-in -otoo + -
en → -oto +
en → -oto·
en -oto + -noo + -
en → -oto + -no + -
en → -oto·no·
en
2p -otoo + -
on → -oto +
on → -oto·
on -oto + -noo + -
on → -oto + -no + -
on → -oto·no·
on
The non-Preterite Relative Incomplete 1s SUFFIX is inverted, but irregular (when compared to the other three
inverted CONJUGATIONs). This is because the Fule like the sound of the long vowel before the pronoun mi.
So when the Preterite is not in play the base ending (“-otoo’) is used with the pronoun added on the end:
“-otoo·mi.” However, when the Preterite is added to the Relative Incomplete middle VOICE 1s, the same short
ending as used with all the other persons is used (-oto), principally because the double vowel sound of the base
SUFFIX is not needed with the Preterite as the Preterite’s SUFFIX will supply it. In order to retain the long vowel
sound before the inverted pronoun mi the Preterite’s SUFFIX is not shortened as with the other inverted endings.
The non-Preterite Relative Incomplete CONJUGATION is on the left and the CONJUGATION with the Preterite is on the
right:
1s -otoo + -mi → -otoo·mi -otoo + -noo + -mi → -oto+ -noo + -mi → -oto·noo·mi
§
Note the following regarding the changes that occur to the Relative Incomplete passive VOICE SUFFIX when the
Preterite’s SUFFIX is added – for convenience sake, some information covered in Section 13 is covered again here:
The base (3s, 1p-ex, 3p) Relative Incomplete passive VOICE SUFFIX is “-etee.” As with the middle VOICE, this base
SUFFIX is shortened when the Preterite is used. The Preterite’s SUFFIX (-noo) is tacked on the end of this shortened
base SUFFIX.
3s, 1p-ex, 3p -etee + -noo → -ete + -noo → -ete·noo
The three regular inverted FORMS (2s, 1p-in, 2p) already use the shorted base Relative Incomplete SUFFIX “-ete” so
there is no change. However, the Preterite’s SUFFIX “-noo” is shortened to “-no” (remember the Fule don’t like
the long vowel sound before the “
”) and added to the shortened base SUFFIX, with the pronouns (-
aa, -
en, -
on)
being added on after the Preterite’s SUFFIX.
2s -etee + -
aa → -ete + -
aa → -ete·
aa -ete + -noo + -
aa → -ete + -no + -
aa → -ete·no·
aa
1p-in -etee + -
en → -ete + -
en → -ete·
en -ete + -noo + -
en → -ete + -no + -
en → -ete·no·
en
2p -etee + -
on → -ete + -
on → -ete·
on -ete + -noo + -
on → -ete + -no + -
on → -ete·no·
on
As with the middle VOICE, the irregular Relative Incomplete passive VOICE 1s shortens the normal base SUFFIX with
the long vowel sound (in this case it is “-etee”) before the Preterite’s SUFFIX. The Preterite’s SUFFIX remains long
to retain the long vowel sound before mi which is tacked on the end. The non-Preterite CONJUGATION is to the left
and the CONJUGATION with the Preterite is to the left.
1s -etee + -mi → -etee·mi -etee + -noo + -mi → -ete + -noo + -mi → -ete·noo·mi

166
Apparently the Fule didn’t like the sound of –ata·
aa, -ata·
en or –ata·
on, so both the final “a” of the
Relative Incomplete base SUFFIX (-ata) and the “
” of the inverted pronoun will drop right out.
167
Apparently the Fule didn’t like the long vowel sound before the implosive “
” either as they consistently
shorten the base forms or the Preterite’s form to shorten the vowel sounds before the “
.”

137
D. The Preterite and the Emphatic:
The Preterite ending -no is added after the Emphatic SUFFIX. The Emphatic
FORMs with the Preterite are in bold type in the examples below:

Mi nyaamuno nyiiri ndi!

I had eaten the cooked millet!

Mi yennuno Baaba!
I had said bad things to Father!

Mi yaa
uno tummbude nde!

I had stepped on the calabash!

O aanino!
She had been sleeping!

E. The Preterite with the Stative and Progressive:

Full conjugations of the Preterite in the Stative (Table 23.4) and in the
Progressive (Table 23.6) are given below. Here are some examples of the
Preterite used with Statives:
Een nji
unoo marude kulle. (Stative – Active Voice)
We used to like caring for animals.

En nji
aano marude kulle. (Neg. Stative - Active Voice)

We didn’t used to like caring for animals.

Oon njoo
inoo e jam. (Stative – Middle Voice)

You had been living in peace.

On njoo
aakino e jam. (Neg. Complete – Middle Voice)

You had not been living in peace.

Sukaaa
e wuro ma

e na kaajanoo kosam. (Stative – Passive Voice)

The children of their village were in need of milk.

Sukaa
e wuro ma

e kaajaakano kosam. (Neg. Complete – Passive Voice)

The children of their village were not in need of milk.

Here are some examples of the Progessive with the Preterite:

A
a remannoo ley ngesa ma nde pantumi wuro. (Progressive – Active Voice)
You were hoeing in your field when I went by.

Imo lootonoo de be’i makko lalli. (Progressive – Middle Voice)

She was washing when her goats got lost.

Gawri wuro fuu ina unenoo laasara. (Progressive – Passive Voice)

Grain everywhere in the village was being pounded in the afternoon.

138
 Table 23.4 The Preterite with the Stative
Voice Active Middle Passive
Verb yi
ude jaalaade yi
eede
Singular
1st mi
o yi
-u·noo168 mi
o jaal-i·noo169 mi
o yi
-a·noo170
2nd a
a yi
-u·noo a
a jaal-i·noo a
a yi
-a·noo
3rd imo yi
-u·noo imo jaal-i·noo imo yi
-a·noo
Plural
1st exclusive mi
en nji
-u·noo mi
en njaal-i·noo mi
en nji
-a·noo
1st inclusive e
en nji
-u·noo e
en njaal-i·noo e
en nji
-a·noo
2nd o
on nji
-u·noo o
on njaal-i·noo o
on nji
-a·noo
3rd ee nji
-u·noo ee njaal-i·noo ee nji
-a·noo

Table 23.5 The Preterite with the Negative Stative

Voice Active Middle Passive
Verb yi
ude jaalaade† yi
eede†
Singular
1st mi yi
-aa·no mi jaal-aaki·no mi yi
-aaka·no
2nd a yi
-aa·no a jaal-aaki·no a yi
-aaka·no
3rd o yi
-aa·no o jaal-aaki·no o yi
-aaka·noo
Plural
1st exclusive min nji
-aa·no min njaal-aaki·no min nji
-aaka·no
1st inclusive en nji
-aa·no en njaal-aaki·no en nji
-aaka·no
2nd on nji
-aa·no on njaal-aaki·no on nji
-aaka·no
3rd e nji
-aa·no e njaal-aaki·no e nji
-aaka·no

†
Remember neither the middle nor the passive VOICE have a Negative Stative FORM, but rather they use the
Negative Complete FORM. Therefore the middle and passive VOICE CONJUGATIONs shown here are for the Negative
Complete with the Preterite.

Table 23.5 The Preterite with the Progressive

Voice Active Middle Passive
Verb hokkude yaafaade yaafeede
Singular
1st mi
o hokk-a·nnoo171 mi
o yaaf-o·noo172 mi
o yaaf-e·noo173
2nd a
a hokk-a·nnoo a
a yaaf-o·noo a
a yaaf-e·noo
3rd imo hokk-a·nnoo imo yaaf-o·noo imo yaaf-e·noo
Plural
1st exclusive mi
en kokk-a·nnoo mi
en njaaf-o·noo mi
en njaaf-e·noo
1st inclusive e
en kokk-a·nnoo e
en njaaf-o·noo e
en njaaf-e·noo
2nd o
on kokk-a·nnoo o
on njaaf-o·noo o
on njaaf-e·noo
3rd ee kokk-a·nnoo ee njaaf-o·noo ee njaaf-e·noo

168
The normal SUFFIX for the Stative active VOICE is “-i.” Because the middle VOICE SUFFIX shortens to “-i” when
using the Preterite, it was necessary for the active VOICE SUFFIX to morph to “-u.” This is the same problem
encountered with the active and middle VOICE SUFFIXes in the Relative Complete and the solution is the same as
well.
169
The normal SUFFIX for the Stative middle VOICE is “-ii.” This shortens to “-i” in all seven CONJUGATIONs.
170
The normal SUFFIX for the Stative passive VOICE is “-aa.” This shortens to “-a” in all seven CONJUGATIONs.
171
The normal SUFFIX for the Progressive active VOICE is “-a.” The only change is a facultative “n’ is added
between the “a” and the Preterite’s SUFFIX “-noo.”
172
The normal SUFFIX for the Progressive middle VOICE is “-oo.” This SUFFIX shortens to “-o” when the Preterite is
added in all seven CONJUGATIONs.
173
The normal SUFFIX for the Progressive passive VOICE is “-ee.” This SUFFIX shortens to “-e” when the Preterite
is added in all seven CONJUGATIONs.

139
 F. The Preterite in Sequencing:
The preterite can be attached to a verb in a single verb sentence to indicate
that the action described definitely took place in the past. However, it is
most often used in two clause sentences and can be translated as “when such
and such had been accomplished, then...”174 The Preterite is in bold type in
the examples:
Nde o yottinoo wuro ngo o nanngi laawol Baagadumba.
When he had left home he took the road to Baagadumba

Kanko wonnoo ga naanen. (stative)

He was here awhile ago.

Si mi soodiino nagge nge, kaalisi am timman. (general complete)

If I had bought the cow, my money would be finished.

Si mi naatiino
o mobel am nufan. (general complete)

If I had gone in here my car would be stuck.

G. The Preterite with a Noun

The preterite can also be used with nouns, indicating a prior state which has
since changed. For example:
... jom suudu makko Saaratu du wo dimaro·no ... (Ibraninkoo
e 11:11)
... his wife Sara had been baren ... (Hebrews 11:11)

... Abigayil jeyaa
o Karmel, dee Nabal·no. 1 Samuyiila 27:3

... Abigail of Carmel who had been Nabal’s wife. I Samuel 27:3

24. INFIXES
Verbal INFIXes are particles that are attached directly to the verb ROOT and in some
way alter the meaning of the verb. They might be thought of as multiple SUFFIXes.
Of the nine INFIXes below, two are used in situations where English or French would
use prepositions while the other seven alter or add meaning to the verb. It should be
noted that INFIXes can be altered by, or can alter, surrounding sounds, depending on
the phonetic environment. You will notice that some of the INFIXes have more than
one basic form depending on the phonetic environment. Pay attention in the following
examples to those INFIXes and ROOTs which have undergone some alteration for
phonetical reasons, the altered words will be underlined if the alteration was caused by
the INFIX.
A. -an-
The use of this INFIX adds the meaning to the verb that one does the action of the
verb for someone. Some call this the “benefactive” INFIX. This INFIX causes the
normal active VOICE infinitive SUFFIX -ude to contract to -de. Examples:
Mi sood-an-ii o disaare.
I bought a cloth for her.

174
See Section 30.B, p. 175 on tail-head linkage for further examples of the use of the preterite in sequencing.

140
 O haal-ente fuu ko wai.175
He will explain for you everything that happened.

Mi fil-an-eke o safaare, ammaa mi yi’aay.

I looked for medicine for him, but I didn’t find any.

Njaar-an-aa kam um to amiiru.

Take it for me to the chief.

Ngadd-an-aa kam ndiyam mi yara.

Bring water for me to drink.

B. -d-/-id- (e)
This INFIX has two meanings:
1. To do something together with another person (uses the e meaning “with”).
Sometimes this INFIX is referred to as the “associative.”
2. For some action to be completed (does not use the e).
This INFIX causes the normal active VOICE infinitive SUFFIX -ude to lengthen to
-inde, or -idde in some dialect areas. Examples:
Mio haal-d-a e Aamaa ley luumo.
I habitually speak with Aamaa in the market.

Goram yaa-d-ii e ma

e Sampelga.

My husband went with them to Sampelga.

Nde ngarumi ndeen, i
e ngon-d-i e golle.

When I came, they were working together.

Min nyaam-d-ii hankin

We ate together last night.

Na’i i njar-d-aay tafon naa?

The cows have not finished drinking yet?

C. -
-/-i
-
This INFIX means “to be in the state of” – hence it is referred to as the “stative”
INFIX. As with the “associative” INFIX, this INFIX causes the active VOICE infinitive
SUFFIX -ude to lengthen to -inde, or sometimes -idde. Examples:

Wulaare nde ka

umi nde na
uri nde ka

uaa nde
enk-i
-inde.

The bundle of millet I tied is shorter than the one you tied.

Wo o dof-i
-ino.
He is a coward.

Debbo mawo makko na hugg-i
-i.

He old mother is hump-backed.

175
Hopefully you have recognized what this strange looking CONJUGATION is. The objective pronoun ma has been
assimilated into the General Incomplete SUFFIX “-an” as “-ete.” The infix “-an-” is contracted to just “n” and is
inserted after the the first “e” of the suffix “-ete”: o haal-an-an + ma → haal-an-ete → haal-ente. See Section
8.C.1, p. 50 for a discussion of this grammatical construction.

141
 D. -n-/-in-
This INFIX signifies one causing the action of the verb to occur. Some call this the
“causative” INFIX. This extension causes the active VOICE infinitive ending to
contract from -ude to -de.176 Examples:
O sell-in-ii nyaw
e waddaa
e to makko fuu.
He healed (caused to be made well) all the sick that were brought
to him.

Jannginoowo na janng-in-a janngoo
e jande mu

en ley janngirde nde.

The teacher is teaching (causing to learn) the students their lesson in the school.

Baylo o na mo-in-a torkooru tuubaaku ndu.

That blacksmith is repairing (is causing to be good) the white man’s donkey cart.

E. -inkin-
This INFIX means “to pretend to do something.” For that reason some refer to this
as the “imitative” INFIX. This INFIX causes the normal active VOICE infinitive
SUFFIX -ude to contract to -de. Examples:

O maay-t-inkin-ii.
He pretended to be dead.

e ka
-inkin-ii.
They pretended to fight.

O woy-t-inkin-eke.
He recounted a sad story to evoke pity.

O lee-inkin-eke.
He is humble (lit. He made himself low).

F. -r-/-ir-/-or- (the latter with middle voice verbs)177

This INFIX signifies that something is to be done or accomplished in a certain
manner, or by the means of certain devices/tools/etc. Remember this INFIX is called
for when using either the relative pronoun no or the interrogative pronoun noy.
This INFIX is referred to as the “instrumental” INFIX. When used in an active VOICE
verb this INFIX causes the infinitive ending to contract to -de. Examples:
Noy njaa-r-at·aa So?
How will you go to So?

Mio yaa-r-a e mobel am ngel.

I will go in (by means of) my car.

Noy ngat-ten?178
How should we do it?

Noy mbilt-or-to·aa golle o gilla jemma yottaaki?

How will you finish the work before night comes?

176
Ed. Note: in doing a study of verbs ending with -inde in the dictionary I found that of 362 such verbs, 204 were
actually the causative INFIX -in- followed by the contracted active VOICE infinitive SUFFIX -de. That means that
56% of the time you see a verb ending in -inde, the actual SUFFIX (the part that will drop away when the verb is
conjugated) is -de. In the other 44% of the cases the SUFFIX is -inde. See Appendix D for the mind numbing
details!
177
Actually the INFIX -or- is often used with the “stative” INFIX -
-. See Appendix D #5 for several examples.
The infinitive ending of these active voice verbs would be -inde.
178
In this example, due to phonetical considerations, the final “
” of the verbal ROOT √wa
- morphs to “t,” the
entire INFIX “-ir” is contracted out, as is the inital “a” of the Relative Incomplete SUFFIX “-ata”: wa
ude:
nga
-ir-at·en → ngat-t·en

142
 Dembo wall-ir-an kam e ndiyam si laasara warii.
Dembo will help me with some water in the late afternoon.

Noy mo-in-ir-ta·a um?

How will you make that?

Mi mo-in-ir-ii um e jammbere nde.

I made it with (by means of) the ax.

Noy curki ki yalt-ir-ta?

How will the smoke get out?

Curki ki na yalt-ir-a e yulde nde.

The smoke will go out by means of this hole.

G. -t-/-it-//-tin-/-tind-
This INFIX has the following meanings:
1. It is used in verbs where an action is being reversed. When functioning in this
sense it is referred to as the “reversive” INFIX.
2. It is also used to signify the repetition of an action. When functioning with this
meaning it is called the “repetitive” INFIX.
3. It is also sometimes used simply to intensify the meaning of the verb, and so is
referred to as the “intensive” INFIX. On occasions the intensification has to do
with doing something again (harkening back to the sense mentioned in 2 above).
The INFIXes -tin- and -tind- are exclusively intensifiers.179
The INFIX -it- causes the active VOICE infinitive SUFFIX -ude to lenghten to -inde.
However, the INFIX -tin- causes the active VOICE infinitive SUFFIX to contract to -de.
Examples:
Samba war-t-ii keean.
Samba came back yesterday.

A uddii naa uddi-t-ii dammbugal ngal?

Did you close or open the door?

O waran ha

-it-inde ngaari ndi laasaraaku.

He will come untie the bull in the afternoon.

Salla Muusa na waawi henng-it-idde keekel am hannden naa?

Can Muusa fix my bike to day?

Miin fes-it-i yeeso am.180

Me, I tattooed my own face.

Moy waawi nan-tin-de haala makko faa paamen?

Who can translate what he is saying so we understand?

e ket-tind-eke haala am.

They paid attention to what I said.

Min ndaar-tind-eke.
We looked carefully.

179
The “intensive” INFIX -tin- can be found following another INFIX (see Appendix E #3 for examples) or by itself
(see Appendix E #8 for examples) in active voice verbs. The intensive -tind- is used as an INFIX with middle
voice verbs.
180
Fesitaade is an emphatic way of saying “I tattooed myself.” Additionally note the use of the emphatic pronoun
miin and that the Emphatic verb FORM is employed.

143
 H. -ondir-/-undur-181
This INFIX signifies “mutually doing something to each other.” This is known as
the “reciprocal” INFIX. This INFIX causes the active VOICE infinitive SUFFIX to
contract to -de. Examples:
Keean
e njenn-undur-ii faa naawi, hannden e
e nji-undur-i, um woni tagu
sukaa
e.
Yesterday they insulted each other horribly, today they like each other, that’s the way
of children.

Miskiini’en na kaani wall-ondir-de.

Poor people must help each other.

e nyaam-ondir-ii jawdi faa
e io fuu
e laateke miskiini’en.

They ate (plundered) each other’s wealth until each one became poor.

I. -ow-/-oy-
This INFIX signifies “going to do something.” Thus it is called the “distantive”
INFIX. Examples:

e nyaam-ow-ii.
They went to eat.

A rem-ow-ii hannden naa?

You went [to the field] to cultivate today?

Rew
e Guduru na cipp-ow-a Nampala nyannde fuu.

The women of Guduru go to Nampala to sell milk everyday.

J. Multiple Infixes on One Verb Root:

Usage: it has been said that some linguists and some Fule once got together and
placed twelve INFIXes on a Fulfulde verb ROOT, creating a legitimate word.
That little exercise demonstrated the range of possibilities, even if it did not reflect
everyday usage. However, it is not unusual for two to three INFIXes to be placed on
one verb’s ROOT. Examples:
e kaal-an-d-ir-ii fuu.
They explained everything to each other.

O ha

-an-ir-ii kam e boggol na’i am.

He tied up [my cow] for me with my cow rope.

Nawma na rem-an-ow-ir-a kam ngesa e na’i Guri.

Nawma will go to plow a field for me with Guri’s cow.

Baylo o mo-in-ir-ii wowru am e njamndi.

The blacksmith fixed my mortar with metal.

181
The INFIX “-undur-” tends to be the preferred form in Djibo, while “-ondir-” tends to be preferred in Sebba,
Tenkodogo and Mahadaga.

144
25. SUBORDINATION

A fair bit of attention has been paid to the issue of subordination in this edition of the
Burkina Faso Fulfulde Grammar. In each verbal section where subordination is an
issue the various TRIGGER WORDS used in reference to a particular verbal FORM are
mentioned as often these TRIGGER WORDS trigger a “default” verbal FORM in the
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.182 The terminology used in discussing subordination has been
extensively defined in the Glossary (see page 179 ff.) – recall that all the terms listed
throughout the grammar in small caps are words which are defined in the Glossary.
However, in an effort to pull a lot of that information together in one spot, here is a
quick review of subordination as it relates to Fulfulde grammar.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are clauses that depend upon another clause (the INDEPENDENT
CLAUSE) in the sentence. An INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is a clause which can stand by
itself as a complete sentence, while a DEPENDENT or SUBORDINATE CLAUSE cannot
stand by itself. It requires the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE to make good sense.

Subordinators which trigger a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE include SUBORDINATING

CONJUNCTIONS, subordinating adverbs, and relative pronouns. Relative pronouns
actually trigger relative clauses, which are usually subordinate.183 One particular kind
of SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is the CONDITIONAL CLAUSE. In Fulfulde CONDITIONAL
CLAUSEs are triggered by si or one of its compounded forms.184

What is meant here by “triggering” is that due to the grammatical features of various
kinds of SUBORDINATE CLAUSES, there is often a certain verbal “default” FORM called
for in that particular grammatical construction. However, as pointed out throughout
this section on verbs, these “defaults” are often overridden by other considerations.
The “default” FORM depends on whether the thought expressed by the SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE is positive or negative. Sometimes it depends on what the FOCUS of the clause
is. If the FOCUS is on the ASPECT (completeness) then one FORM will be called for,
while if the FOCUS is on something else, then a different FORM may be called for.
Finally, if the thought expressed by the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE requires either the
Stative, Negative Stative, Progressive, Imperative, or the Polite Imperative
(Subjunctive), then the normal default will be overridden by that consideration.
So these TRIGGER WORDS do trigger predictable grammatical features, but frequently
enough either the Stative, Progressive, Imperative or Subjunctive will “trump” the
expected grammatical default. One needs to continually bear this in mind when
thinking about subordination.

Table 25.1 contains a listing of common subordinators used in Fulfulde, their

definition, and what verbal FORM theses subordinators trigger in a positively stated
complete or incomplete clause.

182
Subordinators are discussed throughout the Glossary (p. 179 ff.), in Section 11.A.3 (p. 69 ff.) on the General
Complete, in Section 13.D (p. 92 – footnote 102) and Section 13.E (p. 94 ff.) on the Relative, and in Section 21.B
(p. 129) on the desiderative.
183
One type of relative clause which does not seem to be subordinate or dependent is one introduced by
um saabi
de or
um wa
i de, meaning “because of this,” or “for this reason.” Sometimes the
um is only implied (see p.
92 for examples of this). This type of relative clause appears to be able to stand on its own as an INDEPENDENT
CLAUSE.
184
Compounded forms of si would include ammaa si, sabo si, and fay si.

145
 Table 25.1 Common Subordinators Used in Fulfulde
Subordinators Part Meaning Default verb FORM Default verb FORM
of triggered with triggered with
Speech Complete-Positive Incomplete-Positive
clause clause
de adverb so, so that, so General Complete in Subjunctive or
then, then, non-narrations, General Incomplete
therefore, including direct and
that is why, indirect speech
for this reason, Relative Complete in
in order that narration
de185 conjunction and yet, but still, same as above same as above
however, that,
that even
faa186 adv/conj so that, until General Complete in Subjunctive
ASPECT FOCUSed
clauses
Relative Complete in
other FOCUSed clauses
fay si187 conjunction even if Relative Complete
ko188 adverb that, what Relative Complete Relative Incomplete
nde189 adverb when Relative Complete Relative Incomplete
no190 adverb how Relative Complete Relative Incomplete
sabo191 conjunction because, since General Complete in
ASPECT FOCUSed
clauses
Relative Complete in
other FOCUSed clauses
salla192 conjunction whether (or not) General Complete General Incomplete
or Stative or Progressive
si193 conjunction if General Complete
si wanaa194 conjunction unless, except
to195 adverb where Relative complete Relative Incomplete
mo relative pronoun who, whom Relative Complete Relative Incomplete
e relative pronoun who, whom Relative Complete Relative Incomplete

am,
e,
i,
um, ka, kal, ki, relative pronoun which Relative Complete Relative Incomplete
ko, kol, koy, nde, ndi, ndu,
nga, ngal, nge, ngel, ngi, ngo,
ngol, ngu , o

185
De can function as either a subordinating adverb or SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION, with the meanings listed above in Table
25.1. However, usually de functions as a simple COORDINATING CONJUNCTION meaning “and,” “and then,” or “but.”
When functioning as a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION de does not trigger the use of any particular verbal FORM. Because de is
often found in narrations linking various parts of the narration together it is often associate with the Relative Complete FORM, but
it is not per se triggering the Relative Complete FORM. Rather it would be the narration itself which triggered the use of the
Relative Complete FORM and the de just happens to be present as a non-SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION linking clauses together.
186
A cognate of faa is the adverb/CONJUNCTION fa
o, a contraction of faa
o (until here). The negative counterpart of faa is taa (so
that not). Taa is used as a aux. verb with the Negative Imperative, but with the Negative Polite Imperative (Subjunctive), and the
Negative Desiderative it functions as a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION meaning basically “so that not” or “so that it does not.”
187
Synonyms of fay si are ba se and jaka all meaning “even if.”
188
Ko functions as an adverb when meaning “that.” Ko is obviously also one of the 24 relative pronouns meaning “which” or
“what.” In either case ko triggers a relative clause. Compounded forms of ko would include the compound CONJUNCTIONS
ammaa ko (but that), and the emphatic fay ko (even that, even though). These compounded subordinators function as relative
pronouns which trigger a relative clause. A relative clause is usually subordinate in a COMPLEX SENTENCE.
189
Nde functions as an adverb when meaning “when.” Nde is also one of the 24 relative pronouns meaning “which.” In either case
nde triggers a relative clause. Compounded forms of nde would include ammaa nde (but when), the emphatic fay nde or baa nde
(even when), and faa nde (until when). These compounded subordinators function as relative pronouns which trigger a relative
clause. A relative clause is usually subordinate in a COMPLEX SENTENCE.
190
The adverb no (how) functions as a relative pronoun triggering a relative clause. (No) foti (how much) is a compounded form of
no. A relative clause is usually subordinate in a COMPLEX SENTENCE.
191
Synonyms for sabo include: sabu, gam, ngam, ngan and batte.
192
Yalla (whether) is a synonym of salla.
193
Compounded forms of si include: ammaa si (but if), and sabo si (because if). These compound CONJUNCTIONS function exactly
the same as si, triggering either the General or Participial Complete verb FORMs.
194
Si wanaa is an invariable form. The verb is wonude and it is always rendered as a Negative Stative. However, the phrase
introduces a qualifying thought which is subordinate to the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. The phrase does not trigger a particular verb
FORM, but can be used in conjunction with a variety of verb FORMs.
195
The adverb to (where) functions as a relative pronoun triggering a relative clause.

146
 A. Subordinating Conjunctions:
In the following examples the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION is in bold and
the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is underlined. There is a mixture of positively and
negatively stated clauses. The verb FORM triggered by the subordinator is in
normal type to highlight it (the rest of the sentence is in italics):
Si o yehii luumo, o soodan gawri. (General Complete)
If/When he goes to the market, he will buy millet.

Fay si neldumi Almerke, nde heetaake sabo safaare durma walaa ley
adunaaru. (Relative Complete)
Even if I send to America for it, it cannot be had because medicine for colds
does not exist (anywhere) in the world.

Fay si njahumi faa mi sooda petoro to makko mi heataa sabo o tawataake

wakkati fuu.196 (Relative Complete)/(Subjunctive)/(Negative Incomplete)
Even if I go to buy kerosene from him I won’t get any because he [the person
selling it] is never there.

Jaka a waawaa nyiude suudu de mbii
aa kam a
a waawi! (Negative Stative)
Even though you can’t build a house you told me you can!

Munyu ga faa mi wara. (Subjunctive)

Wait here until I come back.

O gollii faa o tampii. (General Complete)

He worked until he was tired.

He
a faa nde njahammi de njaaden. (Subjunctive – Polite Imperative)

Wait until I go, then we can go together.

Sanaa kokken o saaya sabo jaangol torrii o. (General Complete)

Let’s give him a robe because the cold is really bothering him.

Lobbo walaa gawri hikka gam o remaay. (Negative Complete)

Lobbo doesn’t have any grain this year because he didn’t cultivate.

A haalanaay kam goonga batte a yiaa salanaade kam. (Negative Stative)

You didn’t tell me the truth because you didn’t want to refuse me.

Tinna taa wurta
o fao ngartumi! (Relative Complete)

Don’t leave here until I get back!

O bonnu jawdi laamu de o nanngaa. (Relative Complete)

He embezzled government funds so he was arrested.

Nanngen araawa nga taa nga bonnu gawri ndi.197 (Negative Desiderative)
Nanngen araawa nga taa nga bonna gawri ndi. (Negative Polite Imperative)
Let’s catch the donkey so that it does not ruin the millet.

There is one subordinator that has not been dealt with in any other section
since it can be followed by any verb FORM. This is the second meaning of si
wanaa: “if it is not, unless, except.”198 The CONJUNCTION si wanaa acts as a

196
This is a rather complex example as there are three separate subordinate clauses, two of which are conditional clauses.
Fay si (even if) introduces a clause of futility, and sabo introduces a clause explaining why the speaker won’t get
any kerosene. To (to, from) is functioning as a preposition in this example, not as a relative pronoun. The only
thing left as the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is the terse statement mi heataa (I will not have).
197
See footnote 185 on taa as the negative conterpart of faa.
198
Remember that si wanaa (or sanaa) can also mean “must” or “it is necessary.”

147
 qualifying phrase that is inserted as a parenthesis introducing an exception to
the thought of the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. A verb might be found in the
phrase following si wanaa.199 However, si wanaa does not trigger any
particular verbal FORM. Actually, the verb impacted by si is always wonude
(to be), and invariably it is rendered in the Negative Stative FORM. Only the
first example has a verb following wanaa. There is often a negative element
in the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE, but not necessarily so. In the examples the
CONDITIONAL CLAUSE is underlined and the CONJUNCTION is in bold type.
Wanaa is not italicized as it is always the verb impacted by the si.
Si wanaa ko o hokkunoo kam kaalisi keean, mi maayannoo rafo.200
If he had not given me money yesterday, I would have died of hunger.

Si wanaa keme
i
i, mi gollataa.201

Except for 1,000 francs I will not work.

Mt 13:34b Huunde fuu o haalanaay yime si wanaa e banndi.

He didn’t say anything to the people except in parables.

Dan. 2:11b “Fay gooto waawaa hollude kaananke si wanaa maleyka'en,

ammaa e njoo
ataako hakkunde yime.”
No one can show the king except angels, but they don’t sit among men.

B. Subordination with Subordinating Adverbs:

Four of the six subordinating adverbs listed in Table 25.1 introduce a relative
clause, just as the relative pronouns do, and trigger a Relative verb FORM in a
positively stated clause. When ko and nde are functioning as subordinating
adverbs, meaning “what/that” and “when,” they will always begin a relative
clause which will be subordinate. When they are functioning as relative
pronouns, meaning “which,” they will also begin a relative clause, which
will also be subordinate. In the examples below the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE is
underlined, the subordinating adverbs and the closure markers (when
present) are in bold type. The verb impacted by the adverb is in normal type.
Mi yi’aay ko Burayma hokki e um. (Relative Complete)
I did not see what Burayma gave to them.

Nde ngarumi Djibo ndeen, mi nanataa Fulfulde fey. (Relative Complete)

When I came to Djibo, I couldn’t understand Fulfulde at all.

No e njaarata nii, Isiyaaka ami bammum Ibrahiima. (Relative Incomplete)

As they were walking along, Isaac queried his father Abraham

199
Ed. Note: In doing a survey of this expression in the Bible portions we have in Fulfulde at present I found in the
vast majority of cases a noun will be found in the phrase following si wanaa and not a verb.
200
In this example the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE has been inverted with the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. This is commonly
done when emphasizing the thought of the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. The “normal” sentence would be: Mi
maayanno rafo, si wanaa ko o hokkunoo kam kaalisi keean. The verb hokkude is rendered in the Relative
Complete FORM because of the relative pronoun ko and not because of the presence of si wanaa.
201
Obviously the subject, the verb, and object have been left out of this sentence. The full sentence would be
properly rendered: Si wanaa keme
i
i njoataa kam, mi gollataa. This would be the most natural way they
would express this thought. One could also possibly say: Si wanaa a yoan kam keme
i
i, mi gollataa, but this
does not carry the emphatic “punch” of the first wording. The non-inverted sentence would be: Mi gollataa si
wanaa keme
i
i njoataa kam. {lit. - I will not work unless 1,000 cfa you pay me.}

148
 Mi limii caakuuji maaro foti njogiaa. (Relative Complete)
I counted how many sacks of rice you own.

Mi amaay o to o yiiti be’i makko
i. (Relative Complete)

I did not ask him where he found his goats.

