Architectural Building Const.

& Materials

PORTFOLIO
1962
Kaamana Sahu
Sem V
Sir J.J. College of Architecture
Warehouse
Facing, Cladding, Curtain Wall, Canopy

1962
Kaamana Sahu
Sem V
Sir J.J. College of Architecture
’
MARKET STUDY
BY,
1962- KAAMANA SAHU
1965- ALIPTHA SHETTY
1975- DARSHANA WAGH
INDEX
1 CLADDING

2 CURTAIN WALL

CANOPY
3

FACING
4
CLADDING
Cladding is any material used to cover a structure's
exterior. The term 'cladding' refers to components that are
attached to the primary structure of a building to form
non-structural, external surfaces. Cladding protects
against the elements and shields against environmental
conditions.
Cladding doesn't have to be waterproof, but it often
controls how elements hit or fall on a surface.

Cladding is needed to:

● Create a controlled internal environment.

● Protect the building from external conditions.
● Provide privacy and security.
● Prevent the transmission of sound.
● Provide thermal insulation.
● Create an external facade.
● Prevent the spread of fire.
● Generate an 'airtight' building envelope.
● Providing openings for access, daylight and
ventilation.
Types of cladding
uPVC cladding
In India

The options are found in materials (stone, brick,

wood, RCC, laminates, plastic, metal), in colours and
in techniques (anti-scratch, anti vandal -resistant
designs etc).

Aluminium cladding
MATERIALS:
● Aluminium Composite Panels (ACP)
● Glass, Metal, wood cladding panels
● Stone cladding
● Ceramic Cladding
● Vinyl Cladding
● Brick Cladding
Aluminium
● Stainless steel cladding
composite panel
● FRP (Fibre-reinforced Plastic)
(ACP)
● GRG (Glass Reinforced Gypsum)
● UHPC (Ultra High Performance Concrete)
● Stone CNC (Computerised Numerical
Control)
● Terracotta Cladding
● Concrete cladding
Wood cladding
 Aluminium
Composite Panels Applications:
An aluminium composite panel (ACP) is made up of It makes the interior or exterior surface of a building
two thin aluminium sheets bonded to a polymer clean, bright and enchanting which gives it an
core.There are many varieties of ACP. Typically, they aesthetic look. ACP Panels are used for building
span two to six metres in length, and 600mm to two exterior walls, interior wall, ceiling decoration,
metres wide. They do not generally add to the renovation of old buildings, advertising signs and
structural integrity of a building, but may contribute to display stands.
energy efficiency and weatherproofing.This is made Thick ACP sheets of 4mm and 6mm are used for
from aluminium and is often used for the external buildings and offices.
purpose only. It is weather and UV resistant, providing
all-round protection to the building.
Top Manufacturers for ACP sheets in India:
● Aludecor
● Eurobond
● Viva
● Alstrong
● Alstone
● Virgo group
● Alucobond
Aluminium Composite Panels Alu decor 1619006719Aludecor Technical Manual.pdf

ADVANTAGES
Aludecor ACP sheet comes in 6mm, 4mm and 3mm with
● It can bend, fold and turn easily
● No crack risk the aluminium coil thicknesses varying from 0.12mm to
● Flatness 0.5mm. Based on this, they are divided into different
● Available in a wide range of colours and finishes like grades: AL-45, AL-43, AL-33 ETC. RATE- Rs 64 / Square
wood, stone, mirror, Feet
sand, and 3D
● Lightweight
● Provide insulation to buildings
● Borer, termite, and fungi resistant
● Have antimicrobial properties
● UV ray resistant
● Environment-friendly as it is lead-free material
● Fully recyclable
● Withstands extreme weather conditions
● Easy to clean
● Easy to perforate
DISADVANTAGES
● They are susceptible to dents during storms and
hurricanes. Some ACP manufacturers further reinforce the
panels with special threads to prevent any such damage.
● The joints have to be carefully sealed and adequate water
proofing has to be done so that there is no water
penetration into the building during the rains.
 Viva Composite panels Eurobond