Mi yahan luumo faa mi sootta nagge baabam.

I am going to market in order to sell my father’s cow.

C. Subordination with Relative Pronouns:

Remember that relative clauses which start with “which” will be
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.202 These clauses make a parenthetical comment
about either the subject or the object of the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. As such
the entire relative clause relates to the noun or pronoun it is modifying as an
adjective. The only relative clauses that don’t appear to be dependent are
those begun by
um saabi de or
um wa
i de (see first example) meaning
“because of this,” “for this reason” or “that this why.” In the examples the
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are underlined, the relative pronoun is in bold type,
and the verb impacted by the relative pronoun is in normal type:
Mi doggii, ngarumi law law, um saabi de tampumi.203
I ran and I came quickly - that is why I am tired.

Ngaddanaa kam hu
o ko taumi keean.

Bring me the grass which I cut yesterday.

Cogganaa kam ngaari ndi coodumi luumo Djibo faa yaha So. (Relative
Complete)/(Subjunctive)
Herd for me the bull which I bought at the Djibo market to So.

Mawniiko mo nji’ataa fai jaango o wo caahii
o sanne. (Relative Incomplete)

His older brother, who you will see the day after tomorrow, is a very polite
person.

202
For a discussion of relative clauses, see Section 13.C (pp. 88) and 13.D (p. 91).
203
This is a compound sentence with two INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.

149
 ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS & PREPOSITIONS

26. ADJECTIVES
In Fulfulde syntax an adjective always follows the noun it is modifying; e.g. gorko
maw
o (the old man). Adjectives, like participles, can also serve as nouns; e.g. Inan
maw
o wuro. (Here is the head of the household.) There are four main mechanisms
for modifying nouns. These are:

A. The Use of the particle na:

The use of na is described in Section 16.A, page 109. These are basically
what in English would be called predicate adjectives. For example:
Suudu ndu na mawni.
That hut is big.

Suudu ndu na fam
i.

That hut is small.

B. Participles:
Participles can be used to modify nouns. An explanation of participles and
examples of usage have been given in Section 14, page 98 ff.

C. Real Adjectives:
There is a limited number of real adjectives in Fulfulde. Below is a listing of
the various types of adjectives found in the Burkina Faso Fulfulde-
English/English-Fulfulde Dictionary. They fall into 4 categories:
1. Invariable adjectives:
The Burkina Faso Fulfulde-English/English-Fulfulde Dictionary lists sixteen
invariable adjectives which do not conjugate for noun class (plus a trio of
compound adjectives meaning “each one”):
arano – first
bulabula – adj. blue (related to bul
ude)
deke - plus, some, more than, and a little (related to dekude)
foti - how many, how much – used with things
foto - how many – used with persons
fuu - all
gomma – some
gootum – same
iri – like
kala – all
liddi - the opposite
nano – left
nyaamo – right
se

a/see
a – a little
sowre – many
togosi – small
mo hen fuu/mono fuu/mono kala - each one

2. Conjugatable adjectives:
There are two adjectives which do conjugate for each of the 24 noun classes:
hu
o hecco – green – (related to verb hecci
inde)
feere – different, distinct

150
3. Cardinal numbers:
olum - zero, nothing
go'o – one

a. Cardinals used with the plural noun classes
e and
i:

i
i - two
tati - three
nay - four
joy - five
jeegom - six
je

i - seven
jeetati (jetti) - eight
jeenay - nine
sappo - ten
capan
e - signifies tens
noogay/laso - twenty
capan
e tati/woronja - thirty
capan
e nay/lasooji
i
i - fourty
capan
e joy/woygu - fifty
capan
e jeegom/lasooji tati - sixty
capan
e je

i/lasooji tati e sappo - seventy
capan
e jeetati/lasooji nay - eighty
cepan
e jeenay/lasooji nay e sappo - ninty
hemre - one hundred
keme - signifies hundreds
ujunere - one thousand

b. Cardinal numbers – used with the plural noun classes e and ko2:

i
o
tato
nayo
njoyo
jeegomo/njeegomo
nje

o
njeetato
njeenayo

c. Cardinal numbers – used with the plural noun class koy:

i
oy
tatoy
nayoy
joyoy/njoyoy
jeegoy/njeegomoy
nje

oy
njeetatoy
njeenayoy

4. Ordinal numbers:
first (from go’o): Group I
e/go'a
e, ko1/go'a
o, nde/go'a
erde, ndu/go'a
urdu, nge/go'a
e,
ngo/go'a
o Group II e/go'a
e, i/go'a
i, um/go'a
um, kal/go'a
al, kol/go'a
ol,
ngal/go'a
al, ngel/go'a
el, ngol/go'a
ol, o/go'o Group III am/ngo'a
am,
ka/ngo'a
a, ki/ngo'a
i, ko2/ngo'a
o, koy/ngo'a
oy, ndi/ngo'a
irdi, nga/ngo'a
a,
ngi/ngo'a
i, ngu/ngo'a
u
second (from
i
i): Group I
e/ia
e, ko1/ia
o, nde/ia
erde, ndu/ia
urdu,
nge/ia
e, ngo/ia
o Group II e/ia
e, i/ia
e, um/ia
um, kal/ia
al,
kol/ia
ol, ngal/ia
al, ngel/ia
el, ngol/ia
ol, o/ia
o Group III
am/ia
am, ka/ia
a, ki/ia
i, ko2/ia
o, koy/ia
oy, ndi/ia
irdi,
nga/ia
a, ngi/ia
i, ngu/ia
u
third (from tati): Group I
e/tata
e, ko1/tata
o, nde/tata
erde, ndu/tata
urdu, nge/tata
e,
ngo/tata
o Group II e/tata
e, i/tata
i, um/tata
um, kal/tata
al, kol/tata
ol,
ngal/tata
al, ngel/tata
el, ngol/tata
ol, o/tata
o Group III am/tata
am,
ka/tata
a, ki/tata
i, ko2/tata
o, koy/tata
oy, ndi/tata
irdi, nga/tata
a, ngi/tata
i,
ngu/tata
u
forth (from nay): Group I e/nayae, ko1/nayao, nde/nayaerde, ndu/nayaurdu,
nge/nayae, ngo/nayao Group II
e/nayae,
i/nayai,
um/nayaum,
kal/nayaal, kol/nayaol, ngal/nayaal, ngel/nayael, ngol/nayol, o/nayao
Group III
am/nayaam, ka/nayaa, ki/nayai, ko2/nayao, koy/nayaoy,
ndi/nayairdi, nga/nayaa, ngi/nayai, ngu/nayau

151
fifth (from joy): Group I
e/joya
e, ko1/joya
o, nde/joya
erde, ndu/joya
urdu, nge/joya
e,
ngo/joya
o Group II e/joya
e, i/joya
i, um/joya
um, kal/joya
al, kol/joya
ol,
ngal/joya
al, ngel/joya
el, ngol/joya
ol, o/joyo
o Group III am/njoya
am,
ka/njoya
a, ki/njoya
i, ko2/njoya
o, koy/njoya
oy, ndi/njoya
irdi, nga/njoya
a,
ngi/njoya
i, ngu/njoya
u
sixth (from jeegom): Group I
e/jeega
e, ko1/jeega
o, nde/jeega
erde, ndu/jeega
urdu,
nge/jeega
e, ngo/jeega
o Group II e/jeega
e, i/jeega
i, um/jeega
um,
kal/jeega
al, kol/jeega
ol, ngal/jeega
al, ngel/jeega
el, ngol/jeega
ol, o/jeega
o
Group III am/njeega
am, ka/njeega
a, ki/njeega
i, ko2/njeega
o, koy/njeega
oy,
ndi/njeega
irdi, nga/njeega
a, ngi/njeega
i, ngu/njeega
u
seventh (from je

i): Group I
e/jea
e, ko/jea
o, nde/jea
erde, ndu/jea
urdu,
nge/jea
e, ngo/jea
o Group II e/jea
e, i/jea
i, um/jea
um,
kal/jea
al, kol/jea
ol, ngal/jea
al, ngel/jea
el, ngol/jea
ol, o/jea
ol
Group III am/njea
am, ka/njea
a, ki/njea
i, ko/njea
o, koy/njea
oy,
ndi/njea
irdi, nga/njea
a, ngi/njea
i, ngu/njea
u
eighth (from jeetati): Group I
e/jeetata
e, ko1/jeetata
o, nde/jeetata
erde,
ndu/jeetata
urdu, nge/jeetata
e, ngo/jeetata
o Group II e/jeetata
e, i/jeetata
i,
um/jeetata
um, kal/jeetata
al, kol/jeetata
ol, ngal/jeetata
al, ngel/jeetata
el,
ngol/jeetata
ol, o/jeetata
o Group III am/njeetata
am, ka/njeetata
a,
ki/njeetata
i, ko2/njeetata
o, koy/njeetata
oy, ndi/njeetata
irdi, nga/njeetata
a,
ngi/njeetata
i, ngu/njeetata
u
ninth (from jeenay): Group I
e/jeenaya
e, ko1/jeenaya
o, nde/jeenaya
erde,
ndu/jeenaya
urdu, nge/jeenaya
e, ngo/jeenaya
o Group II e/jeenaya
e,
i/jeenaya
i, um/jeenaya
um, kal/jeenaya
al, kol/jeenaya
ol, ngal/jeenaya
al,
ngel/jeenaya
el, ngol/jeenaya
ol, o/jeenaya
o Group III am/njeenaya
am,
ka/njeenaya
a, ki/njeenaya
i, ko2/njeenaya
o, koy/njeenaya
oy, ndi/njeenaya
irdi,
nga/njeenaya
a, ngi/njeenaya
i, ngu/njeenaya
u
tenth (from sappo): Group I
e/sappo
e, ko1/sappo
o, nde/sappo
erde, ndu/saoo
urdu,
nge/sappo
e, ngo/sappo
o Group II e/sappo
e, i/sappo
i, um/sappo
um,
kal/sappo
al, kol/sappo
ol, ngal/sappo
al, ngel/sappo
el, ngol/sappo
ol, o/sappo
o
Group III am/sappo
am, ka/sappo
a, ki/sappo
i, ko2/sappo
o, koy/sappo
oy,
ndi/sappo
irdi, nga/sappo
a, ngi/sappo
i, ngu/sappo
u
twentieth (from noogay): Group I
e/noogaya
e, ko1/noogaya
o, nde/noogaya
erde,
nge/noogaya
e, ngo/noogaya
o Group II e/noogaya
e, i/noogaya
i,
um/noogaya
um, kal/noogaya
al, kol/noogaya
ol, ngal/noogaya
al,
ngel/noogaya
el, ngol/noogaya
ol, o/noogaya
o Group III am/noogaya
am,
ka/noogaya
a, ki/noogaya
i, ko2/noogaya
o, koy/noogaya
oy, ndi/noogaya
irdi,
nga/noogaya
a, ngi/noogaya
i, ngu/noogaya
u
twentieth (from laso): Group I
e/laso
e, ko1/laso
o, de/laso
erde, du/laso
urdu,
ge/laso
e, go/laso
o Group II e/laso
e, i/laso
i, um/laso
um, kal/laso
al,
kol/laso
ol, gal/laso
al, gel/laso
el, gol/laso
ol, o/laso
o Group III
am/laso
am, ka/laso
a, ki/laso
i, ko2/laso
o, koy/laso
oy, di/laso
irdi, ga/laso
a,
gi/laso
i, gu/laso
u
one hundredth (from hemre): Group I
e/hemre go'a
e; ko1/hemre go'a
o; nde/hemre
go'a
erde; ndu/hemre go'a
urdu; nge/hemre go'a
e; ngo/hemre go'a
o Group II
e/hemre go'a
e; i/hemre go'a
i; um/hemre go'a
um; kal/hemre go'a
al;
kol/hemre go'a
ol; ngal/hemre go'a
al; ngel/hemre go'a
el; ngol/hemre go'a
ol;
o/hemre go'o
Group III am/hemre ngo'a
am; ka/hemre ngo'a
a; ki/hemre ngo'a
i; ko2/hemre
ngo'a
o; koy/hemre ngo'a
oy; ndi/hemre ngo'a
irdi; nga/hemre ngo'a
a; ngi/hemre
ngo'a
i,
ngu/hemre ngo'a
u
one thousandth (from ujunere): Group I
e/ujunere go'a
e; ko1/ujunere go'a
o;
nde/ujunere go'a
erde; ndu/ujunere go'a
urdu; nge/ujunere go'a
e; ngo/ujunere
go'a
o Group II e/ujunere go'a
e; i/ujunere go'a
i; um/ujunere go'a
um;
kal/ujunere go'a
al; kol/ujunere go'a
ol; ngal/ujunere go'a
al; ngel/ujunere go'a
el;
ngol/ujunere go'a
ol; o/ujunere go'o Group III am/ujunere ngo'a
am; ka/ujunere
ngo'a
a; ki/ujunere ngo'a
i; ko2/ujunere ngo'a
o; koy/ujunere ngo'a
oy;
ndi/ujunere ngo'a
irdi; nga/ujunere ngo'a
a; ngi/ujunere ngo'a
i, ngu/ujunere
ngo'a
u

152
D. Adjectives Derived from Other Parts of Speech:
All of these adjectives in this fourth group are formed by conjugating some
other part of speech: verbs, interrogative pronouns (which may function as
adjectives), nouns, one preposition, and one adverb
1. Adjectives formed from verbs:
Most adjectives are formed from verbs. There are different endings which
can be attached to certain verb roots to create an adjective, which harmonize
the adjective with the noun class of the noun being modified (see details
below). Adjectives may appear to be similar to participles, but the
adjectives have their own distinct set of endings, tend to tamper with the
verb ROOT in order to phonetically harmonize the root with the endings, and
they do not conjugate as to VOICE and ASPECT as do participles. However,
adjectives do have the same pattern of initial consonant changes as that used
by participles and nouns (see Table 26.1 below). Certain Stative verbs
conjugate to form adjectives for each of the 24 noun classes.
Especially noteworthy are those verb relating to color or an animal’s coat
pattern. All of these verbs (except nyonndi
inde and sii
itinde) are
conjugated in the tables below, and they are all conjugated in the dictionary:

okki
inde – to be blind in one eye

fah
ude – to be deaf
fam
ude – to be small
fur
ude – to be dusty, dirty
guddi
inde – to be short or sawed off
hecci
inde – to be fresh, new (see CONJUGATION of green in Table 26.7)
helli
inde – to be speckled
hesi
inde – to be new
hey
ude – to be new
hiin
ude/hii

ude – to be old
huggi
inde – to be humped
laaude – to be clean, pure
lobbi
inde – to be beautiful
maandinde – to explain
mawnude – to be big
muum
ude – to be mute
nyonndi
inde – to speak with a nasal quality
rai
inde – to be short
rew
ude – to submit (see CONJUGATION of female in Table 26.10)
waggi
inde – to be soft, tender, young
wo
ude – to be other, another
wonude – to be
wootude – to be one
wor
ude – to be male (see CONJUGATION of male in Table 26.10)

awlude – to be black
bul
ude – to be blue
ool
ude – to be yellow
rawnude – to be white
sii
itinde – to be brownish
sii
ude - to be dark brown
wojjude – to be red
wuun
ude – to be grey

dargi
inde – to have patches of color

her
ude – to have patches of color
jamol
inde – to be mottled, dappled
malli
inde – to be spotted
noor
ude – to be patched
say
ude – to be speckled
siiw
ude – to be striped
sol
ude – to be speckled
waagi
inde – to have patches or bands of color

153
 2. Interrogative pronouns:
All of these mean “which” and can function as adjectives:204
eye (e) moye (o) ngiye (ngi)

ame (
am) ndeye (nde) ngole (ngol)

eye (
e) ndiye (ndi) ngoye (ngo)

iye (
i) nduye (ndu) nguye (ngu)
kale (kal) ngale (ngal) noy foti – how much
kaye (ka) ngaye (nga) oye (o)
kole (ko) ngele (ngel)
koye (koy) ngeye (nge)

3. Miscellaneous:
There is one adverb , one preposition, and two nouns which form adjectives
by conjugating for the pertinent noun classes.
arande – (adv) before

hakkunde – (prep) to be medium, average

goonga – (noun) truth (related to goon
ude)

ii – (noun) offspring

Features of Fulfulde adjectives:

Most adjectives are derived from verbs, but as noted above, there are a few that
are not (although some of these also have a related verbal form).

Initial consonant change of the word’s base form (generally per the rules set
forth in Table 26.1 below).

In some cases the verbal ROOT is tampered with in order to harmonize the ROOT
with the adjectival SUFFIXes.

In some cases (particularly with adjectives describing colors or coat patterns)
vowels are placed between the base form and the SUFFIXes.

Adjectival SUFFIXes, which are different than those used to form participles, are
then added to conjugate the adjective for each appropriate noun class. The two
main patterns, with their variations are listed below.

204
See Section 13.C, p. 88 for more information on the interrogative pronouns. See each pronouns’ listing in the
Burkina Faso Fulfulde-English/English-Fulfulde Dictionary for examples of how and when these pronouns are
used as adjectives.

154
 Table 26.1 Initial Consonant Changes of Adjectives (same as Table 5.1)
Initial GROUP I GROUP II GROUP III
Consonant of
e, ko, nde ndu, e, i, um, kal, kol, ngal, am, ka, ki, ko, koy,
Verb Root* nge, ngo ngel, ngol, o ndi, nga, ngi, ngu
b b b mb
d d d nd
g g g ng
j j j nj
f f p p

h h k k
s s c c
r r d nd
w w b mb
w w g ng
y y j nj
y y g ng

As noted above, there are changes that take place between the ROOT and the ending for
quite a number of adjectives. There is no clearly discernible logical pattern, but there
are a limited number of adjectives in Fulfulde and Tables 26.2-10 conjugate most of
these for your reference. See Section 10.B on Final Consonant Changes (page 66) for
an explanation of the variation of forms for some of these adjectives’ terminations in
the charts below. In particular, base forms ending with “
” tend to harmonize
extensively throughout the series, with the “
” morphing to whatever letter the SUFFIX
begins with; e.g. wo
- + e → wo-e, wo
- + ko → wok-ko, wo
- nde → won-nde,
wo
- +
am → ngo

am. Here are two basic patterns that the Fule follow in
forming the endings of these adjectives.
Pattern A: For most of the verbs, except malli
ine, say
ude, and six of eight verbs referring to
color, the root of the verb, minus its INFIX (usually “-i
” or “-
”) forms the base
of the adjective form, and some form of the noun class marker is added as the
SUFFIX. Unfortunately, this pattern has several varations, depending on the
phonetical environment at the end of the verb’s root. For a few of the verbs the
entire noun class marker is used as the SUFFIX; e.g. hey- + ko → hey-ko.205
Most of the adjectival SUFFIXes are formed by dropping the first letter (or blended
consonant such “ng”) of the noun class marker, and the remaining vowel becomes
the SUFFIX; e.g. hes- + ko → hes-o. Often the SUFFIXes for e, nde, ndi, and ndu
are a bit different than the rest in a series. Sometimes a facultative “u” is added
between the verb root and e; e.g.
okk- + u +e →
okk-ue.206 Sadly the the
nasal blend “nd” has five different ways it forms its SUFFIXes. In some case the
entire noun class marker is added as the SUFFIX; e.g. hiin-nde, maw-nde, won-ndi,
sii-ndu. Sometimes the “nd” morphs to “r” with the remaining vowel tacked on
the end to form the SUFFIX; e.g. nde → -re, ndi → -ri, ndu → -ru.207 For example:
hey-re, key-ri, hey-ru. At other times only the “n” is dropped to form the SUFFIX;
e.g. nde → -de, ndi → -di, ndu → -du.208 For example: wor-de, ngor-di, wor-du.
In other phonetical environments the “nd” is dropped, but then the remaining

205
This is true of hey-, hiin-, hii
-, maw-, and won-
206
In particular after b,
, d, g, k and t this facultative “u” is placed between the root and -e; e.g. lobb-ue,
ra-ue, gudd-ue, hugg-ue,
okk-ue, geet-ue. In other cases the -e is added to the verb root directly;
e.g. hey-e, fah-e, muum-e, fur-e, ol-e.
207
This SUFFIX (-re, -ri, -ru) is found when the verbal root ends with y, h, or m; e.g. hey-re, pah-ri, muum-ru.
208
This SUFFIX (-de, -di, -du) is found when the verb root ends with r or l; e.g. famar-de, ool-di.

155
 vowel reduplicates with a “r” inserted between the vowel to form the SUFFIX;
e.g. nde → -ere, ndi → -iri, ndu → -uru.209 For example: ra-ere, nda-iri,
ra-uru. As with other noun classes, a facultative “u” is placed between the verb
root and the noun class marker when the root ends with certain letters (see
footnote 206); e.g. laa-u-nde, laa-u-ndi, laa-u-ndu.

Pattern B: Particularly for the color adjectives, and a couple of the coat pattern adjectives, the
base form from which the adjectives are formed comprises some altered form of
the verb root - often letters are omitted from the verb’s root – with one or two
vowels tacked on the end as phonetical facilitators. What determines whether one
or two vowels are used between the base form and the SUFFIX is the length of the
SUFFIX. Most of the SUFFIXes are short (two letters) and with these a double
vowel is used between the base form and the SUFFIX; e.g. alee-ho (ko), danee-je
(
e), mbo
ee-wa (nga). For the long SUFFIXes derived from
am,
um, kal, kol,
koy, ngal, ngel, and ngol, only one vowel is inserted between the base form and
the SUFFIX; e.g. ale-jam (
am), ndane-hoy (koy), bo
e-wal (ngal). The initial
consonants of all of the SUFFIXes (except -e) morph to form the adjectival
SUFFIXes. The changes are mercifully regular:
→ j; k → h; nd → r; ng → w.

Note to language learners: Because of their slightly irregular formation, most

of the adjectives we know of at present are conjugated in Tables 26.2-10.
They are also all conjugated in the dictionary under their lexeme on the
Fulfulde side. Unless you have a photographic memory, you might do well to
pick a few of these that you think you might use regularly and memorize the
forms for the noun classes that are most extensively used (as was recommended
on page 101 in Section 14 dealing with participles). I would recommend
learning the forms for: o,
e, nde, ndu, ngal and nga.

209
These SUFFIXes (-ere, -iri, -uru) are found when the verb ROOT ends with b,
d, g, k or t; e.g. lobb-ere,
ra-ere, ngudd-iri, kugg-iri,
okk-uru, geet-uru. This is the same set of consonants that use a “u” between the
base form and -e.

156
 Table 26.2 Conjugation of Some Adjectives Formed From Verbs (new, old, small, big)
Verb
hes-i-inde† hey--ude† hiin--ude* hii--ude* fam--ude maw-n-ude§
Base Form
(h)es- (h)ey- (h)iin- hii- (f)amar- maw-
Noun Class Noun Adjective Forms
Marker

e yim
e hey-
e hiin-
e hii
-
e famar-
e maw-
e
ko huo hes-o hiin-ko hiik-ko famar-o maw-ko
nde dewtere hey-re hiin-nde hiin-nde famar-de maw-nde
ndu suudu hey-ru hiin-ndu hiin-ndu famar-du maw-ndu
nge nagge hes-e hiin-nge hiin-nge famar-e maw-nge
man-nge
ngo daago hes-o hiin-ngo hiin-ngo famar-o maw-ngo
man-ngo
e leye kes-e kiin-e kii-e pamar-e maw-e
i na’i kes-i kiin-i kii-i pamar-i maw-i
um um o kes-um kiin-um kii-um pamar-um maw-um
kal ndihal kes-al kiin-kal kiik-kal pamar-al maw-kal
kol nyalohol kes-ol kiin-kol kiik-kol pamar-ol maw-kol
ngal cofal kes-al kiin-ngal kiin-ngal pamar-al maw-ngal
man-ngal
ngel cukalel kes-el kiin-ngel kiin-ngel pamar-el maw-ngel
man-ngel
ngol kokuwol kes-ol kiin-ngol kiin-ngol pamar-ol maw-ngol
man-ngol
o neo kes-o kiin-o kii-o pamar-o mawo
am kosam kes-am kiin-am kii-am pamar-am maw-am
ka laana kes-a kiin-ka kiik-ka pamar-a maw-ka
ki lekki kes-i kiin-ki kiik-ki pamar-i maw-ki
ko2 na’o kes-o kiin-ko kiik-ko pamar-o maw-ko
koy kuukoy kes-oy kiin-koy kiik-koy pamar-oy maw-koy
ndi ngaari key-ri kiin-ndi kiin-ndi pamar-di maw-ndi
nga ngesa kes-a kiin-nga kiin-nga pamar-a maw-nga
man-nga
ngi naggi kes-i kiin-ngi kiin-ngi pamar-i maw-ngi
man-ngi
ngu puccu kes-u kiin-ngu kiin-ngu pamar-u maw-ngu
man-ngu

†
These two sets of adjectives are complementary and mean the same thing – to be new. The verb root √hes- is used
for all the noun classes, except e, nde, ndi, and ndu, where the root √hey- is used instead.
*It appears hiin
ude is the original verb form, and hii

ude is the harmonized version, which may be the more
familiar of the two forms. Note the extensive harmonization that continues throughout the series with hii

ude.
§
Note that with mawnude, the verb root’s final “n” is dropped and the base form used in forming adjectives
becomes maw-. Also, when the base form maw- is followed by “ng,” it can also harmonize to man-;
e.g. maw-ngu, man-ngu.

Note: Stative verbs using the “-i-/--” INFIX typically drop the INFIX both when forming adjectives or
participles. Note with famude not only is the “--” INFIX dropped, but “-ar-” is added as the
base form’s termination for phonetical reasons.

157
 Table 26.3 Conjugation of Some Adjectives Formed From Verbs (blind, deaf, mute, humped, short)
Verb
okk-i-inde* fah--ude† muum--ude† hugg-i-inde* gudd-i-inde* ra

-i-inde*
Base Form
okk- fah- muum- hugg- gudd- ra

-
Noun Noun Adjective Forms
Class
Marker

e yim
e okk-u
e fah-
e muum-
e hugg-u
e gudd-u
e ra

-u
e
ko1 huo gudd-o ra

-o
nde wojere okk-ere fah-re muum-re hugg-ere gudd-ere ra

-ere
ndu
oosaaru okk-uru fah-ru muum-ru hugg-uru gudd-uru ra

-uru
nge nagge okk-e fah-e muum-e hugg-e gudd-e ra

-e
ngo daago gudd-o ra

-o
e cofe okk-e pah-e muum-e kugg-e gudd-e da

-e
i na’i okk-i pah-i muum-i kugg-i gudd-i da

-i
um um o okk-um pah-um muum-um kugg-um gudd-um da

-um
kal ndihal
kol nyalohol okk-ol pah-ol muum-ol kugg-ol gudd-ol da

-ol
ngal cofal okk-al pah-al muum-al kugg-al gudd-al da

-al
ngel cukalel okk-el pah-el muum-el kugg-el gudd-el da

-el
ngol ‘
oggol’210 okk-ol gudd-ol da

-ol
o neo okk-o pah-o muum-o kugg-o gudd-o da

-o
am lamam ngudd-am nda

-am
ka laana ngudd-a nda

-a
ki lekki kugg-i ngudd-i nda

-i
ko2 na’o okk-o pah-o muum-o kugg-o ngudd-o nda

-o
koy
iikoy okk-oy pah-oy muum-oy kugg-oy ngudd-oy nda

-oy
ndi ngaari okk-iri pah-ri muum-ri kugg-iri ngudd-iri nda

-iri
nga araawa okk-a pah-a muum-a kugg-a ngudd-a nda

-a
ngi naggi okk-i pah-i muum-i kugg-i ngudd-i nda

-i
ngu puccu okk-u pah-u muum-u kugg-u ngudd-u nda

-u

* The adjectives formed from
okki
inde, huggi
inde, gu

i
inde and rai
inde all follow the same pattern.
For most noun classes only the final letter(s) of the noun class marker is used as the SUFFIX with the initial
consonant or consonant blend being dropped. As often is the case, the endings for e (-ue), nde (-ere), ndi (-iri),
and ndu (-uru) are consistently irregular to the rest.
†
The adjectives formed from fah
ude and muum
ude are largely formed the same as the other adjectives in this
chart – that is by using the final letter(s) of the noun class marker as the SUFFIX. However, the four “irregular”
noun classes use a different scheme for forming adjectives as there is no connecting vowel between the base form
and the SUFFIX; e.g. e (-e), nde (-re), ndi (-ri), ndu (-ru). Also, the “” is retained for the noun classes
e (-e),

i (-i),
um (-um), and o (-o).

Note: Stative verbs using the “-i-/--” INFIX typically drop the INFIX both when forming adjectives or
participles.

210
‘oggol’ refers to a snake.

158
 Table 26.4 Conjugation of Some Adjectives Formed From Verbs (clean, dirty, perfect, good, soft)
Verb
laa
-ude fur--ude geet-i-inde lobb-ude wagg-i-inde
Base Form
laa
(u)-* fur- geet- lobb- (w)agg-
Noun Class Noun Adjective Forms
Marker

e yim
e laa
(u)-
e fur-
e geet-u
e lobb-u
e wagg-u
e
ko1 huo laa
(u)-ko fur-o lobb-o wagg-o
nde wojere laa
u-nde fur-de geet-ere lobb-ere wagg-ere
ndu fowru laa
u-ndu fur-du geet-uru lobb-uru wagg-uru
nge nagge laa
u-nge fur-e geet-e lobb-e wagg-e
ngo daago laa
u-ngo fur-o lobb-o wagg-o
e disaaje laa
(u)-e pur-e geet-e lobb-e bagg-e
i na’i laa
(u)-i pur-i geet-i lobb-i bagg-i
um um o laa
(u)-um pur-um geet-um lobb-um bagg-um
kal kuolal laa
(u)-kal pur-al lobb-al bagg-al
kol nyalohol laa
(u)-kol pur-ol geet-ol lobb-ol bagg-ol
ngal cofal laa
u-ngal pur-al geet-al lobb-al bagg-al
ngel cukalel laa
u-ngel pur-el geet-el lobb-el bagg-el
ngol
oggol laa
u-ngol pur-ol lobb-ol bagg-ol
o neo laa
-(u)o* pur-o geet-o lobb-o bagg-o
am kosam laa
(u)-am pur-am lobb-am
ka laana laa
(u)-ka pur-a lobb-a mbagg-a
ki lekki laa
(u)-ki pur-i lobb-i mbagg-i
ko2 na’o laa
(u)-ko pur-o ngeet-o lobb-o mbagg-o
koy cukaloy laa
(u)-koy pur-oy ngeet-oy lobb-oy mbagg-oy
ndi ngaari laa
u-ndi pur-di ngeet-iri lobb-iri mbgagg-iri
nga ngora laa
u-nga pur-a ngeet-a lobb-a mbagg-a
ngi naggi laa
u-ngi pur-i ngeet-i lobb-i mbagg-i
ngu puccu laa
u-ngu pur-u ngeet-u lobb-u mbagg-u

*A second series of adjectives can be formed for laaude, except for the o noun class: laam- + -noun class
marker. For example: laame (e), laam
e (e), laam
am (
am).

Note: Stative verbs using the “-i-/--” INFIX typically drop the INFIX both when forming adjectives or
participles.

159
 Table 26.5 Conjugation of Some Adjectives Formed From Verbs (none, one, another, together)
Verb

ol-ude woot-ude∂ wo-ude† won-ude§
Base Form

ol-* woot- wo- won-
Noun Class Noun Adjective Forms
Markers

e yim
e
ol-
e wo
-
e won-
e
ko huo
ol-o woot-o wok-ko won-ko
nde tummbude
ol-de woot-ere won-nde won-nde
ndu suudu
ol-du woot-uru won-ndu won-ndu
nge nagge
ol-e woot-e won-nge won-nge
ngo daago
ol-o woot-o won-ngo won-ngo
e leye
ol-e go-e gon-e
i na’i
ol-i go-i gon-i
um um o
ol-um goot-um go-um gon-um
kal ndihal
ol-ol goot-al gok-kal gon-kal
kol nyalohol
ol-ol goot-ol gok-kol gon-kol
ngal cofal
ol-al goot-al gon-ngal gon-ngal
ngel cukalel
ol-el goot-el gon-ngel gon-ngel
ngol kokuwol
ol-ol goot-ol gon-ngol gon-ngol
o neo
ol-o goot-o go-o gon-o
am kosam
ol-am ngoot-am ngo-am ngon-am
ka laana
ol-a ngoot-a ngok-ka ngon-ka
ki lekki
ol-i ngoot-i ngok-ki ngon-ki
ko2 na’o
ol-o ngok-ko ngon-ko
koy cukaloy
ol-oy ngok-koy ngon-koy
ndi ngaari
ol-di ngoot-iri ngon-ndi ngon-ndi
nga ngesa
ol-a ngoot-a ngon-nga ngon-nga
ngi naggi
ol-i ngoot-i ngon-ngi ngon-ngi
ngu puccu
ol-u ngoot-u ngon-ngu ngon-ngu

*As is generally the case, the “stative” INFIX -
- is dropped in forming the base form from which the adjectives are
formed. In this series all only the last letter (or two) of the noun class is used. As is often the case the adjectives
for nde, ndi, and ndu are formed slightly differently than the others.
∂
This verb is not used in Burkina for anything except as the ROOT used in forming these adjectives meaning
“one of.”
†
The verb wo
ude (other, another) is not used for anything except the formation of adjectives. Note that
throughout this series the verb ROOT’s termination “” harmonizes with the first consonant of the noun class
marker. This same ROOT √wo
- is also used to form the series of adjectives for something red (see Table 26.6).
§
Becareful not to conflate the adjectives coming from wonude with those coming from wo
ude. With the noun
class markers that begin with a “n” the forms of the these two sets of adjectives is identical, which can be
confusing! However “another horse” (puccu ngonngu – from √wo
- ) is not the same as “the horse with me”
(puccu ngonngu – from √won- ).

160
 Colors

Table 26.6 Conjugation of Some Adjectives Formed From Verbs (black, white, red, yellow, grey, brown)
Verb

awl-ude† rawn-ude† wo-ude* ool--ude wuun--ude† sii--ude
Base Form

ale(e)- (r)anee- (w)oe(e)- ool- (w)une(e)- (s)ii-
Noun Class Noun Adjective Forms
Marker

e yim
e
alee-
e ranee-
e woee-
e ool-
e wunee-
e sii-
e
ko huo
alee-ho ranee-ho woee-ho ool-o wunee-ho sii-ko
nde tummbude
alee-re ranee-re woee-re ool-de wunee-re sii-nde
ndu suudu
alee-ru ranee-ru woee-ru ool-du wunee-ru sii-ndu
nge nagge
alee-we ranee-we woee-we ool-e wunee-we sii-nge
ngo daago
alee-wo ranee-wo woee-wo ool-o wunee-wo sii-ngo
e disaaje
alee-je danee-je boee-je ool-e bunee-je cii-e
i na’i
alee-ji danee-ji boee-ji ool-i bunee-ji cii-i
um um o
ale-jum dane-jum boe-jum ool-um bune-jum cii-um
kal ndihal
ale-hal dane-hal boe-hal ool-al bune-hal cii-kal
kol nyalohol
ale-hol dane-hol boe-hol ool-ol bune-hol cii-kol
ngal cofal
ale-wal dane-wal boe-wal ool-al bune-wal cii-ngal
ngel cukalel
ale-wel dane-wel boe-wel ool-el bune-wel cii-ngel
ngol
oggol
ale-wol dane-wol boe-wol ool-ol bune-wol cii-ngol
o neo
alee-jo danee-jo boee-jo ool-o bunee-jo cii-o
am kosam
ale-jam ndane-jam mboe-jam ool-am mbune-jam cii-am
ka laana
ale-ha ndanee-ha mboee-ha ool-a mbunee-ha cii-ka
ki lekki
alee-hi ndanee-hi mboee-hi ool-i mbunee-hi cii-ki
ko2 na’o
alee-ho ndanee-ho mboee-ho ool-o mbunee-ho cii-ko
koy cukaloy
ale-hoy ndane-hoy mboe-hoy ool-oy mbune-hoy cii-koy
ndi ngaari
alee-ri ndanee-ri mboee-ri ool-di mbunee-ri cii-ndi
nga mbeewa
alee-wa ndanee-wa mboee-wa ool-a mbunee-wa cii-nga
ngi naggi
alee-wi ndanee-wi mboee-wi ool-i mbunee-wi cii-ngi
ngu puccu
alee-wu ndanee-wu mboee-wu ool-u mbunee-wu cii-ngu

†
With the base forms which end in a double vowel (i.e. alee-, ranee-, wo
ee-, wunee-) the long vowel sound is
maintained before a short SUFFIX and shorten before a long SUFFIX; e.g
alee-wu vs.
ale-hoy

*While the verb meaning to be red is wojjude the suppletive root √wo
- is used to form the adjectives. This ROOT
is also used to form the adjectives describing “another, other” – see Table 26.5

Note: Stative verbs using the “-i-/--” INFIX typically drop the INFIX both when forming adjectives or
participles.

161
 Table 26.7 Conjugation of Some Adjectives (blue, green, different) & an Adverb (before)
Verb/Adjective/Adverb
bul--ude hecc-i-inde feere arande
§ † ¥ ‡
Base Form
bulabula(a)- huo hecco(o)- feere(e)- arande(e)-
Noun Class Noun Adjective Forms
Marker

e yim
e bulabulaa-e hu
o heccoo-e feeree-
e arandee-
e
ko1 huo bulabulaa-ho huo heccoo-ho feeree-ho arandee-ho
nde tummbude bulabulaa-re huo heccoo-re feeree-re arandee-re
ndu suudu bulabulaa-ru huo heccoo-ru feeree-ru arandee-ru
nge yiite bulabulaa-we huo heccoo-we feeree-we arandee-we
ngo daago bulabulaa-wo huo heccoo-wo feeree-wo arandee-wo
e leye bulabulaa-je huo heccoo-je feeree-je arandee-je
i na’i bulabulaa-ji huo heccoo-ji feeree-ji arandee-ji
um um o bulabula-jum huo hecco-jum feere-jum arande-jum
kal ndihal bulabula-hal huo hecco-hal feere-hal arande-hal
kol nyalohol bulabula-hol hu
o hecco-hol feere-hol arande-hol
ngal cofal bulabula-wal huo hecco-wal feere-wal arande-wal
ngel siwowel bulabula-wel huo hecco-wel feere-wel arande-wel
ngol kokowol bulabula-wol huo hecco-wol feere-wol arande-wol
o montoro bulabulaa-jo huo heccoo-jo feeree-jo arandee-jo
am kosam mbulambula-jam huo hecco-jam feere-jam arande-jam
ka laana mbulambulaa-ha huo heccoo-ha feeree-ha arandee-ha
ki lekki mbulambulaa-hi huo heccoo-hi feeree-hi arandee-hi
ko2 na’o mbulambulaa-ho huo heccoo-ho feeree-ho arandee-ho
koy paoy mbulambula-hoy huo hecco-hoy feere-hoy arande-hoy
ndi ngaari mbulambulaa-ri huo heccoo-ri feeree-ri arandee-ri
nga cuuga mbulambulaa-wa huo heccoo-wa feeree-wa arandee-wa
ngi cuugi mbulambulaa-wi huo heccoo-wi feeree-wi arandee-wi
ngu cuugu mbulambula-wu huo heccoo-wu feeree-wu arandee-wu

§
This is an adjective, but it is allied to the verb bul
ude. Obviously the adjective form for some of these noun
classes would be rarely, if ever, used by the Fule. For example, we refer to someone turning “blue,” but for
obvious reasons they would not think to do so.
†
This is an adjective, but it is allied to the verb hecci
inde. Obviously the adjective form for some of these noun
classes would be rarely, if ever, used by the Fule. For example, we refer to “little green men,” but they don’t
know of such a thing.
¥
This is an adjective which conjugates for each noun class.
‡
This is an adverb which conjugates to form adjectives for each noun class.

Note: Each of the base forms for these four words ends in a double vowel and the long vowel sound is maintained
before a short SUFFIX and shortened before a long SUFFIX; e.g. feeree-wu vs. feere-hoy. This is not always the case
for adjectives using this B pattern that are not built upon a verb root.

Note: Stative verbs using the “-i-/--” INFIX typically drop the INFIX both when forming adjectives or
participles.

162
 Coat Patterns

Table 26.8 Conjugation of Some Adjectives (banded, blotched, patched, spotted)*

Verb
daak-i-inde waag-i-inde darg-i-inde her--ude noor--ude siiw--ude
Base Form
daak- waag- darg- hero(o)- noor- siiw-
Noun Noun
Class Adjective Forms
Marker

e yim
e darg-u
e heroo-
e
ko1 huo
nde huunde daak-ere waag-ere darg-ere heroo-re noor-de siiw-re
ndu rawaandu waag-uru darg-uru heroo-ru siiw-ru
nge nagge daak-e waag-e darg-e heroo-we noor-e siiw-e
ngo daago siiw-o
e disaaje baag-e darg-e keroo-je ciiw-e
i na’i daak-i baag-i darg-i keroo-ji noor-i ciiw-i
um um o daak-um baag-um darg-um kero-jum noor-um ciiw-um
kal ndihal
kol nyalohol daak-ol baag-ol darg-ol kero-hol noor-ol ciiw-ol
ngal naggal daak-al baag-al darg-al kero-wal noor-al ciiw-al
ngel naggel daak-el baag-el darg-el kero-wel noor-el ciiw-el
ngol ‘
oggol’ ciiw-ol
o neo baag-o darg-o keroo-jo
am kosam
ka saaya mbaag-a keroo-ha ciiw-a
ki lekki
ko2 na’o ndaak-o mbaag-o ndarg-o keroo-ho noor-o ciiw-o
koy na’oy ndaak-oy mbaag-oy ndarg-oy kero-hoy noor-oy ciiw-oy
ndi ngaari ndaak-iri or mbaag-iri ndarg-iri keroo-ri noor-di ciiw-ri
ndaa-ri
nga nagga ndaak-a mbaag-a ndarg-a keroo-wa noor-a ciiw-a
ngi naggi ndaak-i mbaag-i ndarg-i keroo-wi noor-i ciiw-i
ngu naggu ndaak-u mbaag-u ndarg-u keroo-wu noor-u ciiw-u

*Note: these terms are specifically used for different types of animals. Only the terms applicable to those animals
are therefore listed. See dictionary for the details.

Note: Stative verbs using the “-i-/--” INFIX typically drop the INFIX both when forming adjectives or
participles.

163
 Table 26.9 Adjectives Formed From Verbs (dappled, speckled, spotted)*
Verb
jamol--inde say--ude sayg-i-inde hell-i-inde sol--ude mall-i-inde
Noun Class Marker jamal- saye(e)- sayg- hell- sod- malle(e)-

Noun Adjective Forms

e yim
e sayee-
e mallee-
e
ko1 huo sayee-ho
nde huunde jamal-de sayee-re sayg-ere hell-ere sol-de mallee-re
ndu rawaandu jamal-du sayee-ru sol-du mallee-ru
nge nagge jamal-e sayee-we sayg-e sol-e mallee-we
ngo daago sayee-wo mallee-wo
e kulle jamal-e cayee-je cayg-e col-e mallee-je
i na’i jamal-i cayee-ji kell-i col-i mallee-ji
be’i cayg-i
um um o jamal-um caye-jum cayg-um kell-um col-um malle-jum
kal ndihal caye-hal
kol nyalohol jamal-ol caye-hol cayg-ol col-ol malle-hol
ngal naggal jamal-al caye-wal kell-al col-al malle-wal
be’al cayg-al
ngel naggel jamal-el caye-wel kell-el col-el malle-wel
be’el cayg-el
ngol “
oggol” caye-wol malle-wol
o forgo jamal-o cayee-jo mallee-jo
am kosam caye-jam
ka saaya njamal-a cayee-ha mallee-ha
ki lekki cayee-hi
ko2 na’o njamal-o cayee-ho kell-o col-o mallee-ho
mbe’o cayg-o
koy na’oy njamal-oy caye-hoy kell-oy col-oy malle-hoy
mbe’oy cayg-oy
ndi ngaari njamal-di cayee-ri kell-iri col-di mallee-ri
ndamndi cayg-iri
nga nagga njamal-a cayee-wa kell-a col-a mallee-wa
mbeewa cayg-a
ngi naggi njamal-i cayee-wi kell-i col-i mallee-wi
mbe’i cayg-i
ngu naggu njamal-u cayee-wu kell-u col-u mallee-wu
mbe’u cayg-u

*Note: these terms are specifically used for different types of animals. Only the terms applicable to those animals
are therefore listed. See dictionary for the details.

Note: Stative verbs using the “-i-/--” INFIX typically drop the INFIX both when forming adjectives or
participles.

164
 Table 26.10
Conjugations of Some Adjectives Formed From a Preposition (average),
Nouns (offspring, truth) & Verbs (female, male, explain)
Preposition/ Hakkunde
ii goon--ude rew--ude† wor--ude§ maan-d-inde¥
Noun/Verb


Base Form Hakkunde(e)-*
iyii-
∂ goonga(a)/(laa)-‡ (r)ew- (w)or- maanii-


Noun Class Noun Adjective Forms
Markers

e yim
e hakkundee
e
iyii-
e goongaa-
e rew-
e wor-
e maanii-
e
ko1 huo hakkundee-ho
iyii-ko goongaa-ho maanii-ho
nde wojjere hakkundee-re
iyii-re goongaa-re rew-re wor-de maanii-re
ndu
oosaaru hakkundee-ru
iyii-ru goongaa-ru rew-ru wor-du maanii-ru
nge nagge hakkundee-we
iyii-ge goongaa-we rew-e maanii-we
ngo maayo hakkundee-wo
iyii-go goongaa-wo maanii-wo
e kulle hakkundee-je
iyii-je goongaa-je dew-e gor-e maanii-je
i dawaai hakkundee-jo
iyii-ji goongaa-ji deb-bi gor-i maanii-ji
um um o hakkunde-jum
iyii-jum goonga-jum dew-um gor-um maani-jum
kal ndihal hakkunde-hal goonga-hal maani-hal
kol puccu hakkunde-hol
iyii-kol goonga-hol dew-ol gor-ol maani-hol
§
ngal cofal hakkunde-wal
iyii-gal goonga-wal dew-al gor-al maani-wal
§
ngel naggel hakkunde-wel
iyii-gel goonga-wel dew-el gor-el maani-wel
ngol “
oggol” hakkunde-wol
iyii-gol goonga-wol dew-ol gor-ol maani-wol
o neo hakkunde-jo biyii-ko goongaa-jo deb-bo gor-ko maanii-jo
am kosam hakkunde-jam ngoonga-jam maani-jam
ka haala hakkundee-ha
iyii-ka ngoongaa-ha ndew-a ngor-a maanii-ha
ki lekki hakkundee-hi
iyii-ki ngoongaa-hi ndew-i ngor-i maanii-hi
§
ko2 na’o
iyii-ko ngoongaa-ho ndew-o ngor-o maanii-ho
koy kuukoy hakkunde-hoy
iyii-koy ngoonga-hoy ndew-oy ngor-oy maani-hoy
ndi ngaari hakkundee-ri
iyii-ri ngoogaa-ri ndew-i maanii-ri
§
nga mbeewa hakkundee-wa
iyii-ga ngoongaa-wa ndew-a ngor-a maanii-wa
§
ngi naggi
iyii-gi ngoongaa-wi ndew-i ngor-i maanii-wi
ngu puccu hakkundee-wu
iyii-gu ngoongaa-wu ndew-u ngor-u maanii-wu

*This series of adjectives comes from the preposition hakkunde, here meaning “average in size.” There is no
adjective formed for the noun classes ko2 or ngi as they refer to exculsively large things. Note that some speakers
refer to an average cow as hakkundeeye, with the “y” replacing the “w.” Note that unlike with verbs, whose first
letter undergoes change from group to group, the adjectives springing from this preposition do not undergo any
change in the first consonant from group to group.
∂
These series of adjectives formed from the noun ii (offspring) uses the base form iyii-. Note that unlike
adjectives in pattern B (see page 156), the double vowels at the end of the base form are not shortened when using
the longer SUFFIXes; e.g. iyiikoy NOT iyikoy. This irregularity is likely due to the fact these adjective are
springing from a noun and not a verb. The SUFFIX for the o class is a bit surprising too – iyii-ko rather than
something like iyii-
o. Note how the adjective formed from the base iyii- are irregular the initial “k” is retained
but the “” morphs to “j,” the “nd” morphs to “r” but the “ng” doesn’t morph to “w,” rather the “n” is dropped
and the rest is added as the suffix (iyii+ ngu → iyii-gu). The other words look regular.
‡
It appears this group of adjective come from the noun goonga, which is related to the verb goon
ude (to tell the
truth). With these adjectives formed from the noun goonga, there are two possible base form terminations, the
shorter one is –a(a)- and the longer one is –ala(a)-. Either can be used for any of the noun classes; e.g. puccu
ngoongalaawu, cofoy ngoongalahoy
†
This series of adjectives actually meaning a “female” spring from the verb rew
ude (to submit). The form for the

i and o classes are surprising; i.e. debbi and debbo rather than the expected dewi and dewo.
§
Ed. Note: it seemed to me that if “female” springs from a verb, then so should “male,” but none of my informants
know of such a verb. So I am going out on the limb a bit here and speculating that it exists, but is only used to
form adjectives. This is the same situation as with wootude or wo
ude. In my formulation of this verb I use the
same “to be” INFIX used with the word that generates the adjectives for female. A perusal of the dictionary shows
the importance of this base form in masculine words; e.g. goraaku (masculinity, manhood), ngorba/gorbi (male
donkey/pl.), gorgu (penis, courage), gorko/wore (man, boy), goroo (husband), gortalo (unmarried man).
The forms used with noun classes designating large things (ngal, ko2, nga, and ngi) or small things (ngel) would
not correspond to animals but to people.

Note: Stative verbs using the “-i-/--” INFIX typically drop the INFIX both when forming adjective or
participles.

165
Here are some examples of the use of adjectives. The adjectives are in bold type:
Burayma hokku ma nde? A’aa, ne

o go

o hokkii kam.
Did Burayma give it to you? No, another person gave it to me.

Aysata soodii cofal pamaral ngal.

Aysata bought that small chicken.

Suudu famardu ndu tan wuli.

Only the small hut burned.

Burayma naatii ley suudu mawndu ndu.

Burayma entered that large hut.

Mi walaa daago hiinngo sakko heso.

I don’t have an old mat much less a new one.

Mi jogaaki tummbude si wanaa tummbude hiinnde nde tan.

I don’t have any calabashes except this old one.

Nagge maaniiwe ndiilunoomaami rawanin nge eynii.

Such and such a cow which I gave you to milk last year, gave birth.

Yime arandeee na mbuuranno duui ujunere.

The ancients (the people in ancient times) lived for a thousand years.

Laana arandeeha da
ata.

The first canoe wins (the race).

A
a jogi suudu lobburu de/koy.

You have a nice hut, that’s for sure.

Ngaari aleeri ndi na boni sanne.

The black bull is very difficult to handle/is a big nuisance.

Nagge wo
eewe e nagge wuule wo
eewe keddii iraaka.

The brown cow and the white faced brown cow still have not been milked.

166
27. ADVERBS
In Fulfulde syntax adverbs may appear either before or after the verbs they are
modifying. It is important to recognize that adverbs, unlike adjectives, never
conjugate. Most adverbs modify the verb they relate to by telling us how, how much,
when, where or why something is happening:

How How Much

hasi – maybe, perhaps, possibily, probably ba - nothing
heese – carefully, leisurely, gently, slowly fes - nothing
ina moa – maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably fey - nothing
kori – hopefully hunnde – a lot
koy – certainly, surely, of course sanne – very, a lot
law – quickly, early sea/seea – a little
nii – this, like this
no – how
non/noon – as, like this, in this way or manner
noy – how
seese – carefully, leisurely, gently, slowly
sikan – quickly, early
tan – only

Comparatively How
dagu/ndagu – like, as
diina/illa – better than, more than, rather than
haddu/haggu – like, just like, as, in the manner
gootum/fuu gootum – same
hano/hono – like, as
liddi - opposite
sakko – much less, let alone

Some examples of how comparative adverbs are use:

Hikka mi yahan Maasina diina Mopti.
This year I will go to Maasina rather than Mopti.

Suudu nduu
o e suudu nduuto, fuu gootum.

This hut and that hut are the same.

Abada mi yi’aay ndunngu hono ndunngu hikka.

I have never seen a rainy season like this year’s rainy season.

Mi walaa kaalisi sakko mi sooda radio.

I don’t have any money much less buy a radio.

There is also a group of verbs which are often employed in comparing different
things. These include:

urude – to be better
faaytinde – to resemble, be comparable
jaasude – to be the least, worst
miccinde – to resemble, to remind one off
seerude – to be separate
seedude – to be different
nanndude – to look alike, resemble
wa’ude – to resemble
waldaa/wondaa211 – to be different, not the same
wayde – to resemble

211
Waldaa and wondaa are Stative Negative FORMs of wondude.

167
Here are some examples using verbs as comparatives:
Suudu nduu
o e suudu nduuto, waldaa.
This hut and that hut are not the same.

Puccu Lobbo na uri pucci fuu.

Lobbo’s horse is better than all the other horses.

um uri.
That’s better.

Ko urani ma fuu.
Whatever is better for you.

Ndunngu 1984 kam jaasii fuu.

The rainy season of 1984 was the worst.

Na seedi see
a.
They are a little bit different.

Araaji mae
i na nanndi.

Their donkeys look like each other.

Huunde nde piloto
aa na wa’i hono horde naa tummbude?

The thing you are looking for is like a laddle or a calabash?

Superlatively How

ati/
eta – new, soft
bil/pet – full
bugu – smells good
butum/doli – soft
butum/doli/mugu/neke/yutum - finely ground
buy – yellow
buy/gusa/uur - smells good
cak/cap – just right
cay/dak/mup - blind
celem/cololoy - dilute
cerem – pointed
corom/taray/to
ol/torom - sour
coy - red
er/iti/nyir/nyiti – thin
dik/ti
a/tip – concentrated, thick
doli/yoti/yuta – smooth
dugu/duk/dus – stinks
far/tarr – white
fasii/jaati/kak/kap/menga/pasii/pay- exactly
fos/foy – a lot
hosi/nyar/waki – rough
jaw/juk/taw – hot
kak/poo/tak - dead
ka/kay/kolo/ko/korom/koro – hard
kati/roki/tok – bitter
kirim/kurum/tiki – black
legi/lesa/leti – soft
luy/nyirim – pointed
mati/nigi/resem/yerem/erem – cold
paca/pata/poto – moist, soggy, wet
pul – nice
sim/sip/sit/siw – at once
tal – clean

168
 These superlative adverbs intensify the main verb. Here are a few examples of
how they are used:
Debbo maw
o oon na wumi dak.
That old woman is really blind.

Araawa Maamuudu waatii tak!

Maamuudu’s donkey is really dead!

Amnatu, cobbal maa na moddi dik!

Amnatu, you cobal is very thick!

Nde wore een pa

unoo Yunusa ley maayo henndu deinii siw.
When the men had thrown Jonah into the sea the wind calmed down all at once.

When
abada - never; (faa abada - forever) rawtanin – 2 years ago
arande/aranel/fadde212 – before rawanin/rowanin – last year
de/deen/denno – then
gilla/illa/jilla – since, before subaka – early morning, tomorrow
ginan/tafon/tahen/tawam/tuwam – not yet jaango – tomorrow
jonkaa – now, therefore fa

i/fai jaango – in 2 days
joonin – now fa

iti/faiti jaango – in 3 days
kadin/kasen/katin/gadin/gasin/gatin – again faitittiyel/fa

itittiyel jaango – in 4 days
naadiri – once in a while
naanen – a short while ago hannden - today
nde – when, then
ndeen – then keean – yesterday
ndeen kaa/deen kay – back then, in those days, at that time kiyam – yesterday
ndelle - so then, therefore, consequently, hence hecci keean – 2 days ago
nyannden – the other day hecciti keean – 3 days ago
heccitiriiti keean – 4 days ago
heccitiriiti keean – 5 days ago

mawuuri – next year

mawtuuri – in 2 years

Where
o/ga – here gorgal – west
on/oon – here or there hiirnaange - west
gere goo – somewhere
inan/nani – here it is horoore – south
to – there horoore-gorgaare – southwest
ton/toon – there horoore-lettugaare – southeast
toy – where
yeeso – ahead, beyond, forward lettugal – east

saahel – north
so

iire – north
so

iire-gorgaare – northwest
so

iire-lettugaare – northeast

212
See Section 19.C, p. 122 for a discussion of how fadde is used.

169
 Why
ko saabi – why batte – because
ko wa
i – why de – so, so that, therefore, that is why
konno – why dow ko – since, seeing that
gam – because, because of, since
gilla – since, before
taa – so as not
fi – because of
gaaya – because of
kammbari – because
ndelle – so then, therefore, consequently, hence
ngam – because, because of, since
saabe – because of
sabu/o – because, since

Miscellaneous Adverbs
Finally, here are a few miscellaneous adverbs that don’t fit into the above patterns:
a'aa - no ba(a) – even
ayyo - yes fay – even, though
ba se/fay si – even if, because
do/du – also, too
de – so, so that
jakka – even, even though, so, so that

28. CONJUNCTIONS

If one studies the dictionary, one finds in English that often it is hard to tease apart
when some words function as CONJUNCTIONS and when they function as adverbs.
That is true in Fulfulde too. A number of the words listed below can function as
either CONJUNCTIONS or adverbs. CONJUNCTIONS might be divided into two large
groups. The first group would be COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. These are
CONJUNCTIONS that “glue” two INDEPENDENT CLAUSEs together. The second group
would be SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. These are CONJUNCTIONS which are used to
join an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE to a dependent clause.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS213
ammaa/kaa/kay – but, however
de - and, and then, and yet, but, but still, however, that even
e - and, plus
maa/naa - or, nor

213
See the discussion on COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS under CONJUNCTIONS in the Glossary, p. 180.

170
 SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS214
ba de/fay nde/batte – even when
ba se/fay si/fay so/batte – even if
de – that
faa/fao - until
fay ko - even though, though, although
fay nde - even when
fay si/so - even if
gam/gan/ngam/sabo/sabu - because, because of, since
ke/ko – that
salla/yalla - whether, whether or not, if
se/si/so - if
si wanaa/so wanaa - if not, unless, except

Because the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS have been extensively dealt with

elsewhere (see footnote 214 below) only the COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS will be
focused on here.

Ammaa and naa, and their cognates (see list above) are used to join contrasting
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES together. For example:

O yehii luumo kaa o soodaay fay huunde.

He went to market but he didn’t buy anything.

A yahan luumo naa a yahan Pentenga?

Are you going to market or are you going to Pentenga?

De is a commonly occurring CONJUNCTION

which generally is used as a
COORDINATING CONJUNCTION meaning “and” or “and then.” Because this
formulation is most often used in narrations where the Relative verb FORM is
the “default” FORM, de is often associated with the Relative FORM. However, it
is the narration that is triggering the Relative FORM, not de! De can also be
used like ammaa, kaa and naa as a contrasting CONJUNCTION meaning “and
then,” “and yet,” “but,” “but still,” and “however.”

Matta 4:20 Wakkati oon fuu e njoppi fiiliiji mae de e njokki
um.
Matthew 4:20 At that time they left their nets and they followed him.

Matta 11:18-19a “Yaayaa warii, nyaamataa buuru, yarataa ndiyam inaboojam

lamminaa
am de yime mbi’ii imo wondi e nginnaaw. De miin, ii-
Ne

o, mi warii, mi
o nyaama, mi
o yara ndiyam inaboojam
lamminaa
am de yime mbi’ii wo mi kaan
u
o, wo mi culii
o, wo mi
ji

o nanngooe lampo wa
ooe hakkeeji e wa
ooe hakkeeji woe.”
Matthew 11:18-19a “John came neither eating nor drinking and they said ‘he
has a demon.’ But I, the Son of Man, came eating and drinking and
they said I am a glutton, I am a drunk, I am a lover of tax collectors and
sinners.”

Matta 9:37 O wi’i taalibaae makko: “Ko taetee ina heewi de taooe
keewaa.”
Matthew 9:37 He said to his disciples, “The harvest is bountiful but the
workers are few.”

214
See the discussion on SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS under CONJUNCTIONS in the Glossary, p. 180. Most of these
CONJUNCTIONS are also discussed under TRIGGER WORDS in the Glossary, p. 183 ff. Finally, a thorough treatment
of subordination can be found in Section 25, p. 145 ff.

171
 Matta 10:28 “Taa kulon waawe ittude yonkiiji de ngalaa baaw
e dow majji
katin.”
Matthew 10:28 “Don’t fear those who can kill the body, but then have no
power over the soul.”

The CONJUNCTION e (and) is not used to link INDEPENDENT CLAUSES describing a

series of events like we do in English, rather it is used in forming lists of items.
For example:

e coodi na’i e pucci e be’i.

They bought cows and horses and goats.

When relating a series of events they would usually not use any CONJUNCTIONS
to tie the clauses together. In so linking clauses it is not unusual for the
pronouns to drop out, as in the first example.

uwonnde ndeen hewti
um dow balangol
oon, micci okki kiin, doggani ki,
naati ley okki toon.
The rain caught him on the road there, [he] remember that baobab tree, [he] ran
to the tree, [he] entered the tree there.

e ndilli, e naati ladde, e piloo ko e nyaama, e piloo, e piloo, e ngari,

e kei jaawle, e kei gerre, e kei bilbil
i, e kei kuutooji, e kei
eleleldu, e kei doombi, e kei nyaamduuji fuu e ley kulloy ley ladde.
They left, then entered the bush, they searched for that which they could eat,
they searched, they searched, they got guine-fowl eggs, they got quail, they got
bats, they got monitor lizards, they got mice, they got all kinds of food from
amoung the little creatures in the bush.

29. PREPOSITIONS

As in English, prepositions in Fulfulde are used with either a noun or pronoun to

denote its relation to something else in the sentence. There are 31 words listed as
prepositions in the dictionary:
fadde215 - before sella - outside

aawo/caggal/gaa - after, afterward, behind to - to, from

annge/akkol/gannde/takkol - beside, next to yaasin - outside of
dere/e/ley/nder - in yeeso - before, in front of, across from;
dow/e – on, about ahead, beyond, forward
e - with
faa/fao - until, up to, as far as
faro/hedde - toward, facing
fiyaa - about, toward
gaaye – without
gilla/illa/jilla – from, since
hakkunde - between
ley - under

215
See Section 19.C, p. 122 on how fadde is used.

172
Examples:
Lukka 3:16a Ndeen Yaayaa wi’i yime een fuu: “Miin kaa mi
o mutina on ley
ndiyam, ammaa ur
o kam baaw
e ina wara ga
a am.”
Luke 3:16a Then John said to them, “I have come baptizing in water, but one
who is greater than I is coming after me.”

Lukka 3:3 O wari
akkol gooruwol Urdun fuu imo waajoo yime tuuba njaa
mutineede faa hakkeeji muen njaafee.
Luke 3:3 He came next to the Jordon river in order to preach a baptism for the
repentance of sins.
Lukka 3:4 um laatoreke hono no annabi Esaaya winndirnoo noon: “O
eewnoto ley ladde imo wi’a: ‘Moinee balangol Joomiraa
o, ndartinee
ngol’”
Luke 3:4 as it is written in the book of Isaiah the prophet, “The voice of one
crying in the wilderness, ‘Make ready the way of the Lord, make His paths
straight.’ ”

Lukka 3:22a Ruuhu Cenii
o jippii dow muu
um ina wa’i hono wuugaandu.
Luke 3:22a The Holy Spirit descended upon him like a dove.

Ndaar e tabawal toon, salla montoro maa na toon.

Look on the table to see if your watch is there.

Accu mi
owte faa laawol.

Let me accompany you to the road.

Nde o dillunoo
o o fonndeke faro Piilaa
i.

When he left here he was heading toward Piilaa
i.

Lukka 1:15c O heewan Ruuhu Cenii
o gilla imo woni ley reedu.
Luke 1:15c He will be full of the Holy Spirit from the time he is in the womb.

Kori ko e mbujji ma e tawaay faa'e e danga maa.

I hope when they stole your wallet they didn't find anything in it.

Mi yi'ii Lobbo na yaada e Mark.

I see Lobbo is going with Mark.

Ko o wari hannden, o haalaay fiyaa golleeji adunaaru, ammaa fiyaa diina tan o
haali.
When he came today he didn't talk about secular work, but he only talked about
religion.

Bita waawaa wa
eede gaaye ndiyam.

You cannot make bita without water.