VIVA is one of the leading and renowned company engaged Manufactured at a state of the art plant in Umergaon,
with a coil thickness from 0.04 mm to 1mm and ACP
in the manufacturing of Aluminium Composite Panels (ACP)
thickness from 1mm to 6mm, Eurobond Panels are
or Aluminium Composite Sheet in India.Highest number of available in various size, style, textures and finishes.
ACP shades in the country – Corton Steel, Galaxy, Dessert, Colours available are shades of silver, gold, copper,
bronze, red and blue
Natural Stone and many more to go which can also be
Width: 1220mm-1570 mm
customized as per the client’s requirement. ACP sheets also Length:1500mm to 6100mm
come with various properties such as Fire Retardant, Brochure link: Standard_Technical E Manual_08122020 01
copy (eurobondacp.com)
Anti-Bacterial, Anti-Scratch and Self-Cleaning.
 FIXING DETAILS-
The riveted assembly system is a versatile system as it
adapts perfectly to any architectural typology and can
be assembled rapidly. This allows as many horizontal as
well as vertical pieces.

Here are the accessories used and the method of

installation:

Other methods are mentioned in th e brochure

Installation2004_OL (alpolic.com)
 Wood Cladding ADVANTAGES:

Wood cladding has extreme impact resistance, high aesthetic ● Wood is a strong yet lightweight material, offering protective
appeal, low thermal conductivity, and high insulation and decorative design functions.
properties. As a result, it reduces the energy consumption ● Wood is easily worked to accomodate alterations and repairs.
● Surface finishes can be applied to customise appearance or
required to regulate temperature in the building, making it an
give added protection.
economical choice. On the other hand, wood which is not FSC
● Suitable for both new build and renovation projects.
certified may have procured illegally from unsustainably ● Dry installation means the external envelope is quicker to install
supervised forests and has a high probability of containing and ● Timber clad buildings eliminate heavy masonry outer walls,
releasing toxic materials such as VOCs. Wood also suffers from reducing size and cost of foundations.
poor dimensional stability, because of which it expands and ● Cladding panels may be factory pre-fabricated off-site,
contracts with changing seasons. complete with insulation and breather membrane saving time,
labour and costs.
● Low carbon footprint - requires less energy to produce than any
other construction material.
● Specifying timber has major environmental benefits over other
materials.
● Major potential for re-use or recycling at end of life.

DISADVANTAGES:
● Timber is a natural material, and as such is subject to a loss of
quality or damage after being exposed to the elements for a
long time. Timber can warp, crack or fade over time, especially if
it has not been installed properly to begin with.
● Even if timber cladding is painted or sealed, it still carries a risk
of spreading fire, as it is a flammable material.
● It is a porous material that absorbs the water in the rain.
MANUFACTURERS IN INDIA:

● R. K. Enterprises.
Fixing Details
● Balaji Enterprises.
● All metal fixings should be made from corrosion resistant materials
● Sajj Decor
● Through the face fixing (face fixing) is the most secure way to install timber
● Vision.
cladding
● SR Enterprises.
● Use two fixings per board / batten intersection placed at quarter points and
● Elgee Windoors.
one fixing for cladding boards less than 100mm wide
● S. Velu and Co.
● All fixings should finish flush with the surface
● Vanasapati Enterprises.
● Nail and screw dimensions should be relative to board thickness / density
● Fab Wood Creation
● Discern Design
Pricing depends on type of wood used
and company and can range from Rs.
200- 500 per square feet. It can go
higher than this for really good quality
wood.
 STONE CLADDING
Many types of natural stone are excellent cladding materials. These MANUFACTURERS IN INDIA:
can be broadly divided into three geological groups: sedimentary
rocks such as limestone and sandstone, metamorphic rocks such ● Gravity floor
● Elemento Cladding Stones
as slate and marble and lastly, igneous rocks such as granite.
● Eminence Stones
In selecting the best type of stone, architects must consider a ● Cameo Stones
number of factors including appearance, intended use, size of the ● StonesZone
● RPM Eco Bricks
project, and most importantly, the composite that will provide
● Shree Laxmi Stone Depot
adequate strength and durability. ● Nakoda Stone & Tiles
● Bizotik Stones
● Aditya Stones