Lukka 4:30 Ndeen o rewi hakkunde mae, o dilli.

Luke 4:30 Then he passed between them and left.

Pol na golla ley mobel mu

um.

Paul is working under his truck.

Taa awlunduree ley suudu ga, njehee sella.

Don't wrestle in the house, go outside.

O yehii to mae.
He went to them.

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 Kanaa njehen yaasin luumo faa nyaamen buuru maasa oon.
We must go outside the market to eat the fried cakes.

Suudu makko wo yeeso luumo.

His house is across from/beyond the market.

SYNTAX216

30. NARRATIVE/DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Every language has grammatical rules which govern the formation of phrases and
sentences. Every language also has rules that govern the formation of paragraphs or
the narration of stories or events. Here are some general principles of Fulfulde
syntax:

A. Verb Forms:
An ASPECT FOCUS FORM, the General, is usually used for the first one or two
verbs in a narration, or at any major turning points in the narration.
Other FOCUS FORMs, usually the Relative, are used for all verbs which
follow, unless the Negative, Stative, Negative Stative, Progress, Imperative,
Negative Imperative, Subjunctive, Negative Subjunctive, Infinitive, or
Participial FORMs are specifically called for. There are two situations where
other FOCUS FORMs are routinely overruled in a narration:

1. In direct and indirect discourse:

When either direct quotes or indirect discourse (he said that ...) appear
in the middle of a narration, the General Complete is used for
positively stated completed thoughts and the Subjunctive is used with
positively stated expressions that are incomplete.217

2. With the condition conjunction si:

When the conditional conjunction si is used, the General Complete
FORM is used, even in a narration.218

216
Syntax might be defined as “that part of grammar which deals with the structure of the sentence, i.e. with the
proper arrangement of word forms (word order) to show their mutual relations and their functions in the
sentence.” English Grammar for Language Students, Frank X. Braun Ph.D., University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, 1947, p. 19
217
See Section 11.A.4, p. 73 for a discussion of the General Complete’s usage in indirect discourse, and Section
31, p. 176 ff. for a discussion of indirect discourse. See Section 18.C, p. 117 for a discussion of the
Subjunctive’s use in indirect discourse.
218
See Section 11.A.3.a, p. 70 for a discussion of the use of the General Complete in conditional si clauses.

174
B. Turning Points:
A turning point or new thought is often introduced by a conjunction or an
adverb, words that could be called discourse markers such as:

ammaa/de/kaa - however, but (gives a contrast with what came before)

ndeen – then
ndelle - therefore, and so, thus
ndeen kaa - then, at that time, in those days, back then
jonkaa - therefore (a conclusion marker)

Robin Watson also speaks of what linguists call “tail-head linkage” in which
the last verb is repeated in order to slow the pace of the story down just
before a key event. In the examples the head is underlined once & tail is
underlined twice:

uwoonde ndeen hewti
um dow balangol
oon, miccii okki kiin, doggan ki, naati
ley okki toon. Nde naatunoo fu, soppinii faro dammbugal
oon. Nde soppininoo
dammbugal
oon fu, yeesoojo mum fecci goroore muu
um faa akka.
The rain caught him on the road there, [he] remember that baobab tree, [he] ran to
the tree, [he] entered the tree there. When he had entered he squatted facing the
opening. When he had squatted in the door there, the one in front of him broke his
cola nut to chew on.
Tawi imo yaha, imo yaha, faa wari, o fitti, o naati galle go

o. Nde o naannoo
galle go

o fu, tawi joomum du maatii.
Come to find out he was going and going until he jumped the wall and entered into
someone’s courtyard. When he had entered into the courtyard come to find the
owner was aware of it.

C. Pronouns:
Generally, once the name of an actor has been given in a narration, this
person will only be referred to by pronouns until such time as there is a
change in actors. Then the second actor is named and he/she is referred to
by pronouns until there is another change in actors, and so forth.

D. Response:
During a narration, the listeners respond at very regular intervals (almost in
a rhythmic fashion) with appropriate grunts, hums, uh-huh’s, exclamatory
adjectives, and at times body movements. Sometimes several will respond
while at other times someone seems to take on the roll of responder and the
others will listen silently or only interject at sporadic intervals.

175
31. DIRECT & INDIRECT DISCOURSE

Direct discourse is what we would call quoting. It might be a quote of something

written or of something spoken. Indirect discourse takes place when someone repeats
what someone else has said or written, but not as an exact quote. While some form of
the verb wi’ude (to say) is the main marker for spoken discourse, and some form of
the verb winndude (to write) is the main marker for written discourse, it is good to be
alert to other discourse markers, such as:

fodanaade (to promise something to someone); e.g. o fodanii ... (he promised ...)
hunaade (to swear); e.g. o hunii ... (he swore that ...)
miilaade (to think); e.g. imo miiloo ... (he though that ...)
nanude (to hear); e.g. mi nani ... (I hear that ...)
wi’undurde (to say to each other); e.g. i
e mbi’undura .... (they were saying to each other ...)
amude (to ask) e.g. o ami ... (she asked ...)

If the action is positive and complete, the General Complete verb FORM is used. If it
is positive and incomplete the Subjunctive verb FORM is used. If the action is negative
and complete the Negative Complete is used, and if it is negative and incomplete the
Negative Incomplete is used. These are the verb FORMs used even when the discourse
(direct or indirect) occurs as part of a narration. The discourse markers are marked in
bold in the following examples:
O wi’ii iyiiko sotta na’i mum faa laaa.
He told his son to sell all his cows (until not one was left).
Matta 11:18 “Yaayaa warii, nyaamataa buuru, yarataa ndiyam inaboojam
lamminaa
am de yime mbi’ii imo wondi e nginnaaw.”
Matthew 11:18 “John came neither eating nor drinking and they said ‘he has a
demon.’ ”

Golleeji Nulaae 28:4 Nde yime een nji’unoo mbooddi ina fiilii e junngo Pol fu, e
mbi’unduri hakkunde mae, “E
en tennyori gorko o wo ittoowo yonkiiji. Fay si o
da
i ley maayo ngo du, sariya accataa o o wuura.”
Acts 28:4 When the people saw the snake wrap about Paul’s hand they said to one
another, “Certainly this fellow is a murderer. Even though he survived the sea, justice
will not permit him to live.”

Mi nanii o taowa hu
o faa o howa suudu deekiiko.

I heard he went to cut grass so that he can build a hut for his wife.

Mi nanii o wujjii na’i faa heewi.

I heard that he has stolen many cows.

e mbi’ii e nj’ii banndii gooto ley ferro.

They said that they saw one bandit in the bush.

Laam
o fodanii Ibrahiima o hea inngel mawuuri.

God promised Abraham he would have a child the following year.
Matta 14:6-7 Nde nyannde rimeede Hirudus wartunoo fu, ii Hirudiya debbo wami
yeeso joo
iie
oon een faa
um weli Hirudus sanne de Hirudus hunii hokkan
surbaajo oon ko yi
i fuu.
Matthew 14:6-7 When Herod’s birthday had come, Hirodias’ daughter danced before
the guests and pleased Herod so much that he swore to give her whatever she wanted.

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 Roma’en 3:4b . . . hono no winndiraa: “A laamnete e haalaaji maa. A da
an sariya.”
Romans 3:4 b ... as it is written, “you will be justified in your words, and will prevail
when you are judged.”

Roma’en 15:3 En nga
an noon sabo fay Almasiihu welnanaay hoore muu
um, ammaa
na winndiraa: “Ko yime mbonkii ma
um ina woni e he’am.”
Romans 15:3 We will do this because even Christ did not please himself, but as it is
written, “The reproaches of those who reproached you fell upon me.”

Matta 9:14b ...[e] ami
um: “Ko wa
i minen e Farisa en mi
on cuumoo de
taalibaae maa e cuumataako?”
Matthew 9:14b ... [they] asked him, “why do we and the Pharisees fast, but you and
your disciples do not fast?”

O yehii luumo Dori sabo imo miiloo o tawan na’i makko bujjaa
i toon.
He went to the Dori market because he thought he would find his stolen cows there.

32. QUESTIONS

There are four ways to formulate a question in Fulfulde:

A. Interrogative Pronouns:
Interrogative pronouns are described in Section 13.C (pages 88-91) on the
Relative verb FORM. Two reminder examples are:
Toy njahataa?
Where are you going?

Ndey ngartu
aa wuro Boussouma?

When did you return to Boussouma?

B. Use of naa:
Questions can be formed by adding the particle naa to the end of almost any
sentence, and by slightly raising the pitch of the voice on the naa. This is
used for questions that require a yes or no answer. As noted under C below,
the naa can be dropped, and often is, in favor of simple voice intonation.
Examples:
A yahan luumo hannden naa?
Will you go to the market today?

Koreeji Burayma eggan Nadiabondi naa?

Will Burayma’s family migrate from Nadiabondi?
Na hei naa?
Is that enough?

A
a waawi mointinande kam torkooru am naa?

Can you repair my donkey cart for me?
A yeggitaay waddude ko kaalanmaami nyannden
um naa?
Did you remember to bring what I asked you for the other day?

177
 C. Voice Intonation:
This is done in virtually exactly the same way as in English. The voice is
allowed to rise in pitch near the end of the sentence. Listen to an informant
for the exact nuance. This too is largely used for questions that require a yes
or no answer. For example, take any example under B, remove the naa, add
voice intonation, and you will have a correct question in Fulfulde.

D. Use of kori:
The particle kori (hopefully) is used in greeting sequences, but can also be
attached to almost any sentiment a speaker wishes to express. The General
Complete verb FORM is used after this particle.219 Examples:

Kori a waalii e jam?

I hope you passed the night in peace?

Kori a weetii e jam?

I hope you passed/are passing the morning in peace?

Kori a nyallii e jam?

I hope you passed/are passing the afternoon in peace?

Kori a hiirii e jam?

I hope you passed/are passing the evening in peace?

Kori a warii e jam?

I hope you came in peace?

Kori suudu maa wulaay?

I hope your hut didn’t burn down?

Kori a yiitii ngeelooba maa?

I hope you found your camel?

Kori a yi’aay baasi?

I hope you didn’t run into any trouble?

Kori baaba samtanaama?

I hope your father is feeling better?

Kori a tawii gineeji
i fuu mbonaay?

I hope you found that nothing was ruined?

Kori jam?
Hey, what-a-ya-mean? or Hey, come on now! or Hey, whatch-ya-drivin-at?
(Said with intonation dropping not rising on the jam.)
Literally translated as “I hope peace?” but intended meaning translated as
“I hope you are saying that with peaceful [teasing] intentions.”

219
The use of the General Complete with kori is also briefly mentioned in Section 11.A.5, p. 73.

178
 GLOSSARY

ASPECT220 – In the following discussion about verbs the term ASPECT refers to whether
or not the verbal action is complete or incomplete. This means that the verbs
are not conjugated in strict relationship to time; time is secondary.
Rather the verbs are conjugated according to whether an action has been
completed or remains incomplete, is finished or not finished. In actual
practice the complete will most often correspond to what we think of as a
past tense, and the incomplete to a future tense. However, due to cultural
differences, there are quite a number of cases where Ful
e use a complete
form, but we would rather use an incomplete form. Until one begins to
understand the logic of the Fulfulde language, it is best to note and memorize
any such cases. One common example is “Mi hootii,” which is said when
you decide you will go home, often before you even get up to go, and
literally means “I went home.”

COMPLEMENT - A word, phrase, or clause added to the verb of a sentence to complete

the predicate, esp. to a verb of incomplete predication.221 Also, a restrictive
relative clause identifying or defining the noun (in English often introduced
by that, as in the fact that).

COMPLEX SENTENCE – A COMPLEX SENTENCE is one made up of an INDEPENDENT

CLAUSE and one or more dependant or SUBORDINATE CLAUSEs joined by a
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION, a subordinating adverb, or a relative
pronoun.222 See discussion on SUBORDINATE CLAUSES and TRIGGER WORDS
below.

COMPOUND SENTENCE - A compound sentence is one made up of two INDEPENDENT

CLAUSES joined by a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION; i.e. “and” {de}, “but”
{ammaa, de, kaa}, “or” and “nor” {maa, naa}.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE – A CONDITIONAL CLAUSE is a type of SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

which introduces a condition into the sentence. The SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTION which is used to introduce a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE is si.223

CONJUGATION – In English grammar this refers to the orderly arrangement by person

and number of all the forms of a verb in a given TENSE. Seeing as we are not
using the term TENSE (see TENSE below for the reason why) we will apply
this term to the orderly arrangement of the forms of a verb in a given FORM.
Actually there are only two FORMs which require one to actually CONJUGATE
for PERSON and NUMBER – the Relative (both Complete and Incomplete) and
the Subjunctive. Additionally the Imperative FORM of the verb requires one

220
“A group of forms of a verb, expressing inception, duration, completion, repetition, etc.; the quality of a verb by
which it represents such features.” The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, “aspect,” CD-ROM
Both Fagerberg-Diallo and Vanderaa use the term “aspect” in relation to completeness or incompleteness.
221
Remember, one can split a sentence into two parts: the subject portion, which includes any pronouns, articles or
adjectives relating to the subject and the predicate portion, which include any adverbs relating to the verb or
direct objects occurring after the verb.
222
Examples of SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: because, since {ngam, sabo}; although, though {fay}; if {si}, that
{ke, ko, de}; so that, in order that {de}; until {faa}). Examples of subordinating adverbs: where {to}, when or
whenever {nde}, how {no}, how much {no foti}). See Table 13.5, p. 91 ff. for a listing of relative pronouns.
223
Varations of si include ammaa si, fay si, sabo si and si wanaa.

179
 to CONJUGATE for NUMBER alone (i.e. singular and plural). The other FORM’s
endings are invariable regardless of PERSON and NUMBER .

CONJUNCTIONS – A CONJUNCTION is a word used to connect words, phrases, or

clauses. There are two types:
1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: these connect words, phrases or clauses of
equal rank (i.e. two INDEPENDENT CLAUSES). Examples of COORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS in English {and Fulfulde} would be: and {de, e}; but,
however {ammaa, de, kaa, kay}; or, nor {maa, naa}.
2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: these CONJUNCTIONS introduce clauses
which are subordinate to the rest of the sentence. Examples of
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS in English {and Fulfulde} would be:
although, though {fay ko}; because, since {ngam, sabo}; if {si}; that {ke,
ko}; whether {yalla, salla}; nevertheless, notwithstanding {fay si}; however
{de}.224 In English there are a number of compound CONJUNCTIONS which are
also used as SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. For example: even if, in spite
of, granting that, even supposing {fay si}, even as, even when {fay nde},
even then {fay ndeen}, even that {fay ko} and yet, in fact, but still {de}.225

DECLARATIVE – When used in reference to a verb FORM it means a FORM which makes
a statement about something. The General Complete & Incomplete, the
Relative Complete & Incomplete, the Negative Complete & Incomplete, the
Stative, the Progressive, the Emphatic, the Participial and the Subjunctive
are all DECLARATIVE verb FORMs.

FOCUS – The FOCUS deals with the main thought being expressed by the verb.
Each verb FORM falls into one of four FOCUS groups. The first group of
verbal FORMs (i.e. General) is ASPECT FOCUSed. In other words, it focuses on
whether the action is complete or incomplete. In the second group of verbal
FORMs (i.e. Negative, Relative and Participial) the FOCUS is on something
beside ASPECT, plus aspect. For example, with Negative verbal constructions
the main part of the FOCUS is on being negative, but there is still some
attention to whether or not this is in reference to something not completed or
something not to be. The same can be said about the complicated Relative
FORMs. The main FOCUS is on something besides being complete or
incomplete, but the notion of complete or incomplete is not totally absent
from the verbal construction. With the third group of verbal FORMs
(i.e. Emphatic, Stative, Progressive, and Subjunctive) the FOCUS is on
something other than ASPECT. So completeness or incompleteness is not
even being addressed by this FORM of the verb. Rather a state of being, a
habit, an ongoing progression of activity, a desire, or a hope are the FOCUS.
The fourth group of verbal FORMs (i.e. Infinitive, Imperative, and
Desiderative) are regarded as non-FOCUSed verbal FORMs. It is worth noting
that a sentence with an ASPECT FOCUSed verb keeps the basic word order of

224
While ammaa or kaa or de can mean “however,” they are not SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS when used by
themselves. It is not unusual to see ammaa teamed up with si, nde, or ko. All cases of ammaa si (but if) are
conditional and subordinating. Ammaa nde (but when) and ammaa ko (but that) form relative clauses which are
usually subordinating.
225
In English “even” can function as an adverb or as an intensive or emphatic particle. We would usually
translated “even” with fay. In both English and Fulfulde “even” {fay} is often used in compound CONJUNCTIONS:
even if, even supposing {fay si}; even that, although, thought {fay ko}; even as, even when {fay nde}; even then
{fay ndeen}. In most cases de is used as a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION meaning “and,” “but” or “however.”
Occasionally it is also used as a subordinating adverb meaning “so that” or “in order that.”

180
 subject-verb-object, while the other FOCUSed verbs tend to change the word
order to object-verb-subject or verb-object-subject. For example:
ASPECT FOCUSed: Mi yehii luumo. (I went to the market)
subject verb object

Other FOCUSed: Luumo njaa- mi. (It is to the market I went.)

object verb subject

Another feature to note with other FOCUSed FORMs is they generally lengthen
the verbal suffix. Also notice that the lengthening tends to be shifted
towards the end of the verb. This can be observed in the relative incomplete
and in cases where the subject and verb are inverted as in joooaa (second
person singular, middle voice, Subjunctive FORM) where the lengthening is
displaced onto the subject pronoun -aa. Examples of other FOCUSing are
not given here since there are many examples in the sections dealing with the
Relative, Stative, Progressive, Negative, and Subjunctive verb FORMs.
FORM – Various FORMs of the verb are constructed by adding specific SUFFIXes to the
verb’s ROOT. Each FORM carries an explicit FOCUS. Most verb FORMs have
different SUFFIXes for different VOICEs. A few also have different SUFFIXes
for different CONJUGATIONs of PERSON and NUMBER as well. See the
discussion above on FOCUS regarding the four FOCUSes these verbal FORMs
have, and which FORMs have which FOCUS. The 13 FORMs covered in this
grammar include: General, Negative, Relative, Participial, Emphatic, Stative,
Negative Stative, Progressive, Subjunctive, first Infinitive, second Infinitive,
Imperative, and Desiderative.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES – An INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is a clause that contains a subject

and a verb, and which could stand by itself as a complete sentence.

INFIX – These are ROOT extensions that are attached between the verb’s ROOT and the
SUFFIX; e.g. -an- (for) added to the ROOT wadd- (to bring) with the SUFFIX –ii
(General Complete FORM) yields wadd·an·ii (to bring for). These INFIXes
have quite an impact on the meaning of the verb.226
NUMBER – This term refers to whether the subject of the verb is one person or thing or
a plurality of persons or things.
PERSON – There are three possibilities; first PERSON, second PERSON, and third
PERSON. Generally when discussing PERSON it is likewise necessary to
discuss NUMBER.
ROOT – The verbal ROOT is the basic word without any SUFFIXes or INFIXes.
In the dictionary verbs are listed with the lexeme in bold type.
The lexeme, in the case of the verbs, would be the first Infinitive FORM of the
verb. The second Infinitive FORM would then be listed immediately behind it
in italics; e.g. accude accugol. After removing the various infinitive
SUFFIXes (e.g. –ude -ugol) one is left with the verb’s ROOT: i.e. √acc-.
The various FORMs of the verb are formed on this verbal ROOT. Actually not
only are the various FORMs of a verb formed from the ROOT, but often
various nouns are built from the verbal ROOT in Fulfulde. For example, from
the infinitive janng-ude one can build the following nouns: janng-uo (one
who has studied), janng-oowo (one who is reading or studying), janng-in-
226
See Section 24, p. 140 ff. for the details on these INFIXes.

181
 oowo (a teacher), janng-ir-de (a school), and jan-(n)de (a lesson).227
Since many words in Fulfulde, including most adjectives and many nouns,
are built on the ROOT of some verb, knowing the ROOT of the verbs is
essential to deciphering the meaning of many words. For instance, in the
above example, if one encounters the word “jannginoowo,” one can very
quickly understand its meaning by dissecting the word into its morphemes:
-oowo is a SUFFIX indicating it is a person, -in- is an INFIX which adds the
meaning “to cause to,” and the root √janng- means “to learn,” in other words
“one who causes to learn” or “a teacher.” The symbol √ indicates this is a
root; e.g. √acc-, √janng-.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES – First of all, let’s discuss what a clause is. A clause is
composed of a subject and a verb. It may make up part of a complete
sentence, or it may stand alone as a sentence. The following sentence
contains two clauses: We will eat when the soup is done cooking.
“We will eat” is referred to as the principle or INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.
A principle or INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is the main clause of the sentence and
can stand alone and make sense by itself: We will eat. The second clause is a
SUBORDINATE or dependant CLAUSE: when the soup is done cooking.
A SUBORDINATE or dependant CLAUSE cannot stand by itself as a complete
sentence. You will note that what keeps the second clause from being
complete is the first word of the clause: “when.” In English, SUBORDINATE
CLAUSES are generally introduced by either a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION
(e.g. although, because, if, since, that, though, whether) or an adverb
(e.g. where, whenever, when, how) or by a relative pronoun (e.g. who,
whose, to whom, whom, which). If the “when” of the second clause is
removed, the second clause would stand alone as a second independent
sentence: The soup is done cooking. It is the “when” which permits us to
join the two clauses into one longer, more COMPLEX SENTENCE, but at the
same time it subordinates the second clause to accomplish that mission.
In Fulfulde a similar situation exists. There are a variety of words which
will act as subordinators. You will spot discussions of the use of various
verb FORMs with various SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS, adverbs and
relative pronouns in the verb section. Also see the discussion of COMPLEX
SENTENCE and COMPOUND SENTENCE above and TRIGGER WORDS below.

SUFFIX – These are endings which are attached to the verb’s root in order to arrive at
various FORMs of the verb. Each FORM has it own endings.
For example, for the first Infinitive FORM, the active voice SUFFIX is
–ude, the middle voice SUFFIX is –aade, and the passive voice SUFFIX is
–eede. For the second Infinitive FORM the active voice SUFFIX is –ugol,
the middle voice SUFFIX is –agol, and the passive voice SUFFIX is -egol
TENSE – Both Fagerberg-Diallo and Vanderaa eschewed the use of this term.
Technically they are correct, as for the most part the Ful
e are not
communicating much about time with their verbs. However, for your
average non-grammarian Anglophone, what we call FORMs above sounds
more or less like what we think about TENSEs. When we hear “complete
ASPECT” we think “past” and when we hear “incomplete ASPECT” we think
either “future” or “present.” Actually the only verbal construction in
Fulfulde that speaks of time is the Preterite, which is very much like what

227
Jaangu
o, jaangoowo, and jaanginoowo are actually participles. See Section 14, p. 98 ff. for a discussion of
participles.

182
 we think of as “past TENSE.”228 What we call a “present” TENSE might be
conveyed by the Progressive, when used of an action in progress. The Ful
e
are not very future minded, as they think the future is very unsure, thus
many future things are addressed by verbs in the Subjunctive FORM.

TRIGGER WORDS – TRIGGER WORDS are words which “trigger” a certain grammatical
construction. They would include SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS and
adverbs as well as relative pronouns. They also include a set of auxiliary
verbs or adverbs meaning “must,” “must not,” “it is necessary,” and
“should.”229 Obviously SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS and adverbs trigger a
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. One subset of SUBORDINATE CLAUSES is the
CONDITIONAL CLAUSE. These are introduced by either the CONJUNCTIONS si
(if) and sabo (because, since) or the adverb de (so that).230 The CONJUNCTION
ammaa is sometimes teamed up with si to trigger a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE –
ammaa si (but if). The various relative pronouns signal the formation of a
relative clause, which usually subordinate. The CONJUNCTION ammaa is
sometimes teamed up with the relative pronouns ko or nde to form relative
clauses; e.g. ammaa ko (but that), ammaa nde (but when). It is important to
be cognizant of these TRIGGER WORDS when speaking or writing in Fulfulde.
An effort has been made throughout this edition of the Burkina Faso
Fulfulde Grammar to point out what happens in different situations when
these TRIGGER WORDS are used. TRIGGER WORDS often elicit certain verbal
FORMs as well. If one knows the answers to the following three questions
one can determine what verb FORM is required by a given TRIGGER WORD: Is
the statement positive or negative? Is the action of the verb complete or
incomplete? What part of the sentence is emphasized or focused on?
One caveat to bear in mind with these TRIGGER WORDS: if a Stative or
Progressive FORM is called for in a positively stated sentence it will “trump”
the “default” FORM called for by the TRIGGER WORD. Remember too that if
the idea being expressed is negative the Negative verb FORM is called for.
This consideration will “trump” all others. The Negative verb FORM
(Complete & Incomplete) replaces the General, Relative, Emphatic, and
Progressive verb FORMs. The Stative, Subjunctive (polite imperative),
Imperative, and Desiderative all have their own unique negative FORMs
which are used with these four FORMs when a negation is called for. Here is
a listing of the TRIGGER WORDS with the grammatical constructions and
verbal FORMs they trigger in different situations:

228
See Section 23, p. 130 ff. for the full discussion of the Preterite.
229
This would include si wanaa (should, it is necessary, must) and its contracted form, sanaa, as well as the
various cognates of that word: say, sey, kanaa. It would also include the more forceful tilay and karahan (must,
it is absolutely necessary). This is one place where it is hard to compare our English equivalents to the Fulfulde
grammatically. “Should” and “must” are auxiliary verbs. “Necessary” is an adjective. It is probably best to
think of the Fulfulde equivalents as auxiliary verbs.
230
In the vast majority of cases de is serving as a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION meaning “and,” “and then,” “but,”
or “however.” While “however” in English can be a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION, it does not appear that de in
Fulfulde functions as a subordinator when meaning “however.” Occasionally de can be translated as “so that” or
“in order that” serving as a subordinating adverb or “that” serving as a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION.

183
 Subordinating Trigger Words
ammaa si – “but if” – serves as a SUBORDINATING (CONDITIONAL)
CONJUNCTION – if positive it triggers the General Complete; if negative it
triggers a negative verb FORM (usually the Negative Complete, but possibly
the Negative Stative)231
ammaa ko – “but that” – introduces a relative clause which may or may not be
subordinate – if positive it triggers either the Relative Complete or
Incomplete (depending on the ASPECT of the clause); if negative it triggers
the Negative Complete or Incomplete (depending on the ASPECT of the
clause)
ammaa nde – “but when” – introduces a relative clause which may or may not
be subordinate – if positive it triggers either the Relative Complete or
Incomplete (depending on the ASPECT of the clause); if negative it triggers
the Negative Complete or Incomplete (depending on the ASPECT of the
clause)
de – “and yet, but still, that, that even; so that, in order that” – serves as a
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION or adverb – if positive and complete, and
part of a narration, it triggers the Relative; if not part of a narration (it is
often used in direct or indirect speech), it triggers a General Complete
FORM; if not part of a narration and incomplete it may trigger either the
Subjunctive or General Incomplete; if negative it usually triggers the
Negative Complete or Incomplete (depending on the ASPECT of the clause),
or the negative Stative232
faa – “so that, until” – serves as SUBORDINATING adverb or CONJUNCTION – if
positive and complete it triggers the General Complete or Relative
Complete, depending on the FOCUS; if positive and incomplete it usually
triggers the Subjunctive233
fay ko – “even that” – an emphatic adverb which functions as a relative
pronoun introducing a relative clause which may or may not be subordinate
– if positive it triggers the Relative FORM; if negative it triggers the
Negative FORM
fay nde – “even when” – an emphatic adverb which functions as a relative
pronoun introducing a relative clause which generally subordinates – if
positive it triggers the Relative FORM; if negative it triggers the Negative
FORM
fay ndeen – “even then” – an emphatic adverb which functions as a relative
pronoun introducing a relative clause which generally subordinates – if
positive it triggers the Relative FORM; if negative it triggers the Negative
FORM
fay si – “even if” – serves as an emphatic SUBORDINATING (CONDITIONAL)
CONJUNCTION denoting futility – if positive it triggers the Relative
Complete; if negative it triggers the Negative Complete
ko – “that” – an adverb which functions as a relative pronoun introducing a
relative clause which generally subordinates – if positive it triggers a
Relative verb FORM; if negative it a Negative verb FORM is used

231
Ammaa by itself means “but” or “however” and serves as a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION. While ammaa by
itself does not “trigger” any particular verb FORM, it tends to be used before negative verb FORMs.
232
De is one of the most difficult of the trigger words to understand. Unfortunately it occurs frequently.
De usually functions as a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION, meaning “and,” “but,” or “however.” When used as a
COORDINATING CONJUNCTION it does not “trigger” any particular verb FORM, however, often de is used in
narrations to link one event to the next, and so often it is associated with Relative verb FORMs. When the force of
what is being expressed includes the thought “yet” (e.g. and yet) or “still” (e.g. but still) a Relative FORM is
called for, as these words are intensifiers. Occasionally de is used as a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION meaning
“that.” Sometimes an intensifier such as “even” (e.g. that even) is teamed up with it, again triggering a Relative
FORM (unless “trumped” by a Negative, Stative or Progressive FORM, as in the following example); e.g. “O wo
moy de fay keni e ndiyam fuu ina nja
ana um?” {Who is he that even the wind and waves obey him?}.
233
Faa can also mean just “and,” serving as a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION. It also can serve as a preposition
meaning: “until, up to, as far as.”

184
 nde – “when” – an adverb which functions as a relative pronoun introducing a
relative clause which generally subordinates – if positive it triggers a
Relative verb FORM; if negative a Negative verb FORM is used
no – “how” – an adverb which functions as a relative pronoun introducing a
relative clause which generally subordinates – if positive it triggers a
Relative verb FORM; if negative it a Negative verb FORM is used
no foti – “how much” – an adverb which functions as a relative pronoun
introducing a relative clause which generally subordinates – if positive it
triggers a Relative verb FORM; if negative it a Negative verb FORM is used
sabo – “because, since” – serves as a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION – if the
FOCUS is positive, and on the ASPECT, then this word triggers a General
Complete FORM; if the FOCUS is positive, and mainly on something besides
the ASPECT, the Relative Complete is used; if the statement is negative then
the Negative Complete is triggered
sabo si – “because if” – serves as a SUBORDINATING (CONDITIONAL)
CONJUNCTION – if positive it triggers the General Complete or Participial
Complete; if negative it triggers the Negative Complete234
salla – “whether, whether or not” – serves as a SUBORDINATING CONJUCTION
– if positive, and the ASPECT is complete, it triggers either the General
Complete or the Stative; if positive, and the ASPECT is incomplete, it
triggers either the General Incomplete or the Progressive; if negative it
triggers the Negative Complete or Incomplete (depending on the ASPECT)
si – “if” – serves as a SUBORDINATING (CONDITIONAL) CONJUNCTION – if
positive it usually triggers the General Complete or Participial Complete; if
negative it triggers the Negative Complete235
si wanaa – “if not, except, unless” – serves as a SUBORDINATING
(CONDITIONAL) CONJUNCTION – invariably uses the Stative negative of
wonude, it introduces a subordinate clause of exception into the sentence236
relative pronouns – see Table 13.5, p. 91 for a listing of these – if positive they
trigger a Relative verb FORM; if negative they trigger a Negative verb
FORM
taa – “so to not” – serves as a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION – always
negative, only functions as a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION when used
with either the Negative Polite Imperative or the Negative Desiderative, it
does not subordinate when used with the Negative Imperative
to – “where” – serves as a subordinating adverb – if positive it triggers a
Relative verb FORM; if negative it a Negative verb FORM is used
yalla – “whether, whether or not” – serves as a SUBORDINATING CONJUCTION –
if positive, and the ASPECT is complete, it triggers the Stative; if positive,
and the ASPECT is incomplete, it triggers the Progressive; if negative it
triggers the Negative Complete or Incomplete (depending on the ASPECT)

234
The compound conditional CONJUNCTION sabo si (because if, since if) combines the two elements of the separate
CONJUNCTIONS, with the si element controlling the verbal structure of the sentence. That is in a positively stated
sentence (barring the need to use either the Stative or Progressive FORMs) the General Complete or Participial
Complete FORMs will be called for.
235
Any of the compound CONJUNCTIONS containing the word si (if) will be conditional (e.g. fay si, si wanaa, sabo
si). While si by itself triggers the General Complete or Participial Complete (unless “trumped by a Negative,
Stative or Progressive FORM), the addition of auxiliary words often either intensify the thought of the clause, as in
the case of fay si (even if), or introduce an exception, as in the case of si wanaa (if not, except, unless). The use
of fay si triggers the Relative Complete as the FOCUS of the clause is now on the intensification of the thought
rather than on the ASPECT (completeness). The introduction of si + wonude invariably triggers the Negative
Stative → wanaa. However, the compound CONJUNCTION sabo si (but if) is just a simple conditional
CONJUNCTION triggering either the General Complete or Participial Complete.
236
Be careful with this compound CONJUNCTION. It has two distinct meanings. As noted above, it can mean “if
not,” “unless,” and “except.” It can also mean “must” or “it is necessary.” One often sees the contracted form
of this second meaning: sanaa, or one of its cognates: kanaa, say, sey. The verb used to introduce an exception to
the main thought is always wonude (to be) and the verb always takes the Stative Negative FORM. It literally
means “if it is not.” Besides the triggering of the of Stative Negative FORM, it might be noted that often the main
thought of the sentence being qualified by the exception clause uses Negative verb FORMs.

185
 Non-Subordinating Trigger Words

u(u)m wa
i de/
u(u)m saai de/saabe
u(u)m de – “this is why that, for that
reason” – a relative phrase which begins a relative clause, which may or
may not be subordinate – if stated positively it triggers a Relative FORM; if
stated negatively it triggers a Negative FORM
sanaa – “must, should” – When the auxilary verb sanaa, or one of its
synonyms, is used in a phrase with completed action the Relative Complete
is called for, and when it is used in a phrase with incompleted action the
Subjunctive is called for.
tilay – “must, should” – When the auxilary verb tilay is used in a phrase the
Subjunctive is called for.

VOICE – VOICE refers to whom or what the verb is acting on. There are three VOICEs;
active, middle, and passive. With the active VOICE the subject is
accomplishing the effect of the verb on someone or something else.
Generally an object of the verbal effect is stated. With the middle VOICE the
subject is either accomplishing the effect of the verb on him/her/itself or is at
least somehow impacted by the effect of the verb. Many middle VOICE verbs
are purely reflexive verbs. In other words the actor and the beneficiary of
the action are the same. For example: lootaade (to wash oneself), jooaade
(to sit down – lit. to sit oneself down), la
aade (to shave oneself). There are
other middle VOICE verbs where there is an actor but the beneficiary appears
to be someone else. However, in Ful
e culture reciprocity is a strongly held
value; I do something for you today, some other day you can return the
favor. If the value of reciprocity is kept in mind, one can see how the
following middle VOICE verbs actually have two beneficiaries; another
person, but also ultimately oneself; e.g. du'aade (to bless, give a blessing, to
pray), jambaade (to betray), sahaade (to be kind, nice, well brought up),
yurmaade (to have pity on), laamaade (to rule, govern), nyamlaade (to
borrow something). By giving blessing, someday that person may bless you;
negatively, betray someone today and someday that person may betray you!
With the passive VOICE the subject is acted on by the verb. The passive
VOICE is generally created by attaching passive endings to other verbs.
There are not many verbs in Fulfulde that are found only in the passive
VOICE or that are fundamentally passive. Some examples of passives would
be: haajeede (to have need), rafeede (to be hungry), hilleede (to be
interested in something). To understand the passive in Fulfulde one must
realize that in the Ful
e’s mind one is usually overcome by various needs,
feelings, sins, etc. A person is responsible for his actions, but at the same
time there is a strong sense of submitting to an outside power or fate.

186
 Appendix A
Nouns Whose Initial Consonants Do Not Conform To Table 5.1 (page 31)

Borrowed Words (92)†

birgi (ki)/birgiiji (
i) – Moré – manure

buyakkaahi (ki)/buyakkaaje (
e) – Moré - a guava tree
fajiri (o)/fajiriiji (
i) – Arabic - morning
fannu (o)/fannuuji (
i) – Arabic – a commentary
fariila (o)/farilaaji (
i) – Arabic – 5 pillars of Islam, that which is required
fayda (o)/no plural – Arabic – a blessing
feraare (nde)/feraaje (
e) – Gourmanche – squash or pumpkin
fidaa'u (o)/no plural given – Arabic – animal given to imam when he prays for dead person
fikkaawo (ngo)/fikkaaje (
e) – Moré – hand held fan
fitilla (nga/ka/o)/fitillaaji (
i) – Arabic – lamp
fulunfuudo (o)/fulunfuudooji (
i) – Moré – a pair of lungs
gotuy (ki)/gotuuji (
i) – Gourmache - Baissea multiflora
goyaagaahi (ki)/goyaagaaje (
e) – French – a guava tree
haabu (ko)/haabuuji (
i) – Songhai – cotton
haaju/e (o)/haajuuji (
i) – Arabic – a need
haamili (o)/haamili’en (e) – Arabic – a pregnant woman
habaru (o)/habaruuji (
i) – Arabic – news » kabaaru (o)/kabaaruuji (
i)
haciika (o)/no plural form – Arabic – certainty
hajju (o)/no plural form – Arabic – pilgrimage to Mecca
hakiika (o)/no plural form – Arabic – certainty
hakke (o)/hakkeeji (
i) – Arabic – sin
halal (ngal)/halalaaji (
i) – Arabic - one’s possession
hammadiijo (o)/hammadiie (e) – Arabic – first born son
hasaabu (o)/no plural – Arabic – the total
hawdae (
e) – Songhai – mumps
haiia (o)/no plural – Arabic – certainty
hae (o)/haeeji (
i) – Arabic – sin
hiila (o)/hiilaaji (
i) – Arabic – deceit
hiisa (o)/no plural – Arabic – counting
hijju (o)/no plural – Arabic – pilgrimage
himme (o)/no plural – Arabic – greed
huduhudu (o)/huduhuduuji (
i) – Arabic – a hoopoe
hukum (o)/hukumuu/aaji (
i) – Tamasheq – a leather tent
jofolooru (ngu)/jofolooji (
i) – Gourmanche from jofoleede – foreskin of penis
ndakowandiire (o)/no plural – Gourmanche – yeast
rabilla (o)/no plural – Moré – yeast
ri'aaku (ngu)/no plural – Arabic – boasting
riba or riiba (o)/ribaaji (
i) – Arabic - dishonest profit
riiku (ngu)/riikuuji (
i) – Arabic – a blessing
rikke (o)/no plural – Arabic – spite
roogo (ngo)/roogooji (
i) – Hausa – manioc
ruubu (o) – Arabic – faint sound of people talking
ruuhu (o)/ruuhuuji (
i) – Arabic – spirit
saa'a (o) – Hausa – good luck
saate (o)/saateeji (
i) – Hausa – time
saawto (o)/no plural – Arabic – a faint noise
saao (ngo/o)/saaooji (
i) – Arabic – a soft noise
sabaabu (o)/sabaabuuji (
i) – Arabic – the reason
sadaka (o)/sadakaaji (
i) – Arabic – gifts, alms
safoko (o)/no plural – Arabic - evening
samsa (o)/samsaaje (
e) – Moré – fried bean cake
†
Note: throughout this appendix the non-conforming initial consonants are highlighted in bold type.

187
sar
i (o) – Arabic – deadline
saretti (o)/sarettiiji (
i) – French – a cart
sariya (o)/sariyaaji (
i) – Arabic – judgment
satalla (o)/satallaaji (
i) – Songhai – teapot used for ablutions
sawtu (o)/no plural – Arabic – a faint noise
seedaaku (ngu)/no plural – Arabic from seedaade - testimony
seedee (o)/seedeee (e) – Arabic from seedaade – a witness
seega (o)/seegaaji (
i) – Moré - back
seretti (o)/serettiiji (
i) – French – a cart
sifa (o)/sifaaji (
i) – Arabic – plan, image
sikke (o)/no plural – Arabic from sikkude- an opinion, suspicion
sikkisakka (o)/no plural – Arabic from sikkude – doubt
sikkoro (o)/no plural – Arabic - sugar
sirri (o)/sirriiji (
i) – Arabic – a secret
sitoroohi (ki)/sitorooje (
e) – French – a lime or lemon tree
sitoroore (nde)/sitorooje (
e) – French – a lime or lemon
sitti (o)/no plural – Arabic - sulfer
somay (o)/samayji/samayeeji )
i) – Bambara – sauce ingredients
soortewol (ngol)/soorteeji (
i) – Arabic – a lesson or chapter
sooru (ndu)/sooji (
i) – French – a pail
sordaasi (o)/sordaasiie (e) – French – a soldier
subaka (o)/no plural – Arabic – morning, tomorrow
sukkara (o)/no plural – Arabic – sugar
sunkaaru (ndu)/sunkaaji (
i) – Moré – a peanut
sunna (o)/no plural – Arabic – religious duties
suttuguure (nde)/suttuguuje (
e) – Moré – a ladle or scoop
suumayeere (nde)/suumayeeje (
e) – Arabic from suumaade – a fast
suura (o)/suuraaji (
i) – Arabic – a chapter
wakkati (o)/wakkatiiji (
i) – Arabic - time
wawtu (o)/wawtuuji (
i) – Arabic – time
wiirdi (o)/wiirdiiji (
i) – Arabic – the repetion of a rosary
woroni (o)/woroniiji (
i) – Bambara – baboon
woybaagaaru (ndu)/woybaagaaji (
i) – Moré – jackal
woyya (o)/woyyaaji (
i) – Hausa – a trap
wudawuda (o)/wudawudaaji (
i) – Arabic - a hoopoe
yakkaajo (o)/yakkaae (e) – Moré – a neighbor
yappuriire (nde)/yappuriije (
e) – Gourmanche – a hoe head
yeebiiwu (ngu)/yeebiiji (
i) – Gourmanche – a termite
yirgaajo (o)/yirgaae (e) – Moré from yirgude – scatterbrained
yoobiiwu (ngu)/yoobiiji (
i) – Gourmanche – a termite
yorbaal (ngal)/yorbaaje (
e) – Yorba – a measure

188
 Suspect Borrowed Words237 (95)
no plural: 22

e: 8
e: 16
i: 49
o (non-personal): 41 (43% of words in this group)
o (personal): 8

bita* (ka)/bitaaji (
i) – gruel

basi (ki)/basiiji (
i) – herbal medicine
boogu (ngu)/booguuji (
i) – hoeing bee
burgu* (ngu)/burguuji (
i) – Echinochloa stagnina – water weed
dammuhol* (kol)/dammuuli (
i) – a sheep or a goat
dunna (ka)/no plural – overcast
durma (ka)/durmaaji (
i) – a cold
falfaahi (ki)/falfaaje (
e) - Lannea microcarpa – a tree
fate (o)/fateeji (
i) – leather or plastic bucket for drawing well water
feeya (o)/feeyooji (
i) – glade
fiifo (o)/fiifooji (
i) - a genet
fiiliwol (ngol)/fiiliiji (
i) – a fishing net
filaawo (o)/filaawooje (
e) – Eucalyptus camaldulensis – tree
fina (ka)/finaaji (
i) – mascara
forba (o)/no plural – that which is common to all
forgo (o)/forgooji (
i) – shirt
forkiya (ka/o)/forkiyaaji (
i) – robe
furfata (o)/furfataaje (
e) – aluminum or tin
futte (o)/futteeji (
i) – a dowry
futuro (o)/no plural – sundown
fuufa (o)/no plural – aluminum or tin
gafakka (ka)/gafakkaaji (
i) – knapsack, satchel
gu (ngu)/guuji or guwuuji (
i) – a stallion
haahaa (o)/no plural – gluttony
haayndeehi (ki)/haayndeeje (
e) – Boswellia dalzielii – a tree
hinti (o)/no plural – strength
haytalla (o)/haytallaaji (
i) – a moment
helafittaahi (ki)/helafittaaje (
e) – Feretia apodanthera – a tree
hiinko (o)/hiinkooji (
i) – first cultivation
hinney (o)/no plural – grace
jiiba (ka)/jiibaaji (
i) – a pocket
mbeeyu (o)/no plural – an empty space
mbudu (o)/mbuduuji (
i) – aluminum or tin
nga (o)/ngauuji (
i) – wisdom teeth
ngommbiire (nde)/ngommbiije (
e) – seeds of water lily
ngooaare (nde)/ngooaaje (
e) – owl
nguurey (o)/no plural – bounty
roojoroojowal (ngal)/roojoroojooje (
e) – scorpion horse
rosa (nga)/rosaaji (
i) – second cultivation
saadewol (ngol)/saadeeji (
i) – a sideburn
saaya (ka)/saayaaji (
i) – a robe
saitoroohi (ki)/saitorooje (
e) – Leptadenia hastata – a creeping plant

237
Why do I suspect these words of being borrowed from other languages? To start with 43% (41/95) of these are
in the o noun class, and do not refer to a person. All 95 of these words have an initial consonant with does not
conform with the rules set forth in Table 5.1. 73 of these nouns have plural forms and none of them undergo
any initial consonant change when being pluralized. Granted 9 of the plural forms fall correctly by
happenstance (i.e. those beginning with b, d, g, and j). However the other 64 plurals have the same “non-
conforming” form as the singular. Of these 73 plurals 55 are found in the
i noun class, which is where a
majority of borrowed nouns are placed (see details in Appendix B). Admittedly, it is surprising to find some of
these words on this list (I have marked these with an asterisk), but I am not sure at this point how else to
account for their form. It is possible that some of them just comprise exceptions to the rules and are not
borrowed words at all. Then again there may be some other good explication for their form which has yet to
occur to me.

189
sau (ngu)/sauuji (
i) – vulva, vagina
sadaajo (o)/sadaae (e) – fortune teller
safa (o)/no plural – foot & mouth disease
safi (o)/safi’en (e) – a fool
safiyaaku (ngu)/no plural – foolishness
sa'iiri (ndi)/no plural – barley
sakala (ka)/sakalaaje (
e) – blanket
sakiike* (o)/sakiraae (e) – sibling
salanga (nga)/salangaaji (
i) – toilet
sallifana (o)/no plural – afternoon
sarra (ka)/sarraaji (
i) – pants
sattuma (o)/sattumaaji (
i) – a religious holiday
sawaara (o)/no plural – hepatitis
seera (o)/seeraaji (
i) – ulcer on bottom of foot
seewu (ngu)/seewuuji (
i) – sever fright
sekkeejo (o)/seekeee (e) – caste of woodworkers
semmbe* (o)/semmbeeji (
i) – power
sera (o)/seraaji (
i) – a place
seremme (o)/no plural – Dirigitaria exilis – a grass
sibiihi (ki)/siibiije (
e) – Lannea acida – a tree
sigini (o)/siginiiji (
i) – Indigofera tinctoria – a plant
sigiwol (ngol)/sigiiji (
i) – a leather halter
sii (o)/siyiiji (
i) – kinds
siiliiri (ndi)/no plural – Sesamum indicum
siini (o)/siiniiji (
i) – Indigofera tinctoria – a plant
silaalayel (ngel)/silaalaaji (
i) – a swift
sira (ka)/siraaji (
i) – snuff
sootoroy (ki)/sootorooje (
e) – Leptadenia hastata – creeping plant
sokottu (o)/sokottuuji (
i) – an imperfection
sollewol (ngol)/solleeji (
i) – a bolt of material
sooro (o)/soorooji (
i) – a tower
sooso (o)/no plural – a light rain
sorowal (ngal)/sorooje (
e) – a gutter, downspout
sukunya (o)/sukunyaae (e) – a sorcerer
sulunguwal (ngal)/sulunguuje (
e) – tool for digging
sumalle (o)/cumali or sumalleeji (
i) – leather water bag
sunndu (o)/sunnduuji (
i) – Maerua crassifolia – a shrub
surbaajo* (o)/surbaae (e) – a young woman
susureewa (nga)/susureeji (
i) – the core of an abscess
sutureewa (nga)/sutureeji (
i) – the core of an abscess
suusuu (o)/no plural – light rain
walka* (ka)/walkaaji (
i) – a watering trough
wujo (o)/wuji (
i) – a clam
wune (o)/no plural – luck
yaaya* (o)/yaayiie (e) – mother
yemmbal (ngal)/yemmbaaje (
e) – firewall
yiingaaku (ngu)/no plural – boasting
yigoo* (o)/yigiraae (e) – a friend
yogumburaaku (ngu)/no plural – carelessness
yommbo (o)/yommbooji (
i) – black hair dye
yonki (ki)/yonkiiji (
i) – soul
yooli (o)/yooliije (
e) – ski mask
yoyiiri (ndi)/no plural – millet

190
 Lost Plurals238 (57)

fakuho (ko)/fakuuje (
e) – Corchorus sp

fayko (ko)/faykooji (
i) – genital hair
feenaare (nde)/feenaaje (
e) – firewall
fitiiru (ndu)/fitiiji (
i) – hen house
fiyaare (nde)/fiyaaje (
e) – ring
haagu (ko)/haaguuji (
i) – herbal medicine
haako (ko)/haakooji (
i) – a leaf
haaynde (nde)/haayndeeji (
i) – a miracle
haillo (ngo)/haillooji (
i) – intelligence
hello (ngo)/hellooji (
i) – a page, one side of a wall
hiiro (ngo)/hiirooji (
i) – a recreational evening
holgo (ngo)/holgooji (
i) – hoof
hoolo (ngo)/hoolooji (
i) – an echo
hooreere (nde)/hooreere (
e) – incissor
hoy (ko)/hoyiiji (
i) – sauce, baobab leaf (from which sauce is made)
hufo (ko)/hufooji (
i) – seed coat
hulgo (ngo)/hulgooji (
i) – sheath
saayogooru (ndu)/saayogooji (
i) – Gambian rat
sagargaawo (ngo)/sargargaaje (
e) – bed or mattress made of woven millet stalks
samandiire (nde)/samandiije (
e) – pillar
sanndu (ndu)/sannduuji (
i) – vulva, vagina
santingaaru (ndu)/santingaaji (
i) – long-tailed dove
seeniiru (ndu)/seeniiji (
i) – Senegal parrot
seeraare (nde)/seeraaje (
e) – a router
seeseeru (ndu)/seeseeji (
i) – a wooden flute
selluru (ndu)/selluuji or selluruuji (
i) – earlobe
semmbere (nde)/semmbereeji (
i) – tuft of grass
sengo (ngo)/sengooji (
i) – a place
seyre (nde)/seyreeji (
i) – swell of cow’s jaw
siidiiho (ko)/siidiije (
e) – Eragrostis pilosa
siiwko (ko)/siiwkooji (
i) – Cardiospermum halicacabum
silgaare (nde)/silgaaje (
e) – black kite
so
orko (ko)/so
orkooji (
i) – Vetiveria nigritana
soliiru (ndu)/soliiji (
i) – a rat
sonnyo (ngo)/sonnyooji (
i) – a rustling
suddaareewe (nge)/suddaareeji (
i) – a cow given as a wedding present
sumanndiire (nde)/sumanndiije (
e) – an ear ring
sumsumko (ko)/sumsumkooji (
i) – moustache
wajaalo (ko)/wajaalooji (
i) – grass
wanyaare (nde)/waynyaaje (
e) – volcanic rock
waywayko (ko)/waywaykooji (
i) – eyebrow
wecco (ngo)/weccooji (
i) – a page, one side of a wall
weelo (ngo)/weelooji (
i) – famine
weltaare (nde)/weltaaji (
e) – celebration
wersawersaandu (ndu)/wersawersaa
i (
i) – long-tailed dove
wewbaagaaru (ndu)/wewbaagaaji (
i) – a fennec fox

238
What do I mean by a lost plural? If one examines this list one can see that many of the items in the list are not
things that Fule habitually speak of in a plural sense. As I speak with young people I find many have
forgotten what rarely used plurals are for words for which I have a record of the true plural in the dictionary.
I have the sense that bit by bit these rarely used plurals are being forgotten and are being replaced with plurals
that are not strictly speaking gramatically correct. That is why I suspect that some of these words may have at
one time had a plural which conformed with the regulations demonstrated in Table 5.1. On the other hand,
some of these words may have never had well thought out proper plural forms. While it seems perfectly normal
to me as an Anglophone to ask a Pullo what is the plural of “earlobe” or “eyebrow,” often I find such inquiries
invoke a mystified look on the face of my informant. I gather that for certain things they are not used to
speaking of them in the plural and so when pressed for a plural they make up something which generally proves
to not conform to the rules of Table 5.1. In each of these cases there should have been some initial consonat
change because the plurals fall in Group II (
e or
i).

191
wolfo (ngo)/wolfooji (
i) – a grand bubu
wutteere (nde)/wutteeje (
e) – a serving
yaasoore (nde)/yaasooje (
e) – nickname
yafaare (nde)/yafaaje (
e) – morning rain
yalaare (nde)/yalaaje (
e) – a cockroach
yamnde (nde)/yamndeeji (
i) – an hour
yantaare (nde)/yantaaje (
e) – Andropogon ascinodis – grass
yeende (nde)/yeendeeji (
i) – actinomycosis or actinobacillosis
yelaango (ngo)/yelaaji (
i) – a wish
yerganaaru (ndu)/yerganaaji (
i) – a snail
yogooru (ndu)/yogooji (
i) – a squash or pumpkin

Derived From Another Word (79)

dambugaawo (ngo)/dambugaaji (
i) – from dammbugal – a mat

den
iraagu (ngu)/no plural – from dendiiwo – cousinhood
faamu (ngu)/no plural – from faamude – understanding
fijo (o)/fijooji (
i) – from fijude – a party
fillawol (ngol)/fillaaji (
i) – from fillaade - a story
funeereejo (o)/funeereee (e) – from funude - twin
goongalaaku (ngu)/no plural – from goonga - truthfulness
gosu/a (ngu)/gosuuji (
i) – from gosude – an accusation
haala (ka)/haalaaji (
i) – from haalude - a word, speech
haamu (ngu)/no plural form – from hamude - humidity
haasidaaku (ngu)/no plural form – from haasidaade - selfishness
hakkilantaaku (ngu) – word derived from haillo (ngo) - intelligence
hakkillowol (ngol)/hakkillooji (
i) – word derived from haillo (ngo) – temple
hakkundeeru (ndu)/hakkundeeji (
i) – word derived from hakkunde (nde) – middle finger
hakkundeeye (nge)/hakkundeeji (
i) – ditto – middle sized cow
hawju (o)/no plural – from hawjaade – maintenance
haillowol (ngol)/haillooji (
i) – from haillo – temple
hennduure (nde)/hennduuje (
e) – lost plural? – an unfertilized egg
higoo (o)/higiraae (e) – from yigoo – friend
hiiri (o)/no plural – from hiirude – evening
hiite (nge)/hiiteeji (
i) – from yiite – fire
hooreejo (o)/hooreee (e) – from hoore – a leader
howruujo (o)/howruue (e) – from howru – a sevant of the king
hoyaara (o)/no plural – from hoyude – something which is treated lightly
hu
ooru (o)/hu
ooji (
i) – from hu
o – a grass house
humparawol (ngol)/humparaaji (
i) – from parawol - a rope halter
hunayeere (nde)/hunayeeji (
i) – from hunaade – an oath
hunndukoojo (o)/hunndukooe (e) – from hunnduku – a gossip
husuba (ka)/husubaaji (
i) – from husinbinde – an aggravation
jamba (ka)/no plural – from jambaade - treachery
jikku (ngu)/no plural – from jikkude - hospitality
jofolaaku (ngu)/no plural – from jofoleede – uncircumcision
mballa (o)/mballaaji (
i) – from wallude - aid
mbatta (o)/no plural – from wattande - trade
mbecca (o)/no plural – from weccude – change
ndaarngal (ngal)/no plural – from ndaarnude – divination
ndaaroowo (o)/ndaarooe (e) – from ndaarnude - a fortune teller
ndanndorgal (ngal)/ndanndor
e (
e) – from ndaarnude – a mirror
njaatiraa
o (o)/njaatiraae (e) – from yaadude – great grandparent
njobbaajo (o)/njobbaae (e) – from Njobbo – the sixth son
njobdi (ndi)/njobdiiji (
i) – from yobude - pay
rafi (ki)/no plural – from rafeede – a lack or failure
rafo (ngo)/no plural – from rafeede – famine
rawaandaaku (ngu)/no plural – from rawaandu – rudeness
regitaango (ngo)/degitaali (
i) – from regaade – a descent, slope

192
riggaango (ngo)/diggaali (
i) – from riggaade – thunder
rigisi (
i)/no plural – from rigisaade – intimidation
saaannde (nde)/saaan
e (
e) – from saaaade – a step
saaraa (o)/saaraae (e) – from saare - parent
sa

a (o)/sa

aaji (
i) – from sa

inde [sainde] – aggravation
sakiraagu (ngu)/no plural – from sakiike – siblinghood
sammbaajo (o)/sammbaae (e) – from Sammbo – second son
saa (ka/o)/saaaji (
i) – from sainde – an aggravation
seeboojo (o)/seebooe (e) – from Seebo – the seventh daughter
sonnoori (ndi)/sonnooje (
e) – from sonnude - millet
soorowal (ngal)/soorooje (
e) – from sorude – a shelter for weaving mats
sootu (ngu)/sootuuji (
i) – from cootu - a firefly
soppanataaru (ndu)/soppanataaji (
i) – lost plural? from soppude – a woodpecker
subdindinngol (ngol)/no plural – from suaade – a lot
suka (o)/sukaae (e) – from sukkaade - child
sukunyaaku (ngu)/no plural – from sukunya – sorcery
suno (o)/no plural – from sunaade – depression
waaju (ngu)/waajuuji (
i) – from waajaade - preaching
waannde (nde)/waanndeeji (
i) – from waanndude – worry
wanyandereejo (o)/wanyandereee (e) – from wanyande – a hateful person
woykuuraaku (ngu)/no plural – from woykaade – prostitution
woykuuru (ndu)/woykuuji (
i) – from woykaade – a prostitute
wuroojo (o)/wurooe (e) - from wuro – a town dweller
woy
u
o (o)/woye (e) – from boy
o – a lame person
yaaoro (o)/yaaorooji (
i) – from yaaude - the bottom of a foot
yaage (o)/no plural – from yaagaade - modesty
yarnirgal (ngal)/jarnir
e (
i) – from yarnude – a watering trough
yarramuye (o)/no plural – from yarraade - joyful acceptance
yaynam (
am)/no plural – from yaynude – light
yeraajo (o)/yeraae (e) – from Yero – the third son
yewto (ngo)/yewtooji (
i) – from yewtude – a discussion
yigiraaku (ngu)/no plural – from yigoo – friendship
yoora'ko'aaku (ngu)/no plural – from yoorude? – bad luck/stuborness?
yooro (ngo)/yoorooji (
i) – from yoorude – a drought 38

Diminished Words (4)

soodi maammum laasi (ngel)/coodukoy maammum'en laasi (koy) – diminutive – a whydah

soonni innum jai laasi (ngel)/soonni innum'en jai laasihoy (koy) – diminutive – a whydah
sotti gogom soodi laccol (ngel)/sotti gogom'en soodi laccoy (koy) – diminutive – a whydah
yaaata-boolooli (ngel)/yaaata-booloolihoy (koy) – diminutive from boololol – a lily-trotter

Gurmaare tends to drop the nasal consonant at the beginning of nouns found in the third group (
am,
ka, ki, ndi, nga, ngu). To a lesser extent Yaagaare and sometimes Moosiire also does this.

Occurance of Dropped Nasals by Dialect

am ka ki ndi nga ngu Total
Gurmaare 6 5 23 1 1 36
Yaagaare 4 2 1 1 8
Moosiire 2 2 1 5

193
 Tabulation of Research on Non-conforming Nouns239
B D F G H J Mb Nd Ng Nj R S W Y Total
Total Nouns 281 213 110 144 187 144 81 48 67 53 43 222 112 111 1,816
Non-confoming Nouns 6 5 32 6 60 5 5 4 4 3 16 119 27 35 327
% of total 2% 2% 29% 4% 35% 3% 6% 8% 6% 6% 37% 54% 24% 31% 18%
Borrowed Words 2 9 2 20 1 1 8 36 7 6 92
Borrowed Words? 4 3 14 2 7 1 2 4 2 44 3 9 95
Lost Plural? 5 12 21 10 9 57
Derived From Another Word 2 4 2 21 3 3 3 3 6 15 7 10 79
Diminished 3 1 4

239
The number of total nouns dealt with in this table excludes nouns which have no singular form, proper names
for places, people, titles of people, and groups of people, as well as nouns which have been denasalized in
Gurmaare. Here are the stats for words removed from consideration: B/10 names/28 denasalized/61 w/o
singular form; D/11 names/5 denasalized/21 w/o singular form; F/19 names/2 w/o singular form; G/15
names/21 denasalized/44 w/o singular form; H/9 names/7 w/o singular form; J/12 names/2 denasalized/33 w/o
singular form; R/5 names/7 w/o singular form; S/20 names; W/7 names/11 w/o singular form; Y/16 names/4
w/o singular form.

194
 APPENDIX B

This appendix contains information regarding the various combinations of singular/plural

suffixes used with noun roots when pluralizing nouns into the
e,
i and koy plural noun
classes from one of the singular noun classes. This data was drawn from the second edition of
the Burkina Faso Fulfulde-English/English-Fulfulde Dictionary. I prepared this appendix as
an aid in discussing the use of suffixes in the pluralization of nouns. For most people this
material is superfluous. The main point to take from this research is there is a variety of both
singular and plural suffixes used with nouns. Unless you are curious about such matters I
would not read any further. The grammar in Section 6, page 36 ff. hits the highlights of the
data contained in this appendix and contains more than enough detail for most people.
It is best to think of nouns as having a root or a stem and a suffix. There are both singular
suffixes and plural suffixes. In an effort to categorize the data I have referred to the suffix
endings as falling into “families.” The “families” are descriptive of what the suffixes look
like. The “families” I list in this appendix are: A, E, I, O, U and Simple. For the five
“families” named after a vowel, that vowel is dominate in the formation of both the singular
and plural forms of the suffix. For example, a noun in the “A family” would use the letter
“a” both in forming the singular suffix as well as to replace “v” in the following formula:
-vvxe or -vvxi where “v” stands for a vowel and “x” stands for a consonant.
Aljum-a → Aljum-aaje

So for the Family A suffixes used with the plural noun class
e we have: -aaje, -aa
e, -aale.
Likewise for the Family A suffixes used with the plural noun class
i we have: -aaji, -aa
i,
-aali, -aami. Typically nouns pluralizing into either the
e or the
i plural noun classes, and
which fall into the “families” A, E, I, O, or U, use the above described four letter formula to
form their plural suffixes: -vvxv, where the final vowel would be “e” with the noun class
e
and “i” with the noun class
i. The first two vowels in the formula would be the vowel
represented in the family’s name: i.e. A, E, I, O, U. However, there are quiet a few nouns
which use a simpler pattern to form both the singular and plural suffix. I refer to these as the
Simple “family.” Suffixes in the Simple family are generally composed of one or two letters.
For example:
koo-ba → koo-bi (the Roan antelope)

I have grouped various singular suffixes under the plural suffix used by each of those various
singular suffixes. So, for example, in the first plural suffix listed below (-aaje) there are
twelve different singular paradigms that use that one plural paradigm. As mentioned above, I
have further grouped the various plural suffixes by “family.” The various plural suffixes are
enumerated sequentially. For example there are 20 different plural suffixes used to pluralize
nouns into the
e noun class and 23 different plural suffixes used to pluralize nouns into the
i
noun class.240 The number of nouns using each singular pattern is listed in parentheses behind
that pattern.241 In the first example below the first singular pattern is -a. There are seven
words which end with -a and pluralize with the suffix -aaje. The totals are also listed behind
each of the enumerated plural paradigms. In the first example below there are 137 words in
the dictionary which pluralize with the ending -aaje. The most significant patterns are shown
in bold type. Behind each paradigm I give at least one example using the singular and plural
forms of a noun in that paradigm.

240
Note that for some of these suffixes I had no examples of words using those suffixes in the dictionary.
That doesn’t necessary mean that there are no nouns in Fulfulde which might use that suffix, but one needs to
consider that possibility
241
In preparing this appendix in 2006 I decided to exclude the denasalized Gurmaare versions of these words. It is
the numbers generated from Appendix B which are reported in relation to the percentage of nouns using either

e and
i as their plurals and also using the plural suffix formula –vvxv on pages 28 and 29. However, in
preparing Table 4.1 on page 30 I did include these denasalized nouns in the total word count for each noun
class. Hence the noun totals given on pages 28 and 29 are not the same as those in Table 4.1.