Prices can range from Rs. 90 per SqFt and depend on

the type of stone, fixing method used.
The standard sizes depends upon the stone type, the
standard size is 900mm long by 450mm high.
 FIXING DETAILS
1. Traditional Handset Cladding
This type of cladding has been trusted and implemented for decades. Here the natural
stone is attached to a pre-constructed supporting structure. And together, both the layers
form the skin of the building.
In traditional handset cladding, the weight of the stone is transferred to load-bearing
fixings located at the floor base. So, such a type must be adopted by incorporating
movement joints and compression joints. Premium quality granite tile, limestone and
sandstone are extensively used in this traditional cladding system.
2. Rainscreen Cladding
When it comes to achieving a cladding using the rainscreen principle, natural stone makes
it to the top of the list. Rainscreen cladding involves the installation of stone panels using
either a hidden system or an exposed clip system. Typically, this type is back-ventilated and
features an interior drainage cavity. Therefore, it helps in eliminating any moisture that may
have seeped inside.
3. Wet Cladding
The wet installation is the most commonly used method for natural stone cladding. The
crucial decision is to select the best method from the variety of installation options given by
the wet process. The wet method can be performed by the Direct Adhesion Method and
Spot Bonding Method.
 Brick Cladding
Cladding Bricks are the most popular type of brick and have been
MANUFACTURERS IN INDIA:
the façade material of choice across the world for thousands of
years, particularly in the housing market. Facing bricks are ● Bombay tiles
primarily used for the interior & external walls of a building and so
Clay Brick Wall Cladding Tile
are generally chosen for their aesthetic qualities. Cladding add the
Rs 35 /square feet
classic beauty of genuine brick to your home without adding the
Material: Clay
weight, mess and cost of concrete footings.
Packaging Type: Carton Box
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CURTAIN WALL
A curtain wall is defined as thin, usually aluminum-framed
wall, containing in-fills of glass, metal panels, or thin stone. The
framing is attached to the building structure and does not
carry the floor or roof loads of the building.
The wind and gravity loads of the curtain wall are transferred
to the building structure, typically at the floor line.

PURPOSE OF CURTAIN WALL:

● The curtain wall is the most resistant cladding and exterior wall
system available.
● Elimination of Water Penetration
● Resistance to wind, thermal and acoustic action
● This can be reduced by providing a selective solar control
coating on one of the surfaces of the glass. This coating is
called selective because solar radiation of different
wavelengths is selectively allowed to pass through the coating:
visible wavelengths of light are allowed to pass more freely than
infrared wavelengths.
GLASS ALUMINIUM
CURTAIN WALL
• The Glass And Aluminum Curtain Wall System Is A
Marvel Of Engineering And Architecture.
• A Totally Non Combustible System Of Glass And
Aluminum Requiring Minimal Maintenance And Providing
Years Of Aesthetic Quality And Building Envelope
Performance.
• It Is The Most Advanced Exterior Window Wall System
Available For Buildings
• The Glass And Aluminum Curtain Wall Is Designed To
Resist Wind And Earthquake Loads, To Limit Air Leakage,
Control Vapour Diffusion, Prevent Rain Penetration,
Prevent Surface And Cavity Condensation And Limit
Excessive Heat Loss (Or Heat Gain). It Is Further Designed
To Resist Noise And Fire.
COMPONENTS
1. Transom
2. Mullions
3. Vision Glass
4. Anchor
STRUCTURAL
& SPIDER
GLAZING
 MATERIALS
● Typical opaque panels include opacified spandrel glass, metal panels, thin stone, and other
materials, such as terra cotta or FRP (fiber-reinforced plastic).
● Vision glass is predominantly insulating glass and may have one or both lites laminated (see
Glazing), usually fixed but sometimes glazed into operable window frames that are incorporated
into the curtain wall framing.
● Spandrel glass can be monolithic, laminated, or insulating glass. The spandrel glass can be made
opaque through the use of opacifiers (film/paint or ceramic frit) applied on an unexposed surface
or through "shadow box" construction, i.e., providing an enclosed space behind clear spandrel
glass. Shadow box construction creates a perception of depth behind the spandrel glass that is
sometimes desired.
● Metal panels can take various forms including aluminum plate, stainless steel or other
non-corrosive metal, thin composite panels consisting of two thin aluminum sheets sandwiching a
thin plastic interlayer, or panels consisting of metal sheets bonded to rigid insulation, with or without
an inner metal sheet to create a sandwich panel.
● Thin stone panels are most commonly granite. White marble should not be used due to its
susceptibility to deformation due to hysteresis (thin stone is not covered in this chapter).
TYPES OF CURTAIN WALLS
Curtain walls are precast at a factory and assembled before they are brought to the site. Basically, there are two
types of curtain wall systems depending on the method by which the components are assembled.

Stick Curtain Wall System:

In this type of curtain wall system, the components are assembled piece by piece on the structure of the
building. This system is mainly used for low-rise buildings or in small regions. This is due to the fact that for reaching
higher elevations it is important to have exterior access. This system promises flexibility as it gives space for onsite
adjustments. Though it has the advantage of low shipping costs, the labor and time consumption should not be
underestimated as tend to run quite high.
Unitized Curtain Wall System:

In this type of curtain wall system, the parts are already assembled
in the factory. The components are installed and brought as a
single unit from the factory to the site. This negates the need for
individual installation. The size of the unitized curtain walls is
directly proportional to the floor to floor height of the structure.
Popular in high-rise buildings, they don’t need external supports
such as cranes or scaffolding. Only temporary hoist are needed.
This system offers quick construction and good quality as the
components are manufactured in a factory setting. However, this
system tends to increase the shipping charges due to need for
larger and better protection during transportation to the site.
 DESIGN OF CURTAIN WALL
• This Is A Curtain Wall Connection To The Slab-at- Grade Of A Small Commercial Building. This Detail Is
Applicable To Stick Or Unitized Curtain Walls Systems.
• The Air/Vapour Barrier Of The Curtain Wall Is Connected From The Shoulder Of The Rail To The Top
Of The Slab At Grade.
• The Space In Between Is Insulated To Prevent Excessive Heat Loss And A Low Surface Temperature
At The Slab Connection
• A Curtain Wall Connection At A Soffit Is Perhaps One Of The Most Troublesome To Design.
• If The Soffit Is Heated Then The Soffit Enclosure Must Be Designed To Connect The Curtain Wall To A
Soffit Closure With A Proper Air/Vapour Barrier, Insulation And Rain Penetration Control.
• In The Event That The Soffit Is Unheated, It Would Be Prudent To Separate The Curtain Wall System
Into A Heated Part And An Unheated Part.
• It Is Designed In This Manner So That No Vertical Mullions Extend Directly Into The Cold Soffit Where
Infiltration Air May Enter To Cause Condensation On The Mullion Surfaces Inside The Building
• The Above Figure Illustrates One Method Of Providing Continuity Of The Air And Vapour Barrier,
Thermal Continuity And Even Rain Or Melt Water Penetration Control At The Nose Of The Curtain Wall.
• When A Curtain Wall Is Designed To Extend Upwards Past The Roof Line Of A Building, Several
Potential Problems Must Be Considered.
• Because The Vertical Mullions Are Tubes (Split Tubes In The Case Of A Unitized System) It Is Important
To Connect The Air Barrier Of The Roof To The Glazing Cavity Of The Curtain Wall To Prevent
Uncontrolled Exfiltration Of Air Through The Parapet And To Prevent Condensation In The Parapet
Area. Further, Because The Curtain Wall Mullion, From The Thermal Break To The Inside, Should Be Kept
Warm, The Backside Of The Curtain Wall In The Parapet Area Should Be Vented To The Interior.
• If These Constraints Cannot Be Met Practically, Consideration Should Be Given To A Separation Of The
Curtain Wall System At The Roof Or Parapet Line.
• The Placement Of The Window Is Made Flush With The Exterior
• The Exterior Light Of The Igu Must Not Extend Past The Exterior Surface Of The Insulation Or The Detail
Must Be Redesigned To Include Insulation Below The Window Frame.
• There Is No Air Barrier Connection. This System May Experience Severe Frame Condensation.
Regardless Of The Insulation Placed Below The Horizontal Mullion, It Is Necessary To Connect An
Air/Vapour Barrier On The Warm Side Of The Insulation To Connect To The Air Barrier Of The Exterior Wall.
Curtain Wall Connection At The Sill Of A Strip Window In A Brick Veneer Block Backup Or Steel Stud
Exterior Wall.
• In This Design, The Precast Cladding And Exterior Wall Must Extend The Air/Vapour Barrier Material Of
The Steel Stud Wall Inside The Building To The Front Of The Curtain Wall Glazing Cavity.
• It Is Best To Allow Sufficient Clearance Between The Curtain Wall Jamb And The Precast Panel For A
Closure And To Accommodate Small Differential Movements.
• The Air/Vapour Barrier Of The Exterior Wall Is Shown Connected To The Air/Vapour Barrier Of The
Curtain Wall. The Jamb Insulation Is Necessary To Warm Up The Jamb Mullion Above Indoor Dewpoint
Temperature To Prevent Surface And Hidden Condensation.
• The External Closure And Curtain Wall Caps Provide The Necessary Rain Penetration Protection Of The
Joint Between The Curtain Wall And The Precast Cladding. The Above Figure Shows A Curtain Wall
System Connected To A Precast Rainscreen Exterior Wall
 MANUFACTURERS & INSTALLERS
● Aluvations- The Facade Contractors
● Aluplex India Pvt Ltd
● Lindner Groups
● Technal India
● LKLS Pvt Ltd, Gurgaon
● Gujarat Aluminium Extrusions Pvt Ltd
● Kohli Aluminium and Hardware, Delhi
● Bharat Distributors, Dalhousie
● Facade Factory Pvt Ltd, Pune
● Smart Constro, Aurangabad
● Alumayer India Pvt Ltd, Navi Mumbai
● Magus Structures India Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad
● Thermosolglass Pvt Ltd, Delhi
● Geode
COSTS
Semi unitized curtain wall- Rs 450- Rs 500/sq ft
Fully unitized curtain wall- Rs 700/sq ft
Fixing Unit- Rs 150-Rs 200
BROCHURE
FROM
GEODE
STRUCTURAL GLAZING
Structural glazing is a system which involves
bonding glass to the structural framing units
of an edifice using a high-strength,
high-performance silicone sealant designed
and tested especially for structural glazing.