195
 Singular/Plural Suffix Combinations Used With The
e Noun Class

Family A

1. -aaje (137)242
-a/-aaje (7) Aljum-a (Friday) o → Aljum-aaje
e
-aa/-aaje (2) caac-aa (an abyssinian roller) ngal → caac-aaje
e
-aal/-aaje (6) adak-aal (a case) ngal → adak-aaje
e
-al/-aaje (3) akal-al (trough or boat) ngal → akal-aaje
e
-awal/-aaje (13) balaal-awal (a glossy-backed drongo) ngal → balaal-aaje
e
-ay/-aaje (3) buruug-ay (Feretia apodanthera - tree) ki → buruug-aaje
e
-aahi/-aaje (17) badull-aahi (Euphorbia balsamifera - shrub) ki → badul-aaje
e
-aare/-aaje (79) aay-aare (a verse) nde → aay-aaje
e
-aari/-aaje (2) goowl-aari (a cobra) ndi → goowl-aaje
e
-aaru/-aaje (2) bat-aaru (a box) ngu → bat-aaje
e
-aawo/-aaje (3) cak-aawo (millet mat) ngo → cak-aaje
e
-i/-aaje (1) bood-i (jacket) o → bood-aaje

2. -aa
e (10)
-aade/-aa
e (1) waw-aade (shield) nde → baw-aa
e
e
-aadi/-aa
e (1) bad-aadi (Crossopteryx febrifuga - shrub) (n)di ki → bad-aa
e
e
-aande/-aa
e (5) naan-aande (beam of light) nde → naan-aa
e
e
-aaki/-aa
e (1) ngon-aaki (Acacia raddiana - tree) ki → gon-aa
e
e
-angal/-aa
e (2) koll-angal (hardpan) ngal → koll-aa
e
e

3. -aale (8)
-alde/-aale (3) hiiny-alde (gizzard) nde → kiiny-aale
e
-aali/-aale (2) dii-aali (Gardenia erubescens - shrub) ki → dii-aale
e
-aande/-aale (2) nyam-aande (credit, loan) nde → nyam-aale
e
-(a)angal/-aale (1) jah-aangal (a trip) ngal → jah-aale
e
as-angal (hip, thigh) ngal → as-aale
e

Family E

4. -eeje (74)
-ø/-eeje (1) Asay (Saturday) o → Asaweeje
e
-e/-eeje (3) Ase (Saturday) o → Asaweeje
e
-i/-eeje (1) jawd-i (riches) ndi → jawl-eeje
e
-eehi/-eeje (17) anak-eehi (Boswellia dalzielii - tree) ki → anak-eeje
e
-eere/-eeje (38) Asaw-eere (Saturday) nde → Asaw-eeje
e
tepp-ere or tepp-eere (heel) nde → tepp-eeje
e
-eeri/-eeje (1) mbay-eeri (sorghum) ndi → bay-eeje
e
-ere/-eeje (3) duund-ere (an island) nde → duund-eeje
e
-ewal/-eeje (2) geer-ewal (forked log) ngal → geer-eeje
e
-ey/-eeje (4) barker-ey (Piliostigma sp. - shrub) ki → barker-eeje
e
-eyal/-eeje (3) git-eyal (forked log) ngal → git-eeje
e
-u/-uuje (1) harf-u (syllable) o → karf-eeje
e

5. -ee
e (3)
-eeki/-ee
e (1) poppet-eeki (Walltheria indica - plant) ki → poppetee-
e
e
-eende/-ee
e (1) teel-eende (bald spot) nde → teel-ee
e
e
-eenga/-ee
e (1) koppet-eenga (Walltheria indica -plant) nga → koppet-ee
e
e

6. -eele (3)
-am/-eele (2) ndiy-am (water)
am → diy-eele
e
nebb-am (oil)
am → nebb-eele
e
-eengo/-eele (1) wipp-eengo (a wing) ngo → bipp-eele
e

242
The number (137) refers to the 137 words in the dictionary which have this ending. Likewise the specific
number of words found in each singular/plural suffix pattern is listed behind that pattern in parentheses.

196
 Family I

7. -iije (52)
-i/-iije (2) gooj-i (Azadirachta indica –neem tree) ki → gooj-iije
e
-iihi/-iije (6) karant-iihi (machete) ki → karant-iije
e
-iiho/-iije (1) siid-iiho (Eragrostis pilosa - grass) ko → siid-iije
e
-iire/-iije (32) ciid-iire (Eragrostis pilosa - grass) nde → ciid-iije
e
-iiru/-iije (1) jumbal-iiru (a village weaver) ndu → jumbal-iije
e
-iwal/-iije (2) ciliil-iwal (white-faced duck) ngal → ciliil-iije
e
-iya/-iije (1) ommbaariya (millet mat) (n)ga → ommbaariije
e
-(i)yal/-iije (6) dabidab-iyal (butterfly or moth) ngal → dabidab-iije
e
-ohi/-oyiije (1) gandah-ohi (Ceratotheca sesamoides - plant) ki → gandah-oyiije
e

8. -ii
e (0)

9. -iile (0)

Family O

10. -ooje (69)

-o/-ooje (3) goor-o or gor-o (kola nut) ngo → goor-ooje
e
-oohi/-ooje (9) filaaw-oohi (Eucalyptus camaldulensis -tree) ki → filaaw-ooje
e
-oonde/-ooje(2) hirihir-oonde (hip) nde → kirikir-ooje
e
-oore/-ooje (36) biibin-oore (an assassin bug) nde → biibin-ooje
e
-oori/-oore (5) ndon-toori (rooster) ndi → dont-oore
e
-oowo/-ooje (1) booy-oowo (grass mat) ngo → booy-ooje
e
-owal/-ooje (10) cancan-owal (spider) ngal → cancan-ooje
e
-oy/-ooje (3) gurs-oy (Grewia villosa -shrub) ki → gurs-ooje
e

11. -oo
e (20)

-ogal/-oo
e (3) cum-ogal (a brand) ngal → cum-oo
e
e
-ongal/-oo
e (1) booroboor-ongal (a blister beetle) ngal → booroboor-oo
e
e
-oode/-oo
e (9) fe
-oode (button, snap) nde → pe
-oo
e
e
-ooki/-oo
e (3) ngel-ooki (Guiera senegalensis - shrub) ki → gel-oo
e
e
-oonde/-oo
e (4) occ-oonde (an egg) nde → occ-oo
e
e

12. -oole (8)

-olde/-oole (1) ton-olde (a hillock) nde → tonoole
e
-ongal/-oole (2) ciiocii-ongal (rainbow) ngal → ciiocii-oole
e
-oode/-oole (2) yook-oode (a goiter) nde → jook-oole
e
-oonde/-oole (2) uus-oonde (hip) nde → uus-oole
e
-oore/-oole (1) ug-oore (a hump) nde → ug-oole
e

Family U

13. -uuje (51)

-uho/-uuje (1) fak-uho (Corchorus sp. - plant) ko → fak-uuje
e
-uwa/-uuje (1) kaciig-uwa (a tawny eagle) nga → kaceeg-uuje
e
-uwal/-uuje (26) all-uwal (slate) ngal → all-uuje
e
-uuhi/-uuje (6) leembur-uuhi (a citrus tree) ki → leembu-ruuje
e
-uure/-uuje (17) biw-uure (a slingshot) nde → biw-uuje
e

14. -uu
e (11)//(2)

-ugal/-uu
e (1) nyaamr-ugal (bowl) ngal → nyamr-uu
e
e
-uugal/-uu
e (1) bur-uugal (stirring stick) ngal → bur-uu
e
e

15. -uule (0)

197
 Simple Family

16. -e* (12)

-al/-e (2) ce-al (tree bark) ngal → ce-e
e
-
u/-e (1) nge-
u (a share) ngu → ge-e
e
-mnde/-e* (1) ha-mnde (a fight) nde → ka-e
e
-mooore/-e* (1) wuu-moore (Acacia ataxacantha - tree) nde → guu-e
e
-m/wre/-e* (5) fi-mre/fi-wre (a knot) nde → pi-e
e
ha-mre/ha-wre (a fight, war) nde → ka-e
e
se-mre (tree bark) nde → ce-e
e
ye-mre (a part) nde → ge-e or je-e
e
-mere/-e* (2) yeta-mere (fruit of the tamarind tree) nde → jeta-e
e
ul-mere (a coal) nde → ul-e
e

*There are a number of words that end with the suffix -e which do not belong to the plural noun class e,
but rather to the
e noun class. Those -e suffixed words listed above form a separate group of distinct
endings in the Simple suffix family of the
e noun class. Those listed below actually belong to other
paradigms within the Simple suffix family, however these words nonetheless end with -e, which may also
cause some confusion with words from the e class. They are listed for reference only:

see -i/-e pardigm below (6) ul-i (Acacia seyal - shrub) ki → ul-e
e
la-i (a knife) ki → la-e
e
nel-i (Diospyros mespiliformis -tree) ki → nel-e
e
ngulunnjaa-i (a shrub) ki → gulunnjaa-e
e
njaa-i (Ziziphus mauritiana - shrub) ki → jaa-e
e
njet-a-i (a tamarind tree) ki → jet-a-e e

see -ere/-e paradigm below (7) ha-ere (a bundle) nde → ka-e
e

nyil-ere (snot) nde → nyil-e
e
nyakka-ere (a weed) nde → nyakka-e
e
sil-ere (a sprain) nde → cil-e
e
ta-ere (water lily bulb) nde → ta-e
e
to-ere (a speck) nde → to-e
e
yaa-ere (a step) nde → yaa-e
e

see –al/-e paradigm below (3) nyi-al (forked log) ngal → nyi-e
e
ka-al (an engagement) ngal → ka-e
e
koo-al (Actinobacilosis) ngal → koo-e
e

17. -
e (173)

-de/-
e (58) bambir-de (cloth) nde → bambir-
e
e
durdu-de (omasum) nde → duru-
e
e
-di/-
e (2) jaair-di (bottom of foot) ndi → jaair-
e
e
-ngere/-
e (1) lon-ngere (a lump of food) nde → lon-
e
e
-gal/-
e (71) bedor-gal (a trap) ngal → bedor-
e
e
dammbu-gal (a doorway) ngal → dammbu-
e
e
-gol/-
e (1) layir-gol (a dishrag) ngol → layir-
e
-ka/-
e (1) ngay-ka (a hole) ka → gay-
e
e
-ki/-
e (10) naw-ki (arm pit) ki → naw-
e
e
cillu-ki (Acacia sieberiana - tree) ki → cillu-
e
e
-ko/-
e (1) hunnd-uko (mouth) ko → kunnd-u
e
e
-nde/-
e (18) oortan-nde (a shed snake skin) nde → oortan-
e
e
-ndere/-
e (1) wulsu-ndere (a lung) nde → bulsu-
e
e
-ndi/-
e (3) njam-ndi (metal) ndi → jam-
e
e
-ngal/-
e (4) basir-gal (digging tool) ngal → basir-
e
e
-ngo/-
e (1) jun-ngo (hand or arm) ngo → juu-
e
e
-ol/
e (1) am-ol (question) ngol → am-
e
e
-re/-
e (1) toy-re (middle of upper lip) nde → toy-
e also toy-e
e

198
18. -e (251)
-a/-e (3) nges-a (a field) nga → ges-e
e
-al/-e (74) annd-al (knowledge) ngal → annd-e
e
-am/-e (1) kosam (milk)
am → kose
e
-de/-e (7)
aal-de (a welt) nde →
aal-e
e
-dere/-e (2) duul-dere (a cloud) nde → duul-e
e
-ere/-e (87) ayb-ere (shameful action) nde → ayb-e
e
-gol/-e (2) lonn-gol (laundry) ngol → lonn-e
e
-i/-e (24) bool-i (Sterculia setigera - tree) ki → bool-e
e
-iri/-e (1) mbos-iri (rock python) ndi → bos-e
e
-nde/-e (1) haatan-nde (kitchen) nde → kaatan-e
e
-ngel/-e (1) kankan-ngel (gall bladder) ngel → kaankaan-e
e
-o/-e (16) aaw-o (back) ngo → aaw-e
e
-ol/-e (1) coll-ol (necklace) ngol → col-e
e
-re/-e (29) oy-re (judgment) nde → o-e
e
-u/-e (2) nyamm-u (vulva, vagina) ngu → nyamm-e
e

19. -je (2)

-re/-je (2) asay-re (7 day rotation) nde → asay-je
e

20. -le (40)

-al/-le (8) lang-al (a handle) ngal → lang-le
e
-de/-le (4) honndol-de (ant hill) nde → konndol-le
e
-gal/-le (12) caw-gal (bucket) ngal → caw-le
e
-nde/-le (5) huu-nde (a thing) nde → kul-le or
e
-ndere/-le (1) holu-ndere (ankle bone) nde → kolu-le
e
-ndi/-le (2) ng/jen-ndi (a town) ndi → g/jel-le
e or gen-
e
-ngal/-le (8)
em-ngal (a tongue) ngal →
em-le
e

en-ngal (a tongue) ngal →
el-le
e

Singular/Plural Suffix Combinations Used With The
i Noun Class

Family A

1. -aaji (173)
-a(a)/-aaji (124) arkill-a (net) ka → arkill-aaji
i
-aari/-aaji (4) coottit-aari (ransom) ndi → coottit-aaji
i
-aaru/-aaji (26) baanyaaru (herdsman) ndu → baanyaaji
i
-aawa/-aaji (4) ar-aawa (donkey) nga → ar-aaji
i
-aawo/-aaji (3) dambug-aawo (ravine) ngo → dambug-aaji
i
-aawu/-aaji (6) ar-aawu (a point) ngu → ar-aaji
i
-ayel/-aaji (1) silaalayel (a swift) ngel → silaalaaji
i
-o/-aaji (1) ariim-o (a point) o → ariim-aaji
i
-ol/-aaji (1) pannjam-ol (proverb) ngol → pannjam-aaji
i
-ø/-aaji (3) be (strike) o → beaaji
i

2. -aa
i (7)
-aange/-aa
i (3) so-aange (cow) nge → so-aa
i
i
-aandu/-aa
i (4) raw-aandu (lion) ndu → daw-aa
i
i

3. -aali (14)
-aangol/-aali (1) buuw-aangol (road) ngol → buuw-aali
i
-aango/-aali (14) foof-aango (breath) ngo → foof-aali
i

4. -aami (1)
-awol/-aami (1) daamar-awol (lily) ngol → daamar-aami
i

199
 Family E

5. -eeji (76)
-a/-eeji (4) be’-a (goat) (n)ga → be’-eeji
i
-e/-eeji (41) arzuk-e (blessing ) o → arzuk-eeji
i243
-eeru/-eeji (13) old-eeru (club) ndu → old-eeji
i
-el/-eeji (1) peel-el (pin) o → peel-eeji
i
-ew/-eeji (2) nyapileg-ew (tapeworm) ngu → nyapileg-eeji
i
-eewa/-eeji (4) susureewa (abscess core) nga → susureeji
i
-ewal/-eeji (1) deesewal (flag) ngal → deeseeji
i
-eewo/-eeji (2) deeleewo (mat) ngo → deeleeji
i
-ewol/-eeji (5)
erewol (paper) ngol →
ereeji
i
-eewu/-eeji (3) tefeewu (mare) ngu → tefeeji
i

6. -ee
i (1)
-eengu/-ee
i (1) pee
-eengu (cicada) ngu → pee
-ee
i
i

7. -eeli (4)
-e/-eeli (1) yiit-e (fire) nge → giit-eeli
i
-eendu/-eeli (3) ser-eendu (flute) ndu → cer-eeli
i

Family I

8. -iiji (80)
-i/-iiji (61) baas-i (problem) o → baas-i
i 244
-iiri/-iiji (1) aawd-iiri (seed) ndi → aawd-iiji
i
-iiru/-iiji (4) fitiiru (coop) ndu → fitiiji
i
-iiwu/-iiji (4) yeebiiwu (termite) ngu → yeebiiji
i
-iwol/-iiji (5) barb-iwol (hemp) ngol → barb-iiji
i
-ø/-iiji (5) antibiyotik (antibiotic) o → antibiyotik-iiji
i

9. -ii
i (2)
-iingol/-ii
i (2) dartii-ngol (road) ngol → dartii-
i
i

10. -iili (0)

Family O

11. -ooji (102)

-o/-ooji (67) cappal-o (beer) o → cappal-ooji
i
-ooha/-ooji (1) piir-ooha (airplane) ka → piir-ooji
i
-ooru/-ooji (27) barg-ooru (barrel) ngu → barg-ooji
i
-(o)owol/-ooji (7) dew-oowol (route) ngo → dew-ooji
i
pog-owol (stream) ngol → pog-ooji
i

12. -oo
i (6)

-oodu/-oo
i (2) lonnj-oodu (interior corner) ndu → lonnj-oo
i
i
-ooba/-oo
i (3) ngeel-ooba (camel) nga → geel-oo
i
i
-ongol/-oo
i (1) kuul-ongol (diaphragm) ngol → kuul-oo
i
i

243
Fourteen words ending with “nde” have been included in this group of suffixes to help streamline the number
of endings; e.g. dabbund-e (winter) nde → dabbund-eeji
i
244
Four of these words end with “ndi” and five end with “ki”, but I have included them in this suffix combination
group to streamline the data a bit. E.g. connd-i (flour) → cond-iiji
i; cuurki (steam) ki → cuurkiiji
i

200
13. -ooli (14)
-o/-ooli (4) hool-o (echo) ngo → kool-ooli
i
-ogol/-ooli (2) boof-ogol (brisket) ngol → boof-ooli
i
-olol/-ooli (2) bool-olol (lily) ngol → boolooli
i
-oolu/-ooli (1)
aal-oolu (ant) ngu →
aal-ooli
i
-oodu/-ooli (1) hunk-oodu (loin) ngu → kunk-ooli
i
-oola/-ooli (1) njool-oola (worm) nga → jool-ooli
i
-oondu/-ooli (3) woy-oondu (weaver) ndu → boy-ooli
i

14. -ooi (3)

-ooba/-ooi (3) jeelooba (camel) nga → jeelooi
i

Family U

15. -uuji (109)

-u/-uuji (66) adad-u (total) ndu → adad-uuji
i
-uuri/-uuji (2) cuk-uuri (buck) ndi → cuk-uuji
i
-uuru/-uuji (21) baw-uuru (civet) ndu → baw-uuji
i
-uwal/-uuji (1) barg-uwal (horn) ngal → barg-uuji
i
-uwol/-uuji (12) bayt-uwol (poem) ngol → bayt-uuji
i
-uy/-uuji (1) got-uy (plant) ki → gotuuji
i
-ø/-uuji (6) dodow (cultivation) o → dodow-uuji or dodow-ji
i
gu (stallion) ngu → gu-uji or guw-uuji
i

16. –uu
i (0)

17. –uuli (6)

-u/-uuli (2) kamm-u (sky) ngu → kamm-uuli
i
-uudu/-uuli (1) mbuub-uudu (wasp) ngu → buub-uuli
i
-uhol/-uul/ri (1) damm-uhol (sheep) kol → damm-uuli or damm-uuri
i
-uulu/-uuli (1) mbuul-uulu (bee) ngu → buul-uuli
i
-uwol/-uuli (1) damm-uwol (sheep) kol → damm-uuli
i

Simple Family

18. -bi or –i (15)

-ba/-bi (1) koo-ba (roan antelope) nga → koo-bi
i
-e/-bi (2) nyal-e (heifer) nge → nyal-bi
i
-m(b)uru/-bi -i (3) faa-mburu (frog) ndu → paa-i
i
-nge/-bi (1) haa-nge (cow) nge → kaa-bi
i
-ohol/bi (1) nyal-ohol (heifer) kol → nyal-bi
i
-wa/-bi (1) nyii-wa (elephant) nga → nyii-bi
i
-wra/-bi (1) noo-wra (crocodile) nga → noo-bi
i
-wru/-i (5) wo-wru (mortar) ndu → bo-i
i245

19. -
i (46)

-ngol/-
i (4) bala-ngol (road) ngol → bala-
i
i
-du/-
i (12) bawlirdu (bladder) ndu → bawlir
i
i
-gal/-
i (2) biwru-gal (fan) ngal → biwru-
i
i
-gel/-
i (1) iirorgel (pimple) ngel → iiror
i
i
-gol/-
i (12) ilir-gol (clothesline) ngol → ilir-
i
i
-ndu/-
i (6) en-ndu (teat) ndu → en-
i
i
-ngol/-
i (3) bala-ngol (road) ngol → bala-
i
i
-ngu/-
i (5) ow-ngu (mosquito) ngu → ow-
i
i
-ge/-
i (1) hoowru-ge (cow) nge → koowru-
i
i

245
This is a particular paradigm. Four of the five words in this group transform the singular suffix
-wru to either -bbi or -ppi: fo-wru (hyena) ndu → po-bbi
i; ho-wru (knee) ndu → ko-ppi
i;
no-wru (ear) ndu → no-ppi
i; sa-wru (staff) ndu → ca-bbi
i

201
20. -i (161)
-a/-i (9) ot-a (femal kid) nga → ot-i
i
-annde/-i (1) woofannde (mistake) nde → boofi
i
-du/-i (7) jol-du (squirrel) ndu → jol-i
i246
-e/-i (3) haang-e (cow) nge → kaang-i
i
-iri/-i (4) uj-iri (steer) ndi → uj-i
i
-ndu/-i (3) hen-ndu (wind) ndu → ken-i
i
-o/-i (5) durw-o (wrestling match) ngo → durw-i
i
-ol/-i (89) baaj-ol (bark) ngol → baaj-i
i
-u/-i (30) aar-u (bow/quiver) ndu → aar-i
i247
-uru/-i (11) doomb-uru (mouse) ndu → doomb-i
i248

21. -ji (1)

ø/-ji (1) daa (custom) o → daaji
i

22. -li (31)

-du/-li (3) hou-du (back of head) ndu → kou-li
i
-gol/-li (1) tuu-gol (trap) ngol → tuu-li or tuu-gi
i
-lu/-li (15) ellel-lu (engorged tick) ngu → ellel-li
i
-ndu/-li (6) faa-ndu (gourd) ndu → paa-li
i
-ngol/-li (4) cettu-ngol (cream) ngol → cettu-li
i
-ngu/-li (1) om-ngu (panther) ndu → om-li
i
-ru/-li (1) holnyu-ru (hoof) ndu → kolnyu-li
i

23. -i (7)

-gu/-i (1) bingu (nit) ngu → bin-i
i
-ngu/-i (3) ngil-ngu (maggot) ngu → gil-i
i
-nyu/-i (1) nyuu-nyu (ant) ngu → nyuu-i
i
-am/-i (1) gee-am (seed)
am → gee-i
i
-u/-i (1) mbin-u (nit) ngu → bin-i
i

Singular/Plural Suffix Combinations Used With The Koy Noun Class

Words in the singular noun classes ngel and ngu, when referring to small things, usually use
the plural noun class koy. There appear to be two singular “diminutive” endings used with
noun roots that end with a vowel. The most common suffix used in roots ending with a vowel
seems to be -yel. This ending becomes -hoy when pluralized. For example:

aanyee-re (grave) nde → aanye-yel ngel → aanye-hoy koy

aadi (covenant) ndi → aadi-yel ngel → aadi-hoy koy

The other ending used with a vowel is -ngel. This ending pluralizes as -koy.
For example:

kaa
u-ngel (gall bladder) ngel → kaa
u-koy koy

morru-ngel (Adam’s apple) ngel → morru-koy koy

246
This also is an interesting paradigm. Four of seven words transform the “nn” of their roots to “ll” in their plural
forms: ann-du (body) ndu → all-i
i; unn-du (well) ndu → ull-i
i; honn-du (finger) ndu → koll-i
i;
wonn-du (abdomen) ndu → boll-i
i. The remaining two words are: daamihoonyol-du (snail) ndu →
daamikoonyol-i
i; elelel-du (lizard) ndu → elelel-i
i.
247
Two words in this group are similar to the paradigm mentioned above in footnote 244, however here the “dd” of
their root is transformed to “ll” in their plural forms: hodd-u (guitar) ndu → koll-i
i;
wudd-u (navel) ndu → bull-i
i.
248
See the alternate spelling for famburu (frog) ndu → faauru in the dictionary

202
Roots ending with the nasals “m” and “n” use the singular suffix -ngel and pluralize with
-koy. For example:
dam-ngel (a male kid) ngel → n-dam-koy koy
nyaan-ngel (carpet viper) ngel → nyaan-koy koy
palla-ngel danki (gecko) ngel → palla-koy koy

Roots ending with “r” uses the singular suffix -gel and also pluralizes with -koy.
iiror-gel (pimple) ngel → iiror-koy koy
nyittor-gel (handkerchief) ngel → nyittor-koy koy
poofir-gel (comma) ngel→ poofir-koy koy
amir-gel (question mark) ngel → amir-koy koy

The rest of the consonants use the singular ending -el as the diminutive ending.249
These become -oy when pluralized.
buub-el (small fly) ngel → m-buub-oy koy
ce-el le-el (tip of tree) ngel → ce-oy le-oy koy
cof-el (chick) ngel → cof-oy koy
cukal-el (child) ngel → cukal-oy koy
pet-el (small pond) ngel → pet-oy koy

The form of these endings seems to be driven by phonetic considerations – remember how the
Fule like their nouns, pronouns and noun class markers to rhyme.
a haala-yel (small word) ngel → haala-hoy koy
pureega-yel durooe (omasum) ngel → pureega-hoy durooe koy

b alb-el (wallet) ngel → alb-oy koy

buub-el (small fly) ngel → m-buub-oy koy
mob-el (truck) ngel → mob-oy koy

 ce-el le-el (tip of tree) ngel → ce-oy le-oy koy

c albacc-el (garlic) ngel → albacc-oy koy

mbe
-u (trivet) ngu → be
-el ngel → mbe
-oy koy

ba

-o (rider) o → ba

-el ngel → ba

-oy koy

e aanyee-re (grave) nde → aanye-yel ngel → aanye-hoy koy

f muf-ol (hairdo) ngol → muf-el ngel → muf-oy koy

cof-el (chick) ngel → cof-oy koy

g legg-el (small piece of wood) ngel → lekk-oy koy

peng-el (a pin) ngel → peng-oy koy
tiirig-el (finch) ngel → tiirig-oy koy

i aadi (covenant) ndi → aadi-yel ngel → aadi-hoy koy

bo
i-yel (red bird) ngel → m-bo
i-hoy koy
gawri-yel (water lily seed) ngel → n-gawri-hoy koy
kaaweesi-yel (an exclamation mark) ngel → kaaweesi-hoy koy

249
The only two exceptions to this I found were leg-gel ngel pluralizing as lek-koy and jaw-gel ngel pluralizing as
n-jaw-koy koy. See also in-ngel ngel → ik-koy koy for another example of the morphing of the final
consonant to “k” before the ending -koy

203
k jurk-el (stringed instument) ngel → n-jurk-oy koy
keek-el (bike) ngel → keek-oy koy
lok-el (dove) ngel → lok-oy koy
m-belk-oy (sweet potato) koy

l m-bool-i (tree) ki → bool-el ngel → m-bool-oy koy

biigamiimol-el (wood owl) ngel → biigamiimol-oy koy
col-el (genet) ngel → col-oy koy
cukal-el (child) ngel → cukal-oy koy
paal-el (small gourd) ngel → paal-oy koy

m dam-ngel (male kid) ngel → n-dam-koy koy

n in-ngel (child) ngel → ik-koy koy

dan-ngel (male kid) ngel → n-dan-koy koy
kankan-ngel (gall bladder) ngel → kankan-koy koy
nyaan-ngel (carpet viper) ngel → nyaan-koy koy

o boygo-yel (kid) ngel → m-boygo-hoy koy

oytoro-yel (dragonfly) ngel →
oytoro-hoy koy
nduuyoo-hoy (measles) koy

r iiror-gel (pimple on eye lid) ngel → iiror-koy koy

buutor-gel (pimple on eye lid) ngel → m-buutor-koy koy
cappor-gel (index, pointer) ngel → cappor-koy koy
moontor-gel (pimple) ngel → moontorkoy
nannginirgal (clasp) ngal → nannginir-gel ngel → nannginir-koy koy
nyittor-gel (handkerchief) ngel → nyittor-koy koy
poofir-gel (coma) ngel → poofir-koy koy

t batt-al (needle, dragonfly) ngal → batt-el ngel → m-batt-oy koy

bort-el/ot-el (female lamb) ngel → m-bort-oy/ot-oy koy
ciit-el (little finger) ngel → ciit-oy koy
bort-el (femal lamb) ngel → m-bort-oy koy
pallabiit-el (gecko) ngel → pallabiit-oy koy
pet-el (small pond) ngel → pet-oy koy

u adadu (total) o → adadu-yel ngel → adadu-hoy koy

kaa
u-ngel (gall bladder) ngel → kaa
u-koy
kuu-ngel (bug) ngel → kuu-koy koy
morru-ngel (Adam’s apple) ngel → morru-koy koy

w aaw-o (back) ngo → aaw-el ngel → aaw-oy koy

ciiw-el (small bird) ngel → ciiw-oy koy
jaw-el (peanut ring) ngel → n-jaw-oy koy
jaw-gel (male lamb) ngel → n-jaw-koy koy from jawdiri ndi

204
 APPENDIX C
Relative Occurrence of Nouns by Noun Class in Fulfulde

Noun Number of nouns approximate %

Class in class250 of total

am 53 1.5%

um 4 0.001%
ka 58 1.6%
kal 1 0.0003%
ki 165 4.6%
ko1 39 1.1%
kol 7 0.002%
nde 750 21%
ndi 158 4.4%
ndu 213 5.9%
nga 87 2.4%
ngal 363 10%
nge 15 0.004%
ngel 88 2.4%
ngi 8 0.002%
ngo 114 3.2%
ngol 193 5.3%
ngu 241 6.7%
o 1,052 29%
Totals251 3,609 99.112%

250
This refers to all the singular nouns listed in the second edition of the Burkina Faso Fulfulde/English-
English/Fulfulde Dictionary, including those denasalized in Gurmaare. It is worth noting that some nouns do
not have a plural form, and so are not counted in Table 4.1 on page 30, hence the difference in the totals on
page 30 and in this appendix.
251
The total represents nouns which have at least a singular form. Actually there are 3,790 listing in the dictionary
for nouns. Some of these would be plurals which have no singular form. Some plurals, those beginning with
the letters c, k, nd, ng, nj, mb, and p, have a separate simple listing in the dictionary as the first letter of the
plural form is different than the first letter of the singular noun.