The cost of getting a curtain wall system

installed depends on the type of curtain wall
you would like to have. Simply put, it shields
the exterior of the building and even protects
the interiors.
A single pitch – or one slope roof is a
popular choice, its simple design will fit in the wave roof is one of the most
with almost any building. Curved roofs are stand out designs, the sweeping roof
a more modern design, allowing for larger style looks great and also ensures all
more circular shaped options. Mono curved rain water drains off correctly. If
roof canopies stand out when fixed up dealing with an older building
against a contemporary building and will apex-style canopies are usually
make any entrance more dramatic. suitable to blend in with existing apex
roofs.
●
●

●
 FACADES

The façade forms the external weatherproof

envelope of a building. (vertical building
enclosure).
• More than any other component; they create
the image of the building. The building envelope
should be designed to mediate public-private
boundaries within the architecture, both inside and
out.
• In modern buildings, the façade is often
attached to the building frame and provides no
contribution to structural stability.
• Sustainable facades are defined as exterior
enclosure that use least possible amount of energy
to maintain a comfortable environment, which
promotes productivity to certain material which
has less negative impact on environment.
• Essentially There Are Two Types Of
Facades:

– Opaque Facades : which are primarily

constructed of layers of solid materials, such
as masonry, stone, precast concrete panels,
metal cladding, insulation, and cold formed
steel framing. Opaque facades may also
include punched openings or windows.

– Glazed Facades; such as curtain walls or

storefront facades which primarily consist of
transparent or translucent glazing materials
and metal framing components.
 OPAQUE FACADES

● Opaque Facades Solid wall constructed from monolithic or composite elements, with or
without a separate layer to provide climatic protection

● Warm façades have a thermal insulation layer applied directly to the surface of the
building. (MUST be water-resistant)
● Cold façades are characterized by a cavity, ventilated internally, between the outer layer
and the thermal insulation layer.

Solid wall Warm facades Cold facades

Commercial canopy Residential canopy Entrance steel Mild steel canopy
canopy

P A S
R T T
E E R
F D U
A C
B T
R U Prefabricated Plastic sheet
I R industrial structure structure
Prefabricated Metal
C E structure
 LIGHT WEIGHT FACADES

● This is a type of facade that needs to be

designed to support the loads that place
stress on its components.
● The materials that are normally used for
cladding include glass and metal.
● There are two types of construction for
lightweight facades: curtain wall and panel
facade.
● With a curtain wall, the facade passes
continuously around the framework of the
structure, whereas with a panelled facade
the framework interrupts the facade.
● Compared with other types of facade,
lightweight facades provide less heat and
sound insulation, and they have higher
maintenance costs in the medium and long
term.
 HEAVY WEIGHT FACADES

•As its name indicates, this type of facade

tends to be made up of construction
materials of considerable weight. For a
facade to be considered heavyweight,
the average weight, including the solid
and hollow elements, must be above
100kg per square meter.
•Within this category we find different
types of facades which, depending on the
thermal insulation needs, may be
load-bearing or self-supporting and may or
may not have an air chamber.
 PREFABRICATED FACADES

•This type of facade is formed mainly of

prefabricated modules that are joined
together or assembled on-site.
•The main advantages of this type of
facade are the speed and ease of
installation, as well as a lower cost
compared to other systems.
•In terms of the disadvantages, the
design options are more limited and
there is a minimum volume of work
required in order to make it viable.
 TRADITIONAL FACADES

•This classification includes facades

that use traditional construction
materials such as brick, stone,
wood, ceramics, rendering, etc.
•The benefits are that they are less
complex to build, quick to install
and have a low cost.
•On the other hand, since classic
facades do not have an air
chamber or insulation, they provide
less heat and sound insulation,
which means fewer energy savings.
 ETI SYSTEMS

•ETI (External Thermal Insulation) systems consist of

installing plates of insulation material all around
the building, which are protected by mortar and
adhered or mechanically fixed to the supporting
wall. EPS

•The most frequently used materials in the

insulation aspect of an ETI system are expanded
polystyrene (EPS), extruded polystyrene (XPS),
graphite expanded polystyrene (EPS-G) and
mineral wool (MW).
•The ETI system has an insulation layer, it reduces
thermal bridges and the risk of condensation. XPS EPS-G

MINERAL WOOL
RAINSCREEN CLADDING

•A rainscreen cladding or ventilated facade

system is made up of a load bearing wall, an
insulation layer and the cladding material,
which is fixed to the building using a supporting
structure.
•The main difference between this and the ETI
system is that it has an air cavity between the
load bearing wall and the cladding material.
•Even though this system is more costly and
complex to install, most of the time it is a
cost-effective option since the air gap is
responsible for many of the benefits of the
rainscreen cladding.
 MANUFACTURERS & INSTALLERS

● Uniglaze
● Alcobond
● Marti’s furniture
● Aludecor
● Alstrong
● Viva
● Alstone
● True Facade Design

METAL FACADES : Rs. 3500 /m,

FABRICATED : PRE ENGINEERED - 250/Sq.feet , STEEL PEB BUILDINGS - 110/sq.feet,
RAINSCREEN : Rs. 500-1000/sq.feet
Rowhouse
Footings - Combined, Cantilevered, Balanced base, Strip, etc.

1962
Kaamana Sahu
Sem V
Sir J.J. College of Architecture
 B B

UP UP

A A A A

B B

GROUND FLOOR PLAN FIRST FLOOR PLAN TERRACE STRUCTURAL PLAN

ARCHITECTURAL PLANS
1962 SC-1:100
09/07/21
KAAMANA SAHU
ABCM 1
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
 UGT UGT