205
 Appendix D

Contracted Possessive Forms (see also Table 8.6, p. 55)

Person baaba yaaya inniiwo/inniyo† kaawu goggo banndiiwo/banndiyo mawnoo minyo
1s baab·am yaay·am inn·am kaaw·am NA bannd·am mawn·am miny·am
2s baam·maa yaay·maa inn·a kaaw·a NA bannd·a mawn·a miny·a
3s-makko baab·iiko yaay·iiko inn·iiko kaaw·iiko gogg·iiko bannd·iiko mawn·iiko miny·iiko
3s-muu
um baam·mum yaay·em inn·um kaaw·um goggo·m bannd·um mawn·um miny·um
1p-ex NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
1p-in baab·ii(’/
)en* yaay·amen inn·ii(’/
)en kaaw·ii(’/
)en gogg·ii(’/
)en bannd·ii(’/
)en mawn·ii(’/
)en miny·ii(’/
)en
2p baab·ii(’/
)on* yaay·(a)mon inn·ii(’/
)on kaaw·ii(’/
)on gogg·ii(’/
)on bannd·ii(’/
)on mawn·ii(’/
)on miny·ii(’/
)on
3p-mae baab·iie yaay·iie inn·iie kaaw·iie gogg·iie bannd·iie mawn·iie miny·iie
3p-muen baam·mue NA inn·umen kaaw·umen NA bannd·umen mawn·umen miny·umen

*All four dialect areas might use baabii’en, but the Yaagaare and Gurmaare speakers would tend to say baabii
en, this is true for most of the first person
inclusive and second person forms in this chart.
†For a paternal aunt (iiniiwo debbo) they would add debbo to each of the above contracted possessive forms.
NA – Not Applicable

For bappaanjo they only use one contracted form: 3s-muu
um → bappaanjom or bappaanyom
For sakiike they only use one contracted form: 3s-muu
um → sakiikem

Person goroo dee§ ii

1s gor·am deek·am iy·am
2s gor·a deek·a iy·a
3s-makko gor·iiko deek·iiko iy·iiko
3s-muu
um gor·um deek·um iy·um
1p-ex NA NA NA
1p-in gor·ii(’/
)en* deek·ii(’/
)en iy·ii’en
2p gor·ii(’/
)on* deek·ii(’/
)on iy·ii’on
3p-mae gor·iie deek·iie iy·iie
3p-muen gor·umen NA ii·muen

*All four dialect areas might use gorii’en, but the Yaagaare and Gurmaare speakers would tend to say gorii
en. This is true for most of the first person
inclusive and second person forms in this chart.
§
The plural forms for this word are figurative.
NA – Not Applicable

206
 Appendix E
Words employing the suffixes -inde or -idde252

1. Words ending with the infix -in- plus the contracted active voice suffix -de.253

annd-in-de (prg. na anndin-a254) cog: anndude – to inform, to let know, to tell, to teach; lit. to cause to know, to
learn
arzink-in-de (prg. na arzinkin-a) - to bless; lit. to cause to be blessed
ayb-in-de (prg. na aybin-a) cog: aybude - 1. to humiliate someone; lit. to cause humilation 2. to injure someone,
harm, hurt, wound; lit. to cause harm
aym-in-de (prg. na aymin-a) - to grill meat; lit. to cause meat to cook

al-in-de (st/prg. na
alin-i/
alin-a) cog:
awlude - when the clouds blacken before it rains, to darken; lit. to cause
to be dark

ang-in-de (prg. na
angin-a) cog:
angude - 1. to speak loudly so as to make yourself heard, shout; lit. to cause to
hear 2. to explain to someone something that they didn’t know; lit. to cause to know

a-in-de (prg. na
ain-a) cog:
aude - to marry your son to a girl; lit to cause your son to marry
bark-in-de (st/prg. na barin-i/barkin-a) cog: bark-it-aade - 1. to bless; lit. to cause to be blessed 2. to praise; lit to
cause to be praised
barm-in-de (prg. na barmin-a) cog: barmude, barm-it-aade) - to wound or cut; lit. to cause harm

awl-in-de (prg. na
awlin-a) cog:
awlude - to dye black with mud, to make black; lit. to cause to be black

ern-in-de (st/prg. na
ernin-i/
ernin-a)
ernude »
ernande) - to do something to make someone angry; lit. to
cause someone to be angry
bo

-in-de (prg. na bo

in-a) cog: bo

aade) - to knock someone or something down from a standing position; to
fell a tree; to throw something down; lit. to cause to fall down
bo-in-de (prg. na boin-a) – to forbid
*
ol-in-de255 (prg na
olin-a) to take a woman's jewelry away from her, to empty: lit. to cause to be jewelryless,
empty

olm-in-de (prg. na
olmin-a) cog:
olmiidde - to make something smooth; lit to cause to be smooth

oom-in-de (prg. na
oomin-a) cog:
oomude - to cause to be smooth, to smoothen; lit to cause to be smooth
da-in-de (prg. na dain-a) cog: daude - 1. to cure or heal someone; lit. to cause to be well 2. to save someone;
lit. to cause to be safe
agg-in-de (prg. na aggin-a) - to throw something onto something or into something so it does not fall off of or
out of where you have thrown it; lit. to cause something to rest where you threw it
akk-in-de (prg. na akkin-a) cog: akkaade - to be near to, close, next to; lit. to cause to be near

252
At times my Fulfulde informants from Sebba and Mahadaga have indicated they prefer the -idde suffix to the -inde suffix.
This is especially true for verb roots that end in “t” or if the -it- infix is used in the word. Some also use this suffix with the
-i
- infix and occasional with the -id- infix, while others do not. If one sees (or hears) the -idde suffix one can be certain that
this is just a suffix and the root likely has an infix attached to it. This in contrast to the -inde ending, as about half the time
this is a suffix and half the time it is the infix -in- with the contracted active voice suffix -de. There are several infixes which
either contract or elongate the normal active voice suffix -ude. In the case of the “causative” infix the suffix is contracted.
253
There are 204 words in the dictionary which use the “causative” -in- infix followed by the contracted active voice suffix
-de.
254
One of the reasons I have conjugated all of these verbs for either stative and/or progressive is that this is an excellent way to
find out what the Fule consider to be the verb root, what is considered the infix, and what is considered the suffix. This also
gives one a sense of how they prefer to sequence the infixes. Generally speaking if they want to add the “causative” infix
-in- and either the “stative” infix (-i
-, -
- or occasionally -
in-), the “associative” infix (-id- or -d-), or the “reversive/
repetitive/intensive” infix (-it-, -t- or occasionally -tin-) they will place the “causative” infix to the left of the others.
The exception to this seems to be when either -
-, -d-, or -t- have been absorbed into the verb root, then the “causative” infix
will fall to the right of the others. Examples of this exception have been marked with an asterisk in this appendix.
255
There are some verbs which seem to have absorbed either the “stative” marker “-
-” or the “repetitive” marker “-t-” so that it
is regarded as part of the root. This is demonstrated when conjugating the verb (see footnote 254 above). I have marked
these “annealed” infixes by underlining the letter that have been absorbed into the root and I have marked the word with an
asterisk. In the case of ol
inde the “stative” marker “
” has been joined to the root √ol- indicating the state of nothingness
or emptiness. Then the “causative” infix -in- is added showing that this state was provoked by someone else – in this case it
might have been the woman’s husband or a robber.

207
anng-in-de (prg. na anngin-a) - to throw something onto something or into something so it does not fall off of or
out of where you have thrown it; lit. to cause something to rest where you threw it
*aand-in-de256 (prg. na aandin-a) cog: aanaade- to cause to sleep, to prepare yogurt; lit. to cause milk to sleep
aan-in-de (prg. na aannin-a) cog: aanaade - lit. to cause to sleep
dart-in-de (prg. na dartin-a) - to correct, to straighten, to make right; lit. to cause to be straight
demp-in-de (st/prg. na dempin-i/dempin-a) cog: dempin-irde - to cook with steam; lit. to cause to cook with steam
de-in-de (prg. na dein-a) - to quiet someone, to comfort or console; lit. to cause to be comforted or quiet
diis-in-de (prg. na diisin-a) - to move something or someone from one place to another; lit to cause to move
dis-in-de (prg. na disin-a) - to move something or someone from one place to another; lit to cause to move
dogg-in-de (prg. na doggin-a) - to make something run, such as a horse or even a truck; lit. to cause to run
et-in-de (prg. na etin-a) – to measure grain; lit. to cause to be measured
*faa-in-de (prg. na faain-a) faa-ude - to make smaller or narrower, to reduce the width; lit. to cause to be
narrower
faam-in-de (prg. na faamin-a) cog: faamude - to cause to understand, to explain clearly so that the listener
understands; lit. to cause to understand
*faatt-in-de257 (prg. na faattin-a) cog: faaude - to make smaller or narrower, to reduce the width; lit. to reverse
wideness
*faawt-in-de (prg. na faawtin-a) cog: faawtaade - to cause something to run hard, such as a horse or even a truck;
lit. to cause to run hard
fa-in-de (prg na fain-a/paino) fa-ude - to either run over or bump into something while driving a vehicle
or riding on a bike or motorcycle; lit. to cause to be thrown to the ground
*falt-in-de (prg. na faltin-a) cog; falaade/faltaade, faltude - 1. to overdo something, exagerate 2. to go too far
when taking something or someone somewhere 3. to look for trouble with someone by doing
bad things to him; lit do too much
*fam-in-de (prg. na famin-a) faamude - to diminish, reduce, make smaller; lit. to cause to be smaller
*fan-in-de (prg. na fanin-a) cog: faanude - to diminish, reduce, make smaller; lit. to cause to be smaller
fart-in-de (prg. na fartin-a) - to startle or frighten something or someone which causes it to run away; lit. to cause
fright & fleeing
fay-in-de (prg. na fayin-a) - to fatten up; lit. to cause to be fat
femmb-in-de (prg. na femmbin-a) - to run over or trample someone, either with a horse, vehicle, or with your own
feet; lit. to cause to be thrown to the ground
*find-in-de (prg. na findin-a) cog: finude - to wake someone up; lit. to cause to awaken
*fint-in-de (prg. na fintin-a) cog: fintude/finude - to resuscitate, revive someone; lit. to cause death to reverse
fomp-in-de (prg. na fompin-a) - to either run over or bump into something while driving a vehicle or riding on a
bike or motorcycle; lit. to cause to be thrown to the ground
foot-in-de (prg. na footin-a) - to move something; lit to cause to move
fott-in-de (prg. na fottin-a) cog: foitaade → fotaade → fottaade - to move something
fukk-in-de (prg. na fukkin-a) cog: fukkaade 1. to lay, put, place, or set something down that does not have a base
2. to cause to lie down 3. to deposit money in a bank, to put a deposit down towards a purchase
garb-in-de (prg. na garbin-a) - to beg; lit. to be caused to beg
gong-in-de (prg. na gongin-a) cog: goonga - to exhort, to speak forcefully telling people what they need to do; lit
to cause people to hear the truth
gur
-in-de (st/prg. na gur
in-i/gur
in-a) - to be nearly ripe
haamn-in-de (prg. na haamnin-a) cog: haamnaade - to aggravate, annoy, bother, irritate, upset, or vex; lit. to
caused to be vexed

256
The Fule seemed to have “annealed” the “associative” infix (-d-) to the root √
aan- (to sleep) to indicate the process of
adding yogurt to milk in order to turn it into yogurt.
257
I suspect that first “t” used to be “
,” while the second “t” can be either emphatic “t” or repeative t.”

208
*haand-in-de (prg. na haandin-a) cog: haandude - to daydream about something you would like; lit. to be caused
to day dream
*haan-in-de (prg. na haanin-a) - to drive someone crazy; lit to cause to go crazy
ha
-in-de (prg. na ha
in-a) - to stir up people or animals so that they fight with each other, to provoke others to
fight; lit. to cause to fight
hacink-in-de (st./prg. na hacinkin-i/hacinkin-a) - to be sure, to be certain; lit. to be made certain
hadd-in-de (prg. na haddin-a) - to stir up people or animals so that they fight with each other, to provoke others to
fight; lit. to cause to fight
hakind-in-de (prg. na hakindin-a) - to reduce to an apropriate levels or amount; lit. to cause to be reduced
hakink-in-de (prg. na hakinkin-a) - to be sure; lit. to be made certain
half-in-de (prg. na halfin-a) - to entrust yourself or something of yours to someone or to God; lit. cause self to
trust
harm-in-de – (st/prg. na harmin-i/harmin-a) - 1. to forbid as wrong, bad or sinful 2. to reject; lit. to cause to shun
hating-in-de (st. na hatingin-i) - to need, to want; lit. to be caused to need or want
hain-in-de (st./prg. na hainin-i/hainin-a) - to be sure, to be certain; lit. to be made certain
ha-in-de (prg. na hain-a) - to cause to crack, generally refers to cracking your knuckles
hebb-in-de (st/prg. na hebbin-i/hebbin-a) - 1. to have a lot 2. to do or say in excess of what you should do or say;
exceed or overdo, to exagerate 3. to fill
heng-in-de (prg. na hengin-a) - to tighten a rope; lit to cause to be tight
heny-in-de (prg. na henyin-a) - for the sky to blacken just before it starts to rain; lit. to cause to be black
hers-in-de (prg. na hersin-a) - to shame or embarrass someone, to humiliate; lit. to cause embarrassment
hett-in-de (prg. na hettin-a) - 1. to put, place something or someone somewhere 2. to transfer or move someone or
something somewhere; lit. to cause to move
*hewt-in-de258 (prg. na hewtin-a) cog: hewtude - 1. to invite or welcome a guest into the house 2. to take
someone or something somewhere; lit. to cause to arrive
hid-in-de (st/prg. na hidin-i/hidin-a) - 1. for the sky to blacken just before it starts to rain 2. for someone to be on
the verge of tears; lit. to cause to blacken (cry)

hir
-in-de/hur
-in-de – (prg. na hir
in-a) - to strangle or choke someone by the throat so that they make a choking
sound; lit. to cause to choke
hirny-in-de (prg. na hirnyin-a) to do something that makes someone angry for a moment; lit. to cause to be angry
momentarily
his-in-de (prg. na hisin-a) - to save, to cause to escape from danger; lit. to cause to be safe
holt-in-de (prg. na holtin-a) cog: koltal, holtude - to give a gift of cloth or clothes, to dress or clothe in a fig. sense
by providing clothing; lit. to cause to be clothed
horg-in-de (prg. na horgin-a) - to sit someone behind you on a bike, horse, etc.; lit. to cause to sit behind
hors-in-de (st/prg. na horsin-i/horsin-a) - to cherish or regard as precious; lit. to cause to be precious
hoyf-in-de/huyf-in-de (prg. na hoyfin-a) - to ignore someone, to not honor someone, to disdain; lit. to make light of
hukk-in-de (prg. na hukkin-a) - to burn food while cooking it; lit. to cause to burn
hul
-in-de (prg na hul
in-a) - to frighten, scare; lit. to cause to be frightened
hun-in-de (prg. na hunin-a) - to cause to swear, to adjure somone; lit. to cause to swear
husinb-in-de (prg. na husinbin-a) - to aggravate, annoy, bother, irritate, upselt, vex, to persecute, to torment; lit to
cause to be vexed
huu
-in-de (prg. na huu
in-a) - to finish something; lit to cause to be done
iirt-in-de (prg. na iirtin-a) - to resurrect from the dead, to resuscitate someone who has passed out; lit. to cause to
live again
il-in-de (prg. na ilin-a) - to uvulate - a cry of joy made by vibrating the uvula during celebrations; lit. to cause to
vibrate

258
I suspect that the “t” in the root √hewt- was an intensifier that was “annealed” to the root.

209
*jalt-in-de259 – (prg. na jaltin-a) cog: jalude - to laugh at someone, to make fun of some one, to mock; lit to cause
one to be laughed at
janj-in-de (prg. na janjin-a) - 1.to advise, to try and convince, this can take either a positive or a negative track; lit.
to cause to decide 2. to party, to celebrate
janng-in-de (prg. na janngin-a) cog: janngude - to teach; lit. to cause to study
jil-in-de (st/prg. na jilin-i/jilin-a) - to carry by hand with your hand hanging beside you, such as a sack or a pail;
lit. to cause to hang beside you
jipp-in-de (prg. na jippin-a) - 1. to bring down 2. to let an arm down; lit. to cause to come down

joob-in-de (prg. na joobin-a) - to have weeds overrun your field - the focus here is the lack of activity of the field's
owner in cultivating the field -it is this lack of work that is causing the field to be overrun by
weeds; lit. to cause (permit) to overrun
jo-in-de (prg. na join-a) - to put, place or set something with a base down; e.g. a glass, a lamp, a person; lit.
cause to be set down
laa
-in-de (prg. na laa
in-a) - to clean, cleanse, wash; lit. to cause to be clean
lag-in-de (prg. na lagin-a) - to throw something onto something (e.g. the desk or the house) or into something (e.g.
a tree) so it does not fall off of or out of where you have thrown it; lit. to cause something to land
where it won’t fall
lall-in-de (prg. na lallin-a) - to cause someone to become lost; lit. to cause to be lost
lee-in-de (prg. na leein-a) to humble someone; lit. to cause to be humble
lepp-in-de (prg. na leppin-a) - to wet or dampen; lit. to cause to be wet
ley-in-de (prg. na lein-a) - to humble someone; lit. to cause to be humble
likki-in-de (prg. na likkiin-a) - to hiccup; lit. to be caused to hiccup
lugg-in-de (prg. na luggin-a) - to make deeper, to dig out; lit. to make deeper
lutt-in-de (prg. na luttin-a) - to cause someone else to disobey; lit to cause to disobey
*maand-in-de (prg. na maandin-a) cog: maande) - to explain something to someone; lit. cause to understand
mals-in-de (prg. na malsin-a) - 1. to make something nice or pleasant, other than food 2. to flatter; lit. to make
nice
mans-in-de (prg. na mansin-a) - 1. to make something nice or pleasant, other than food 2. to flatter; lit. to make
nice
masimb-in-de (prg. na masimbin-a) - to severely injure someone or something else; lit to cause injury
mawn-in-de (st/prg na mawnin-i/mawnin-a) cog: mawn-ude) - 1. to exalt oneself 2. to exalt someone else 3. to
be arrogant 4. to feed someone or something so that it grows or fattens; lit to cause to be exalted
or fat
mayb-in-de (prg. na maybin-a) cog: maybude - to severely injure someone or something else; lit. to cause injury
mays-in-de (prg. na maysin-a) - 1. to make something nice or pleasant, other than food 2. to flatter; lit. to make
nice
*mett-in-de (prg. na mettin-a) cog: mettude) - 1. to do irritating or upsetting things to someone; lit. to cause
vexation 2. to buy salt for your animals; lit. to cause to lick salt
micc-in-de (prg. na miccin-a) -1. to remind someone of something they were supposed to remember 2. to
resemble, something/someone that reminds you of something/someone; lit. to cause to remember
mo-in-de (prg. na moin-a) cog: moude - to repair or fix, to prepare; lit. to cause to be right again
mus-in-de (prg. na musin-a) - to suck milk from a teat; lit. to cause the milk to flow (by sucking)
mut-in-de (prg. na mutin-a) - 1. to dunk someone or something under water 2. to baptize; lit. to cause someone to
be submerged in water

259
It is likely that the “t” in the root √jalt- was an intensifier that was absorbed into the root.

210
*muyn-in-de260 (prg. na muynin-a) cog: muynude, muytude also see musinde - to give a child or animal a breast
or teat to suck; nurse, suckle; lit. to cause to suckle
nam-in-de (prg. na namin-a) - to grind or mill in a mill; lit. to cause to be ground
*nand-in-de261 (prg. na nandin-a) cog: nanude - to give or bring news of someone or something; lit. to cause
others to hear
nannd-in-de (prg. na nanndin-a) cog: nanndude - 1. to compare; 2. to make something like or comparable; lit. to
cause to be like
nanng-in-de (prg. na nanngin-a) cog: nanngude - to catch something or someone in a trap, to hook a fish; lit. to
cause to be caught
*ar-in-de (prg. na narin-a) cog: arude - to make yourself or someone else attractive, beautify - to beautify;
lit. to cause to be beautiful
neem-in-de (prg. na neemin-a) - to feed - used of people and animals; lit to cause to eat
eet-in-de (prg. na eetin-a) - 1. to tie up something or someone tightly, to tighten, can be used fig. as when one
insists something is the case 2. to tighten something, such as a screw or a nut; lit. to cause to
tighten
er-in-de (prg. na erin-a) - to cause food to be dirty by dropping it or kicking dirt on it, to soil someone; lit. to
cause to be dirty
ngokk-in-de (st/prg. na ngokkin-i/ngokkin-a) - to hope; lit. to be in a state of hoping or to habitually hope
ni

-in-de (prg. na ni

in-a) - to darken, obscure; lit to make dark or obscure
nik-in-de (prg. na nikin-a) - to grind or mill in machine; lit. to cause to be ground
of-in-de (prg. na ofin-a) – lit. to cause a dog to bark
nyall-in-de (prg. na nyallin-a) - to greet in the afternoon; lit. to cause to be greeting in the afternoon
nyer-in-de (prg. na nyerin-a) - to cause food to be dirty by dropping it or kicking dirt on it, to soil someone; lit.
to cause to be dirty
olw-in-de (st/prg. na olwin-i/olwin-a) - to sweat, perspire; lit. to be in a state of sweating or to
continously/habitually sweat
*ool-in-de (prg. na oolin-a) cog: oolude - to dye something yellow; lit. to cause to be yellow
rawn-in-de (prg. na rawn-in-a) cog: rawnude - to dye white; lit. to cause to be white
reent-in-de (prg. na reentin-a) - 1. to gather, collect 2. rally, round up; lit. to cause to be collected, gathered
rinnd-in-de (prg. na rinndin-a) - to load - could be a bike, a cart or a truck; lit. to cause to be loaded
ronk-in-de (prg. na ronkin-a) - 1. to tire out 2. to wear out 3. to make something difficult for someone
saam-in-de (prg. na saamin-a) - 1. to drop something, to throw something down 2. to knock something down that
is standing; lit. to cause something to fall down
saawt-in-de (prg. na saawtin-a) - to make a faint noise; lit. to cause a noise
*sa-in-de (st/prg na sain-i/sain-a)- 1. to aggravate, annoy, bother, irritate, upset, vex 2. to persecute 3. to
torment; lit. to be in a state of being vexing or to vex habitually
sagg-in-de (prg. na saggin-a) - to prepare tea
salm-in-de (prg. na salmin-a) - 1. to greet when arriving by saying (As)salaamu aleykum 2. to knock; to cause to
be welcome
samm-in-de (prg. na saamin-a) cog: sammude - 1. to drop something, to throw something down
2. to knock something down that is standing; lit. to cause to fall down
sawr-in-de (prg. na sawrin-a) cog: sawrude - to reconcile or make peace, to intervene or break up a fight; lit to
cause to be well
sawt-in-de (prg. na sawtin-a) cog: sawtu - to make a faint noise; lit. to cause a little noise

260
I suspect that the “n” of the root √muyn- was originally a “causative” infix which was “annealed” to the root. The cognate
muynude means to suck milk, which corresponds to musinde. I think what they were thinking was that the child (offspring) in
sucking caused the milk of the mother to flow. I suspect the original root meaning to suck was √muy-. Note how with
muytude (to suck something like candy) the causative “n” is replaced by intensifying “t.” So muyninde means to cause a
child to suck which will in turn cause the milk to flow!
261
I suspect this “d” was originally the “associative” infix which was absorbed into the root √nan-. Because there must be more
than one party if news is to be exchanged the presence of the “d” makes sense.

211
sa-in-de (st/prg. na sain-i/sain-a) - 1. to aggravate, annoy, bother, irritate, upset, vex 2. to persecute 3. to
torment; lit. be vexing or to cause vexation
se
-in-de (prg. na se
in-a) - to bring near to or next to, to draw close to; lit. to cause to be close to
segil-in-de (prg. na segilin-a) cog: segilaade – lit. to cause someone to be prepared, ready
sek-in-de (prg. na sekin-a) - lit. to cause someone to pay a community or group fee
selb-in-de (prg. na selbin-a) cog: selbude - to dilute; lit. to cause to be dilute
sell-in-de (prg. na sellin-a) cog: sellude - to heal; lit. to cause to be well
semmb-in-de (prg. na semmbin-a) cog: semmbe - to strengthen or encourage; lit. to cause to be strong
semt-in-de (prg. na semtin-a) cog: semtude - to shame or embarrass someone, to humiliate; lit. to cause someone
to be shamed
sent-in-de (prg. na sentin-a) cog: sentude - to shame or embarrass someone, to humiliate; lit. to cause someone to
be shamed
sepp-in-de (st. na seppin-a) cog: ceppam - to have leprosy; lit. to be made to have leprosy
sikk-in-de (prg. na sikkin-a) cog: sikkude – lit. to cause someone to doubt or suspect
silm-in-de (prg. na silmin-a) - to welcome or greet a guest by saying bisimilla; lit. to cause to be welcome
simt-in-de (prg. na simtin-a) cog: simtude - to cause a liquid to drip, such as filtering water through a filter; lit. to
cause to drip
sint-in-de (prg. na sintin-a) cog: sintude - to cause a liquid to drip, such as filtering water through a filter; lit. to
cause to drip
*siwt-in-de (prg. na siwtin-a) cog: siwtorde - to remind someone of something; lit. to cause to remember
som-in-de (prg. na somin-a) cog: somude - 1. to tire out 2. to wear out 3. to make something difficult for
someone; lit. to cause to be tired, worn
sonk-in-de (prg. na sonkin-a) cog: sonkude - for a group to either cry or otherwise make noise so that it all
becomes one sound; lit. to cause loud cry – this probably was originally a wail of anguish, see
sonkude
*sott-in-de (prg. na sottin-a) cog: sottinere - 1. to move something living, such as an animal; lit.to cause to move
2. to make a written copy of something, this could include making photocopies; lit. to copy again
(in this case the infix would be -tin-) 3. to steal something; lit. to cause to be sold There seem to
be several different roots converging here. For def. 1 the base was sottude (to move). For def. 2
the base was likely the root √sot- with the -tin- infix added on. For def. 3 the base in Mahadaga
and Tenkodogo is sottude (to sell) – this would be soottinde in Djibo and Sebba.
*sowt-in-de (prg. na sowtin-a) cog: sowtude - to remind someone of something; lit. to cause to remember
(unfold)
so-in-de (prg. na soin-a) - to send something back to where it came from, to return something; lit. to cause to
return
summb-in-de (prg. na summbin-a) cog: summbude - to have weeds overrun your field - the focus is on the lack of
work by the owner of the field - he has caused the field to be weedy by his lack of work; lit. to
cause weeds to overrun
sun-in-de (prg. na sunin-a) cog: sunaade - to discourage, depress others; lit. to cause to be discouraged
suurt-in-de (prg. na suurtin-a) - to steam or smoke something; lit. to cause to be steamed or smoked
suus-in-de (prg. na suusin-a) cog: suusude; lit. to cause to be brave
tamp-in-de (prg. na tampin-a) cog: tampude - 1. to tire out 2. to wear out 3. to make things difficult for someone;
lit. to cause to be weary, tired, difficult
tedd-in-de (prg. na teddin-a) cog: teddude - to honor or glorify someone else or yourself; lit. to cause to be heavy
tee-in-de (prg. na teein-a) cog: teeude - to tighten, to fasten something or someone tightly; lit. to cause to be
tight
tikk-in-de (prg. na tikkin-a) cog: tikkude - to do something to make someone angry; lit. to cause anger
tils-in-de (st/prg. na tilsin-i/tilsin-a) cog: tilsude - to obligate, to force; lit. to cause to do by force
timm-in-de (prg. na timmin-a) cog: timmude - to finish; lit to cause to be finished
tind-in-de (prg: na tindin-a) - to clearly explain something to someone so that they understand, to clarify, to warn;
lit. to cause to understand

212
ti-in-de (st/prg. na tiin-i/tiin-a) - to curl up, as a finger or scorpions tail; lit. to cause to curl
tonny-in-de (prg. na tonnyin-a) - 1. when you put some eggs that do not belong to a chicken in the chicken's nest
so that she hatches them 2. when a hen pecks a hole in the egg to help the chick escape; lit. to
cause to hatch
tott-in-de (st/prg. na tottin-i/tottin-a) cog: tottitaade - 1. to turn something away 2. to recite - this comes from the
practice of Koranic students turning their slates around and giving them to their teacher to look at
while they recite their lesson
tuuf-in-de (prg. na tuufin-a) cog: tuufude - to catch someone or something in a trap
umm-in-de (prg. na ummin-a) cog: ummaade - lit. to cause to get up, can also refer to anything which causes you
to go somewhere
unnd-in-de (prg. na unndin-a) - 1. to cause to incubate, often people put guinea - fowl eggs under chickens so that
the chickens will hatch them 2. to take a girl that you wish to marry and hide her away until you
can marry her (with her consent); lit. to cause to incubate or to stay in the house
waajinb-in-de (prg. na wajinbin-a) cog: waajibinaade - to obligate, to force; lit. to cause to do by force
wa-in-de (prg. na wain-a) cog: waude - to cause someone or something to do something
wall-in-de (prg. na wallin-a) - to lay, put, place, or set something down that does not have a base, to lay an egg; lit.
to cause to be layed down
wang-in-de (prg. na wangin-a) cog: wangude – 1. to convict, to point out someone’s error 2. to speak loudly so as
to make yourself heard, shout 3. to explain to someone something that they didn't know, to
reveal; lit. to cause to be known
wils-in-de (prg. na wilsin-a) - to give a little of something; lit. to cause to have a little
wilt-in-de (prg. na wiltin-a) - to do or say too much, exceed, overdo, exagerate; lit. to cause to be too much
wirginde (prg. na wirgin-a) - to fertilize with manure; lit cause to be fertilized
witt-in-de (prg. na wittin-a) - 1. [J,Y,G,M] to look for trouble with someone by doing bad things to him 2. to
drive animals past somewhere 3. to do or say too much, exceed, overdo, exagerate; lit. to cause
to be too much
wof-in-de (prg. na wofin-a) – lit. to cause a dog to bark
wojj-in-de (prg. na wojjin-a) - to dye red; lit. to cause to be red
woof-in-de (prg. na woofin-a) – lit. to cause to incubate
wuf-in-de (st/prg na wufin-i/wufin-a) - 1. to be stout, solid or fat - child or young animal; lit. to cause to be in a
state of fatness 2. to cause a dog to bark; lit. to cause to bark
wul-in-de (st/prg na wulin-a/wulin-a) cog: wulude - 1. to sweat, perspire; lit. to cause to sweat 2. to be hot; lit. to
cause to be in a state of being hot
wurj-in-de (prg. na wurjin-a) cog: wurjude - to break, ruin, destroy; lit. to cause to be ruined
*wurt-in-de (prg. na wurtin-a) cog: wurtaade - to remove somthing from something else; lit. to cause to be
removed
yaaf-in-de (prg. na yaafin-a) cog: yaafude - to make easy, to ease the way; lit. to cause to be easy
yaaj-in-de (prg. na yaajin-a) cog: yaajude - to enlarge, widen; lit. to cause to be wide
akk-in-de (prg. na akkin-a) cog: akkude - 1. to cause animals to eat, feed; lit. to cause to chew 2. to dye
black with a certain mud; lit. to cause to be black
yalt-in-de (prg. na yaltin-a) cog: yaltude - to remove something from something else; lit. to cause to be removed
from something
yawt-in-de (prg. na yawtin-a) cog: yawtude - 1. to look for trouble with someone by doing bad things to him 2. to
do or say too much, exceed, overdo; lit. to cause trouble or to be too much
yecc-in-de (prg. na yeccin-a) cog: yeccude - to send something back to where it came from, to return; lit. to cause
to return
*yeewt-in-de (prg. na yeewtin-a) cog: yeewtude - to bring encouragement to someone by talking with them; lit. to
cause to be encouraged, the “t” is likely and intensifier
yolb-in-de (prg. na yolbin-a) cog: yolbude - to loosen something that is tied too tight; lit. to cause to be loose
yoof-in-de (prg. na yoofin-a) cog: yoofude - 1. to interrupt something that is happening 2. to cause someone to
release something or someone; lit. to cause to be interrupted or released

213
yopp-in-de (prg. na yoppin-a) cog: yoppude - 1. to interrupt something that is happening 2. to cause someone to
release something or someone 3. to cause to chase off, send away, divorce 4. to cause someone
to break a bad habit; lit. to cause to be interrupted, released, divorced, set free from bad habit
yott-in-de (prg. na yottin-a) - 1. to take someone or something, including a message, somewhere 2. to finish doing
something; lit to cause to be finished
*yaw-in-de (prg. na yawin-a) cog: yawaade - lit. to cause someone or something to hurry

2. Words ending with the -in- and -
in- infixes with the contracted active voice suffix -de.262

oos-in-
in-de (st/prg. na
oosin
in-i/
oosin
in-a) - to make something smooth; lit. to cause to be in a state of

smoothness

ot-in-
in-de (st/prg. na
otin
in-i/
otin
in-a/
otinino) - to make something smooth, to smoothen; lit. to cause
to be in a state of smoothness

utt-in-
in-de (st/prg. na
uttin
in-i/
uttin
in-a) - to cause to be big, to fatten; lit. to cause to be in a state of
fatness
epp-in-
in-de (prg na eppin
in-a) - to make something flat; lit. to make to be in a state of flatness
ra

-in-
in-de (prg. na ra

in
in-a) - to shorten something, including being terse in one's verbal remarks; lit. to
cause to be short

3. Words ending with an -in- and -tin- infixes with the contracted active voice suffix -de.263

annd-in-tin-de (prg. na anndintin-a) cog: anndude - to help someone rememberwhat has already been learned
previously, to remind, to review; lit. to cause to know again
ek-in-tin-de (prg. na ekintin-a) cog: ekitaade - to teach, to train, to show how to do something; lit. to cause to
learn by doing over and over
*fam-in-tin-de (prg. na famintin-a) cog: faamude - to make yet smaller in size, to reduce again; lit. to cause to
be smaller again
*fan-in-tin-de (prg. na fanintin-a) faanude - to make yet smaller in size, to reduce again; lit. to cause to be
smaller again
hoyf-in-tin-de/huyf-it-inde (prg. hoyfintin-a) - to lighten something by removing what is weighing it down; lit to
cause to be light
hucc-in-tin-de (prg. na huccintin-a) - to face someone or something; a direction; lit to cause someone to face a
direction
rewr-in-tin-de (prg. na rewrintin-a) cog: rewrude - to reconcile, to make peace; lit. to cause peace, the infix -tin-
intensifies
sa

-in-tin-de (prg. na sa

intin-a) cog: sa

itaade - 1. to heavily dilute 2. to diminish the pleasure of something,
to make boring
tab-in-tin-de (st/prg. na tabintini/tabintina) - to choose or decide to do something so that it becomes a reality, to
accomplish, to fulfill;lit. to cause to happen, the -tin- infix is an intensifier.
umm-in-tin-de (prg. na ummintin-a) - 1. to resurrect someone 2. to resuscitate someone; lit. to cause to live again
wul-in-tin-de (prg. na wulintin-a) cog: wulude - to rewarm - generally applies to food; lit. to cause to rewarm

262
This small group of words only has five examples in the dictionary. These words all have the “causative” infix followed by a
long form of the “stative” infix: -
in-. These words reflect someone causing a certain state to be achieved. The long form of
the “stative” infix causes the normal active voice suffix -ude to contract to -de.
263
In this group of words the meaning of the verb is modified with the use of the “causative” infix -in- and then the meaning of
the verb is intensified by the addition of the infix -tin-. In some cases this intensification takes the form of doing something
yet again – tying in the repetitive function sometimes seen with this infix as well as with the infixes “-t-” and “-it-.”
The “intensifying” -tin- infix causes the normal active voice suffix -ude to contract to -de. There are 11 words in the
dictionary falling into this category.