B
B B
C1 SC1 C2 C3
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3

KITCHEN
FAMILY LOUNGE

C4 SC2
C5
DINING C4 C5 C4 C5

UP UP C6 SC3 C7 SC4 C8
C6 C7 C8 C6 C7 C8 A A
A A A A

FORMAL LIVING MASTER

CHILDREN'S BEDROOM
BEDROOM 3.6Mx4.4M
3.6Mx4.4M
GUEST ROOM
3.75Mx4.6M

ENTRANCE C9 C10 C11

C9 C11 C9
C10
ATTCH C10
ATTCH C11
BALCONY BALCONY

B
B B
SEPTIC SEPTIC
TANK PARKING TANK

GROUND FLOOR PLAN FIRST FLOOR PLAN FOOTING & PLINTH BEAM PLAN

STRUCTURAL PLANS
1962 SC-1:100
09/07/21
KAAMANA SAHU
ABCM 2
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
7350mm 7350mm

6450mm 6450mm
6000mm 6000mm

3450mm 3450mm
3000mm 3000mm

450mm 450mm
0.00 0.00

FRONT ELEVATION BACK ELEVATION

ELEVATIONS
1962 SC-1:100
09/07/21
KAAMANA SAHU
ABCM 3
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
 PARAPET WALL 300mm THK

BEAM 300x450

SLAB 150mm THK

COLUMN 300x300

COLUMN 230x450

LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE

RCC STRUCTURE

COMBINED FOOTING-
CANTILEVER & RECTANGLE

PLINTH BEAM 300x450

GROUND LINE

CANTILEVER FOOTING
STUB COLUMN

PCC BED 150mm THK

HARD STRATA

SECTION AA'

SECTIONS
1962 SC-1:100
09/07/21
KAAMANA SAHU
ABCM 4
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
 OVERHEAD TANK

STAIR ROOM
7350mm
PARAPET WALL 300mm THK

6450mm
BEAM 300x450
6000mm
SLAB 150mm THK

COLUMN 300x300
4605mm

3450mm

3000mm
COLUMN 230x450

BRICK WALL 115 mm THK

1605mm

PLINTH BEAM 300x450

450mm GROUND LINE

0.00
-300mm COMBINED FOOTING:
CANTILEVER & RECTANGLE
ISOLATED FOOTING
STUB COLUMN
-1550mm
-1850mm PCC BED 150mm THK
-2000mm HARD STRATA

SECTION BB'

SECTIONS
1962 SC-1:100
09/07/21
KAAMANA SAHU
ABCM 5
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
 FOUNDATIONS
· Foundation is the part of the structure below plinth level up to the soil.
PERIMETER
COLUMN · It is in direct contact of soil and transmits load of super structure to soil.
· Generally, it is below the ground level. If some part of foundation is above
STRAP BEAM
the ground level, it is also covered with earth filing.
· The footing is a structure constructed in brickwork, masonry or concrete
FOOTING FOR
STUB COLUMN under the base of a wall or column for distributing the load over a large area.
INNER COLUMN Types of Footing:

FOOTING FOR 1. Individual footing- These are the most common and
INNER COLUMN
simple type of foundations. Load of the building is
transferred to the column to the footing .
2. Combined footing-It is used when two or more columns
are close enough and their isolated footing overlap each
other.

ISOMETRIC FOR
CANTILEVER FOOTING

TRAPEZOIDAL FOOTING RECTANGULAR FOOTING

INNER COLUMN
3. Strip footing- They are commonly found in load bearing
masonry construction- a strip that supports the load of
FOOTING FOR
INNER COLUMN
the entire wall.
STRAP BEAM

PERIMETER
COLUMN

FOOTING FOR
PERIMETER
COLUMN 4. Balanced Footing- A balanced footing also known as
strap footing consists of two footings connected by a
strap beam.