214
4. Words ending with the infix -id-/-d- plus the lengthened active voice suffix -inde.264

bat-id-inde/bat-id-idde – (prg. na batid-a) to meet in order to discuss, converse, talk over; lit. to come together to
discuss something
dawr-id-inde (prg. na dawrid-a) – to discuss how to tackle a job or a problem, to talk a matter over; lit. to discuss
something with someone
goll-id-inde (prg. na gollid-a) cog: gollude - to collaborate with, to work with; lit to work together
naat-id-inde/naat-id-idde (prg. na naatid-a e) cog: naatude - 1. to enter somewhere with someone; lit. to enter with
suj-id-inde (prg. na sujid-a) - to bow down with your head to the ground in order to honor someone - the typical
form of Islamic prayer; lit. to be bowed before
teelt-id-inde (st/prg. na teeltid-i/teeltid-a) cog: teeltude - 1. to sort and then separate your things from those of
others 2. to go apart with one or a few persons
toowt-id-inde (prg. na toowtid-a) cog: toowtude – lit. to go apart with someone or something
yedd-id-inde (prg. na yeddid-a) - to divide something with someone else; lit. to share with someone

5. Words ending with the infix -i
-/-
- plus the lengthened active voice suffix -inde.265

beeb-i
-inde (st. na beebi
-i) - to be mute, deaf-mute; lit. to be in a state of speechlessness

enk-i
-inde/
enk-i-idde (st. na
enki
-i) cog:
enkinaade - to have a short, thick neck: lit to be in a state of
being short with a thick neck

olm-i
-idde (st. na
olmi
-i) – to be smooth

oos-i
-inde (st/prg. na
oosi
-i/
oosi
-a) - to be smooth; lit. to be in a state of smoothness

oro-
-inde (st. na
oroo
-i) – greedy; lit. to be in a state of greedyness

utt-i
-inde/
utt-i-idde (st/prg na
utti
-i/
utti
-a) - to gain weight; lit to be in a state of fatness
daak-i
-inde/daak-i-idde (st. na daaki
-i) - to have a black band around the neck; lit. to be in a state of having a
black band around the neck
darg-i
-inde/darg-i-idde (st. na dargi
-i) - to be mottled, patched; lit. to be in a state of mottledness or
patchedness
deerer--inde (st. na deerer-i) - to be gluttonous; lit. to be in a state of gluttony
deer-or-
-inde266 (st. na deeror
-i) - to be gluttonous; lit. to be in a state of gluttony
icc-or-
-inde (st. na iccor-i) - to laugh at everything, even when it is inappropriate; lit. to be in an
inappropriate state by laughing
dof-i
-inde (st. na dofi
-i) - to be cowardly; lit. to be in a state of cowardliness
okk-i
-inde/okk-i-idde (st/prg. na okki
-i/okki
-a) - to have one blind eye; lit. to be in a state of one
eyedness
fank-or-
-inde (st. na fankor
-i) - to be or do evil, to be bad; lit to be in a state of evil
geet-i
-inde (st. na geeti
-i) – to be perfect; lit. to be in a state of perfection
girr-i
-inde (st. na girri
-i) - to have a long thin neck; to be well proportioned in all your parts,
relates to the Ful
e concept of beauty; lit. to be in a state of being beautiful
goos-i
-idde (st/prg na goosi
-i/goosi
-a) – to be nearly ripe; lit. to be in a state of ripeness

264
This group of words uses the “associative” infix -id-. There are eight examples of the “associative” infix occurring by itself
found in the dictionary. Additionally some of the words in this appendix which have been marked with an asterisk have
“annealed” the infix -d- to the root. The “associative” infix causes the normal active voice suffix -ude to lengthen to -inde.
265
The “stative” infix -i
- or just -
- tells us about the state of the subject the verb is acting on. This might be a physical trait or
a personality trait. There are 55 examples of this infix in the dictionary. This infix causes the normal active voice suffix -ude
to be lengthen to -inde. However, when conjugated this suffix complete drops away.
266
There are a number of words in this group that use the “instrumental” infix -or- in conjunction with the “stative” infix -
-.
Most of these words have to with character traits. Apparently the Fule use the “instrumental” infix in these words to
express something about the manner of how one is.

215
gudd-i
-inde (st. na guddi
-i) - 1. to be short because part of a limb or the tail has been cut off, amputated, to be
sawed off 2. can refer to something or someone who is short; lit to be in a state of being
shorten
guus-i
-inde (st/prg. na guusi
-i/na guusi
-a) - to be nearly ripe; lit. to be in a near ripe state
hecc-i
-inde (st. na hecci
-i) - to be fresh, new - refers to things that are alive; lit. to be in a state of being new or
fresh
hecc-or-
-inde (st. na heccor
-i) - to be selfish or jealous; lit. to be in a state of selfishness
heed-or-
-inde (st. na heedor
-i) - to be selfish or jealous, to neither give to others nor enjoy when others receive
something; lit. to be in a state of selfishness
hell-i
-inde (st. na helli
-i) - to be speckled - only applies to goats; lit to be speckled
hes-i
-inde (st. na hesi
-i) - new, can refer to something you just obtained or to a person who is new to a place;
lit. to be in a state of newness
hugg-i
-inde (st/prg. na huggi
-i/huggi
-a) - to be humped - as a camel ("ngeelooba kugga") or a tree ("lekki
kuggi"); a hunchbacked; lit. to be in a humped state
jamol-
-inde (st. na jamol
-i) - mottled, dappled, spots or patches of color on articles of clothing; lit. to be in a
state of being spotted
lobb-i
-inde/lobbiidde (st – na lobbi
-i) - 1. to be beautiful in appearance; lit. to be in a state of beauty 2. to be
good in behavior; lit. to be in a state of goodness
lokk-i
-inde (st. na lokki
-i) - 1. [J,Y,G,M] to be weak or feeble, particularly of body, but can refer fig. to
personal power, this is generally not a temporary state as with "yoosude"; lit. to be in a state of
weakness 2. [Y,G,M] to be short; lit. to be in a state of shortness
mall-i
-inde (st./prg na malli
-i/malli
-a) - to be spotted; lit. to be in a state of spottedness
momm-i
-inde/mommiidde (st. na mommi
-i) - 1. to be valuable 2. to work well 3. to be good, polite; lit. to be
in a state of goodness
moof-i
-inde/moofiidde (st. na moofi
-i) - to be knock-kneed; lit. to be in a state of knock-kneedness
mo-i
-inde (st. na moi
-i) cog: moude - to be gracious; lit. to be in a state of graciousness
mudd-i
-inde/muddiidde (st na muddi
-i) - to be blunt; lit. to be in a state of bluntness
mukk-i
-inde (st. na mukki
-i) - to be toothless; lit. to be in a state of toothlessness
mulg-i
-inde/mulkiidde (st. na mulgi
-i) - to be toothless; lit. to be in a state of toothlessness
nanar-
-inde/nanoridde (st.prg. na nanar
-i/nanar
-a) - to be disrespectful, when a youth does not act respectfully
towards his elders; lit. to be in a state of disrespectfulness
app-i
-inde (prg. na appi
-i) - to be missing teeth; lit. to be in a state of missing some teeth
neet-or-
-inde (st. na neetor
-i) - to be disrespectful, when a youth does not act respectfully towards his elders; lit.
to be in a state of disrespect
nyel-i
-inde/nyeliidde (st. na nyeli
-i) - to be missing teeth; lit. to be in a state of missing teeth
nyonnd-i
-inde/nyonndiidde (st. na nyonndi
-i) - to speak with a nasal quality because of a nasal obstruction; lit.
to be in a state of speaking nasally
puccar-
-inde (st. na puccar
-i) - to make others laugh; to be in a state of being funny
ra

-i
-inde (st. na ra

i
-i) - to be short in stature; lit. to be in a state of shortness
reeree--inde - (st. na reeree-i) - to be gluttonous; lit to be in a state of gluttonousness
saf-i
-inde/safiidde (st. na safi
-i) - to be hairy; lit. to be in a state of being hairy
sayt-or-
-inde (st. imo saytor
i) cog. saytaade - to not show respect for those you meet on the road or who visit
you, to dislike guests, to be inhospitable, to be rude, not to be nice; lit. to be in a state of
rudeness
sunk-i
-inde (st. na sunki
-i) - to have a short, thick neck; lit. to be in the state of having a short, thick neck
talk-i
-inde (st. na talki
-i) - to be poor; lit. to be in a state of poverty
waag-i
-inde (st. na waagi
-i) - 1. a coat pattern of cows, sheep, goats, dogs and zebras where the animal is white
with large bands of black or yellow 2. white clothing with a black band; lit. to be in a state of
being banded with color
waa-i
-inde (st. na waai
-i) - to be able to run very fast; lit. to be in a state of being swift

216
wagg-i
-inde (st./prg na waggi
-i/waggi
-a) - to be soft, tender, or flexible
werb-i
-inde (st. na werbi
-i) - to be wide, generally refers to bowls; lit. to be wide mouthed
woro-
-inde (st. na woro
-i) - to be stingy, to seldom or never give anything, to be miserly; lit. to be in a state of
stinginess
wudd-i
-inde (st. na wuddi
-i) - to be amputated - can refer to a limb or a tail - the focus is on being short; lit. to
be in a state of shortness due to amputation
yaawt-or-
-inde (st na yaawtor
i) - to be rude and impatient, to be in a hurry in a negative sense;
yeeb-or-
-inde (st. na yeebor
-i) - to be careless; lit. to be in a state of carelessness

6. Words ending with the -
in- infix with the contracted active voice suffix -de.267

goon-
in-de (prg. na goon
in-i/goon
in-a) cog: gooninal, goonude - to believe in someone or something

sal-
in-de (st/prg – na sal
in-i/sal
in-a) - to branch out, to sprout new shoots; this is seen as both a state as well as
a habitual activity
wooton-
in-de (st/prg. na wooton
in-i/wooton
in-a) - to be all alone - this verb is generally only used of God,
although it might be employed for Adam before Eve was created; lit. to be in a state of aloneness

7. Words ending with the infix -it-/-t- and the lengthened active voice suffix -inde.268

acc-it-inde/acc-it-idde (prg. na accit-a) cog: accude) - to decide not do something you said you were going to do, to
relent; lit. to reverse a decision

annd-it-inde/annd-it-idde (prg. na anndit-a) cog: anndude - to recognize, to know; lit. to know again

awl-it-inde/bawl-it-idde (st/prg. na
awlit-i/
awlit-a) cog:
awlude - to be light black or dark gray: lit. to be
blackish - the -it- infix here is likely an intensifier
bibb-it-idde – (prg. na bibbit-a) – to flap around when throat is cut

ill-it-inde/
ill-it-idde (prg. na
illit-a) cog:
illude - 1. to remove pressure, to get out of a place where you are
cramped or squeezed; to or resolve a problem for yourself or someone else, to help someone; lit
to reverse the pressure
a

-it-inde (prg. na aa

it-a) - to visit a girl a second time to enquire about marrying her; lit. to visit a girl again
regarding marriage
depp-it-inde (prg na deppit-a) - to grab a hold of the tail of an animal that is running and to knock it over; lit. to
cause a cow to fall on its rear end

depp-it-inde (prg na deppit-a) - to grab a hold of the tail of an animal that is running and to knock it over; lit. to
cause a cow to fall on its rear end

*om-it-inde (prg. na omit-a) cog: omude - to drink in order to quench a thirst; lit. to reverse thirst

faay-t-inde (st/prg. na faayt-i/faayt-a) does not seem to come from faayude! - to resemble, to look like something
or someone else, to be comparable; lit. to look like again
fa-it-inde/fa-it-idde (prg. na fait-a) - 1. to postpone or delay 2. to turn a page, turn a cassette over 3. to
cause something to return; lit. to reverse (progress, page, cassette, leaving)
fai't-inde (prg. na fai’t-a) cog: fai’tude - to turn something or someone back, to turn away; lit. to reverse direction

267
This longer form of the “stative” infix (normally -i
- or -
-) can be seen as being separate from the “causative” infix in group
two’s examples. Here in group six there are just three examples of this long form of the “stative” infix occurring by itself.
It causes the normal active voice suffix -ude to contract to -de.
268
The “repetitive” infix actually can mean several things. It can refer to repeating an action. However it can also refer to
undoing something, hence it is also called the “reversive” infix. And sometimes it functions to intensify the meaning of the
verb. There are 76 example of this infix in the dictionary. The -it- infixes causes the active voice suffix -ude to lengthens to
-inde. However, when these verbs are conjugated the entire suffix drops off.

217
fe-it-inde/fe-it-idde (prg. na feit-a) - 1. to cross over water, a desert, a forest, a border
2. fig. to pass through a problem or difficult time, such as a famine; lit. to reverse position or
fortune
fik-it-inde (prg. na fikit-a) cog: fikitaare, fikitaade - to create chaos or disorder for someone else, to disrupt one's
work; lit. to reverse order
finc-it-inde/finc-it-idde (prg. na fincit-a) - 1. to leaf through a book looking for something 2. to search or rummage
through things looking for something; lit. to look again
fo-(i)t-inde (prg. na fo(i)t-a) cog: foitaade - to move an inanimate object; lit. to cause to move
fonnd-it-inde (prg. na fonndit-a) cog: fonnditaade, fonndude - to correct, to straighten; lit. to make straight again
foof-it-inde (prg. na foofit-a) cog: foofude - to pant; lit to breathe again
func-it-inde (prg. na funcit-a) - to reveal or expose that which is hidden, generally orally, to convict; lit. to unhide
gubb-it-inde (prg. na gubbit-a) - to cut a tree down; lit. to cause a tree to fall
ha

-it-inde (prg. na ha

it-a) – lit. to untie
hakk-it-inde (prg. na hakkit-a) - to raise something up in order to strike something else; perhaps infix is intensifier
here?
hawr-it-inde (prg. na hawrit-i/hawrit-a) cog: hawrude - to gather together with; lit. to gather again
heg-it-inde (prg. na hegit-a) cog: hegitaade – to straighten out; lit to straighten again
henng-it-inde/henng-it-idde (prg. na henngit-a) cog: hengitaade – to straighten out; lit to make straight again
hipp-it-inde/hipp-it-idde (prg. na hippit-a) - 1. to turn something right side up or right side out (such as a shirt) 2.
to remove a roof made of wood or metal in order to repair it; lit. to cause to be reveversed
ho

-it-inde (prg. na ho

it-a) - to remove or pick off a scab or the bark on a tree; lit. to pick off again
hog-it-inde (prg. na hogit-a) - to uncover, remove; generally refers to when you shelter something with your hand,
or a mat, and then remove your hand or the mat; lit. to uncover
hokk-it-inde (prg. na hokkit-a) - To give back something or someone that has been entrusted to you.
holl-it-inde (prg. na hollit-a) -1. to show something again - they use this of the practice of watering the cattle twice
in a short time span 2. to find something someone has lost and give it back to them 3. to tell
someone some news; lit. to show again
hork-it-inde (prg. na horkit-a) - 1. to clear your throat 2. to make a rattling or banging sound - as when one is
looking through a drawer for something or rattling one's dishes around; lit to rattle again
hos-it-inde (prg. na horsit-a) - to remove a standing mat which is sheltering something; lit. to remove
hucc-it-inde (st/prg. na huccit-i/huccit-a) to face in a direction - one may or may not be moving in that direction
hummb-it-inde (prg. na hummbit-a) - to remove the roof made of wood or metal in order to repair it; lit. to redo a
roof
hump-it-inde (prg. na humpit-a) cog: humpeede - to explain or tell, in particular this refers to bringing news; lit.
to tell again
jar-t-inde (prg. na jarit-a) - to be happy, excited, to run and skip with joy; it is mainly children and animals who do
this, to rejoice; -it- infix is intensifier
jill-it-inde (prg. na jillit-a) - to mix or stir; lit. to keep stirring
jirk-it-inde (prg. na jirkit-a) - to scatter
junn-it-inde (prg. na junnit-a) - 1. [J,Y,G,M] to tip something - generally in order to pour out what is in that thing
2. [J,Y] to turn something upside down that has a right side up - like a book 3. [J,Y] to change
what has been said - this might mean something as simple as calling something by a different
name or to alter what a person or group of persons said - this can be done deliberately or
incidentally 4. to lower [G] a rope, or any thing which has [J,Y,G,M] a head (such as a person)
into a well or into a hole - again the focus is on tipping something upside down; lit. to reverse
something
kork-it-inde (prg. na korkit-a) - to make a rattling or banging sound - as when one is looking through a drawer for
something or rattling one's dishes around; lit to rattle again
li-it-idde (prg. na liit-a) – to hiccup; lit. to repeatedly hiccup
lunnd-it-inde (st/prg. na lunndit-i/lunndit-a) - to turn a book right side up, to turn a shirt right side forward, to turn
a person lying down so his head is at the head of the bed; lit. to reverse direction

218
mims-it-inde/mimsitidde (prg. na mimsit-a) - to change ones mind, to regret; lit. to decide or think again
mumm-it-inde/munn-it-idde (prg. na mummit-a) - 1. [J,Y,M] to open your eyes 2. [Y,M] to open your hand; lit. to
reverse closing of one’s eyes or hand
app-it-inde (prg. na appit-a) - to remove a piece; lit. to take away a piece
epp-it-inde (prg. na eppit-a) - to remove a small piece
nims-it-inde/nimsitidde (prg. na nimsit-a) - to change one's mind, to regret; lit to change one’s thinking
ucc-it-inde (prg. na uccit-a) - to remove a small amount or a small peice of something
nyemmb-it-inde (prg. na nyemmbit-a) - to be caused to follow someone's example, to repeat something said, to
copy something written, to do something in a certain way; lit. to cause to copy
*ool-it-inde (st/prg. na oolit-i/oolit-a) cog: oolude - to be pink or yellow-orange; -it- infix seems to have an
intensifying effect here
rawn-it-inde (st/prg. na rawnit-i/rawnit-a) cog: rawnude - beige, khaki, tan
ru-it-inde (prg. na ruit-a) - to change what has been said or written - this would include theological heresy
when applied to God's word; lit to cause what is written to be changed
sank-it-inde (prg. na sankit-a ) cog: sankitaade - to scatter or disperse, to feed chickens; -it- infix likely refers to
the repeated motion of scattering something like feed to chickens
*sii-it-inde (st/prg. na siiiti/siiita) cog: siiude - to be a shade of mahogany brown; lit. to be in a state of
browness, often the -it- infix is used with words which refer to a shade of a color
sint-it-inde (prg. na sintit-a) cog: sintitaade - to turn a book right side up, to turn a shirt right side forward, to turn
a person lying down so his head is at the head of the bed; lit. to turn right side up
sukk-it-inde/sukkitidde (prg. na sukkit-a) - to unstop, to open, to unplug; lit. to unplug
suur-it-inde (prg. na suurit-a) cog: suurude - 1. to reveal someone’s secret; lit. to reverse keeping a secret 2. to
insult someone 3. to rip someone’s clothes off, thus exposing them; lit. to expose someone
tab-it-inde (prg. na tabit-a) - to stay somewhere for a long time; the infix -it- is seems to be an intensifier here
tagg-it-inde/taggitidde (prg. na taggit-a) - to roll a mat out; lit. to unroll
tammb-it-inde (prg. na tammbit-a) cog: tammbaade - to open your hand; lit. to unclose your hand
tigg-it-inde (prg. na tiggit-a) cog: tiggude- to clean out a well or pit toilet; lit. to unclog
udd-it-inde (prg. na uddit-a) - 1. to open 2. to expose or reveal that which is hidden, generally orally; lit. to
unclose, unhide
wall-it-inde (prg. na wallit-a) cog: wallude – lit. to help again or repeatly
watt-it-inde (prg. na wattit-a) cog: wattude - to change something yourself; lit. to change
wayl-it-inde (prg. na waylit-a) cog: waylitaade - 1. to change something 2. turn over something that does not
have an obvious right side up, to reverse
we-it-inde (prg. na weit-a) - 1. to roll a mat out 2. to lay things out, display; lit. to unroll
we-it-inde (prg. na weit-a) - to roll a mat out; lit. to unroll
wil-it-inde (prg. na wilit-a) - 1. for a tree to be renewed with new leaves, to bud, leaf 2. to regain money or
material possesions; lit. to releaf
wipp-it-inde (prg. na wippit-a) cog: wippitaade - the action knocking or blowing something standing down, or
tearing up something attached; lit. to knock down
wirf-it-inde (prg. na wirfit-a) – lit. to cause someone or something to turn
wojj-it-inde (st/prg. na wojjit-i/wojjit-a) - dark red, orange-red; the -it- infix is often used with shades of a color
wokk-it-inde (st/prg. na wokkit-i/wokkit-a) - to be homesick, to think about your home and family; the -it- infix
here is likely functioning to intensify the verb
*wuun-it-inde (st/prg. na wuunit-i/wuunit-a) - to be a shade resembling gray; light gray, blue gray, brown
gray, medium brown; lit. to be a shade of gray, the -it- infix is often used with colors that are a
shade of another basic color
yalt-it-inde (prg. na yaltit-a) cog: yaltude - to change one's mind, to renounce, abandon; literally that which
causes one to depart - in this case the departing is from a previous conviction, interest or
commitment

219
yegg-it-inde (prg. na yeggit-a) - to forget; lit. to unremember
yopp-it-inde (prg. na yoppit-a) cog: yoppude - to give a guest permission to leave, sometimes this involves giving
a guest a gift to honor them, which also signals to them that they can go home now;

8. Words ending with the -tin- infix with the contracted active voice suffix -de.269

at-tin-de (prg. na
attin-a) cog: batude,
attaade - to bring someone or something close to someone or something
diw-tin-de (prg. na diwtin-a) cog: diwude - to exagerate, to overdo
fut-tin-de – (prg. na futtin-a) - to glare at someone; lit to look intesively
jaltijaltin-de (prg. na jaltijaltin-a) cog: jalude - to laugh at everything
nan-tin-de (prg. na nantin-a) cog: nanude - 1. to translate, interpret 2. to speak loudly so as to make yourself
heard; lit. say again
saat-tin-de (prg. na saattin-a) cog: saate, saatude- to cut the throat of an animal that is about to die so that its meat
will be clean; the -tin- infix is acting as an intensifier
sat-tin-de (prg. na sattin-a) see saattinde - to cut the throat of an animal that is about to die so that its meat will be
clean, to slaughter
taw-tin-de (prg. na tawtin-a) cog: tawude - to add to or to increase the number of what you have
welwel-tin-de (st/prg. na welweltin-i/welweltin-a ) - 1. to tumble or spin while in the air 2. to be exceedingly
joyful 3. to talk continuously - this is connected with being overwhelmed by joy
wum-tin-de (prg. na wumtin-a) cog: wumude - 1. to heal someone’s eyes, to restore sight 2. fig. to enlighten
someone
wun-tin-de (prg. na wuntin-a) - 1. to heal someone’s eyes, to restore sight 2. fig. to enlighten someone

269
The -tin- infix intensifies the meaning of the verb. Here it is used without another infix. There are eleven examples of this
infix used by itself in the dictionary. Occasionally the infix -tind- can found with middle voice verbs. It has the same
intensifying effect on the verb (see Section 24.J, p. 144). There are five examples of -tind- + -aade verbs in the dictionary;
oltindaade, laaltindaade, ndaartindaade, rewtindaade, and amtindaade.

220
 APPENDIX F
Full Conjugations of Fulfulde Verbs270

Active Middle Passive

General Complete (with Preterite)
I hid/I had hidden

mi suu
-ii (no) mi suu
-eke (no) mi suu
-aama (no)

a suu
-ii (no) a suu
-eke (no) a suu
-aama (no)
o suu
-ii (no) o suu
-eke (no) o suu
-aama (no)
min cuu
-ii (no) min cuu
-eke (no) min cuu
-aama (no)
en cuu
-ii (no) en cuu
-eke (no) en cuu
-aama (no)
on cuu
-ii (no) on cuu
-eke (no) on cuu
-aama (no)
e cuu
-ii (no) e cuu
-eke (no) e cuu
-aama (no)

General Incomplete (with Preterite)

I will hide/I will have hidden

mi suu
-an (no) mi suu
-oto (no) mi suu
-ete (no)

a suu
-an (no) a suu
-oto (no) a suu
-ete (no)
o suu
-an (no) o suu
-oto (no) o suu
-ete (no)
min cuu
-an (no) min cuu
-oto (no) min cuu
-ete (no)
en cuu
-an (no) en cuu
-oto (no) en cuu
-ete (no)
on cuu
-an (no) on cuu
-oto (no) on cuu
-ete (no)
e cuu
-an (no) e cuu
-oto (no) e cuu
-ete (no)

Negative Complete (with Preterite)

I didn’t hide/I hadn’t hidden

mi suu
-aay (no) mi suu
-aaki (no) mi suu
-aaka (no)

a suu
-aay (no) a suu
-aaki (no) a suu
-aaka (no)
o suu
-aay (no) o suu
-aaki (no) o suu
-aaka (no)
min cuu
-aay (no) min cuu
-aaki (no) min cuu
-aaka (no)
en cuu
-aay (no) en cuu
-aaki (no) en cuu
-aaka (no)
on cuu
-aay (no) on cuu
-aaki (no) on cuu
-aaka (no)
e cuu
-aay (no) e cuu
-aaki (no) e cuu
-aaka (no)

Negative Incomplete (with Preterite)

I will not hide/I will not have hidden

mi suu
-ataa (no) mi suu
-ataako (no) mi suu
-ataake (no)

a suu
-ataa (no) a suu
-ataako (no) a suu
-ataake (no)
o suu
-ataa (no) o suu
-ataako (no) o suu
-ataake (no)
min cuu
-ataa (no) min cuu
-ataako (no) min cuu
-ataake (no)
en cuu
-ataa (no) en cuu
-ataako (no) en cuu
-ataake (no)
on cuu
-ataa (no) on cuu
-ataako (no) on cuu
-ataake (no)
e cuu
-ataa (no) e cuu
-ataako (no) e cuu
-ataake (no)

270
I used the verb root √suu
- because it does occur in all three voices and also undergoes initial consonant
changes. I recognize that some of the conjugated forms in this appendix are not “kosher” as they would never
be used. However, for illustrative purposes staying with the same verb through out the appendix is helpful.
I personally often use this chart when writing in Fulfulde.

221
 Emphatic
I hid

mi suu
-u mi suu
-i mi suu
-a

a suu
-u a suu
-i a suu
-a
o suu
-u o suu
-i o suu
-a
min cuu
-u min cuu
-i min cuu
-a
en cuu
-u en cuu
-i en cuu
-a
on cuu
-u on cuu
-i on cuu
-a
e cuu
-u e cuu
-i e cuu
-a

Stative (with Preterite)

I am in hiding/I was in hiding

na mi suu
-i/(unoo) na mi suu
-ii/(inoo) na mi suu
-aa/(anoo)

na a suu
-i/(unoo) na a suu
-ii/(inoo) na a suu
-aa/(anoo)
na o suu
-i/(unoo) na o suu
-ii/(inoo) na o suu
-aa/(anoo)
na min cuu
-i/(unoo) na min cuu
-ii/(inoo) na min cuu
-aa/(anoo)
na en cuu
-i/(unoo) na en cuu
-ii/(inoo) na en cuu
-aa/(anoo)
na on cuu
-i/(unoo) na on cuu
-ii/(inoo) na on cuu
-aa/(anoo)
na e cuu
-i/(unoo) na e cuu
-ii/(inoo) na e cuu
-aa/(anoo)

Progressive (with Preterite)

I am hiding. or I hide habitually./I was hiding. or I was hiding habitually.

na mi suu
-a (nnoo) na mi suu
-oo/(onoo) na mi suu
-ee/(enoo)

na a suu
-a (nnoo) na a suu
-oo/(onoo) na a suu
-ee/(enoo)
na o suu
-a (nnoo) na o suu
-oo/(onoo) na o suu
-ee/(enoo)
na min cuu
-a (nnoo) na min cuu
-oo/(onoo) na min cuu
-ee/(enoo)
na en cuu
-a (nnoo) na en cuu
-oo/(onoo) na en cuu
-ee/(enoo)
na on cuu
-a (nnoo) na on cuu
-oo/(onoo) na on cuu
-ee/(enoo)
na e cuu
-a (nnoo) na e cuu
-oo/(onoo) na e cuu
-ee/(enoo)

Relative Complete (with Preterite)

when I hide/when I had hidden

nde cuu
-u- (noo-) mi nde cuu
-ii-/(inoo-) mi nde cuu
-aa/(anoo-) -mi

nde cuu
-u- (no-)
aa nde cuu
-i- (no-)
aa nde cuu
-a- (no-)
aa
nde o suu
-i/(unoo) nde o suu
-ii/(inoo) nde o suu
-aa/(anoo)
nde min cuu
-i/(unoo) nde min cuu
-ii/(inoo) nde min cuu
-aa/(anoo)
nde cuu
-u- (no-)
en nde cuu
-i- (no-)
en nde cuu
-a- (no-)
en
nde cuu
-u- (no-)
on nde cuu
-i- (no-)
on nde cuu
-a- (no-)
on
nde e cuu
-i/(unoo) nde e cuu
-ii/(inoo) nde e cuu
-aa/(anoo)

Relative Incomplete (with Preterite)

when I will hide/when I will have hidden

nde cuu
-am-/(-an-noo-) mi nde cuu
-otoo-/(-oto-noo-) mi nde cuu
-etee-/(-ete-noo-) mi

nde cuu
-at- aa/(an-no-
aa) nde cuu
-oto- (no-)
aa nde cuu
-ete- (no-)
aa
nde o suu
-ata/(an-noo) nde o suu
-otoo/(oto-noo) nde o suu
-etee/(ete-noo)
nde min cuu
-ata/(an-noo) nde min cuu
-otoo/(oto-noo) nde min cuu
-etee/(ete-noo)
nde cuu
-at-en/(an-no-
en) nde cuu
-oto- (no-)
en nde cuu
-ete- (no-)
en
nde cuu
-at-on/(an-no-
on) nde cuu
-oto- (no-)
on nde cuu
-ete- (no-)
on
nde e cuu
-ata/(an-noo) nde e cuu
-otoo/(oto-noo) nde e cuu
-etee/(ete-noo)

222
 Subjunctive
I should hide

mi suu
-a mi suu
-oo mi suu
-ee

cuu
-a·a cuu
-o-
aa cuu
-e-
aa
o suu
-a o suu
-oo o suu
-ee
min cuu
-a min cuu
-oo min cuu
-ee
cuu
-en cuu
-o-
en cuu
-e-
en
cuu
-on cuu
-o-
on cuu
-e-
on
e cuu
-a e cuu
-oo e cuu
-ee

Participles Complete/Stative (with Preterite)

the hidden one/the one who was hidden

cuu
-u-
o/suu
-u-e cuu
-ii-
o/suu
-ii-e cuu
-aa-
o/suu
-aa-e

cuu
-u- (noo-)
o/suu
-u- (noo-) e cuu
-i- (noo-)
o/suu
-i- (noo-) e cun
-a- (noo-)
o/suu
-a- (noo-) e

Particples Incomplete/Progressive (with Preterite)

He who is hiding. or He who hides habitually./He who was hiding. or He who was hiding habitualy.

cuu
-oo-wo/suu
-oo-e cuu
-otoo-
o/suu
-otoo-e cuu
-etee-
o/suu
-etee-e

cuu
-oo-wo (-no)/suu
-oo-e (-no) cuu
-oto- (noo-)
o/suu
-oto- (noo-) e cuu
-ete- (noo-)
o/suu
-ete- (noo-) e

Imperative
hide!

suu
-u suu
-a suu
-e

cuu
-ee cuu
-ee cuu
-ee

223