ISOMETRIC FOR
BALANCED BASE FOOTING

1962 KAAMANA SAHU

TYPES OF FOOTING 09/07/21 ABCM 7

SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-III
 COLUMN 300X300
18MM BAR

1200
FLOATING COLUMN

300
900
20MM MESH
STIRRUPS 8MM 150c/c

LAPPING PCC BED 150MM

PCC PLINTH 150MM

PLINTH BEAM 300X450 18MM BAR

30MM COVER
STIRRUPS 8MM 300c/c
STIRRUPS 8MM 300c/c
STUB COLUMN

300
18MM BAR STIRRUPS 8MM 150c/c
30MM COVER 20MM MESH
SPACER BLOCK
300

25X25X50 SPACER BLOCK

300
25X25X50
PCC BED 150MM PCC BED 150MM
150

150
20MM MESH

COMBINED CANTILEVER FOOTING ECCENTRIC FOOTING

1962 KAAMANA SAHU

FOOTING DETAILS 09/07/21 ABCM 8

SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-III
 STIRRUPS 8MM 150c/c

18MM BAR

1200

300
900
LAPPING
COLUMN 300X300
20MM MESH
BENDING PCC BED 150MM
300 MM

30MM COVER

18MM BAR
PLAN
300 MM

SPACER BLOCK
25X25X50
PCC BED 150MM STIRRUPS 8MM 150c/c

LAPPING
SECTION
PCC PLINTH 150MM

PLINTH BEAM 300X450

3300 MM

3000 MM STIRRUPS 8MM 300c/c

300 MM 300 MM

300
18MM BAR
18MM BAR
30MM COVER
1200 MM

900 MM

300 MM

30MM COVER
20MM MESH
PCC BED 150MM
SPACER BLOCK

300
20MM MESH
25X25X50
PCC BED 150MM

150
PLAN
SECTION

COMBINED FOOTING ISOLATED FOOTING

1962 KAAMANA SAHU

FOOTING DETAILS 09/07/21 ABCM 9

SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-III
Raft
Solid, Slab and beam, Cellular

1962
Kaamana Sahu
Sem V
Sir J.J. College of Architecture
RAFT FOUNDATION
A raft or mat is a combined footing made of reinforced Advantages of Raft Foundations
concrete slabs that covers the entire area beneath a :
structure and supports all the walls and columns. 1- Raft foundations tend to be cheaper and quicker to
use than traditional footings.
They are suitable where: 2- The foundation and floor slab is combined, which
1. A basement is required. saves time and materials
2. Ground conditions are poor and strip or pad 3- Less excavation is required
foundations would require significant excavation. 4- They are ideal for poor ground condition where
3. Where it may be impractical to create individual strip normal footings would not cope
or pad foundations for a large number of individual well as they cannot spread the load as effectively.
loads. In very general terms, if strip or pad foundations 5- Raft foundations can reduce differential settlement,
would cover 50% or more of the where settlement occurs at
floor area, then a raft may be more appropriate. different rates across the ground surface of the building,
which reduces cracking and
other more serious problems.

TYPES OF RAFT FOOTING-

1. Solid Raft Disadvantages of Raft Foundations :
2. Pedestal Raft
3. Indent Raft 1- The main disadvantage is that they can prone to
4. Slab Beam Raft edge erosion if they are not
5. Cellular Raft treated properly.
2- They are not effective is the load of the building is
NOTES: going to be focused on a single
- Depth of solid raft foundation= LONGER SPAN / 20 point, although this is rare in domestic construction, so
- MURUB is a type of hard, inexpansive soil used to fill this isn’t generally of concern.
the space between raft footing and plinth beam if
there is not basement provided.
- For a bearing capacity of below 15, no rafts shall be
used apart from pile. For bearing capacity of 15-25,
raft is used. For bearing capacity over 25, normal
footing is used

1962 SC-1:100 KAAMANA SAHU

RAFT FOUNDATION 27/08/20 ABCM

1
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
SOLID RAFT FOUNDATION 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM

Flat plate type raft foundations consists a reinforced

concrete slab of uniform thickness covering the whole FLOORPLATE

6000MM
bearing area. This is suitable when the columns are placed
with uniform space between them and carrying equal and
300X300 COLUMN
small loads. Reinforcement in slab is provided in both

15000MM

3000MM
directions in the form of steel mesh.
The reinforcement for a footing under column would be
provided as needed normally

6000MM
DEPTH - SPAN/20

30000

FLOOR FINISH
150 MM THK PCC BED

230 MM THK DRP LAYER

10 MM DIA@150MM C/C BAR FOR TIE

BAR
COLUMN RCC

4 NOS 18 MM DIA BARS MAIN

REINFORCEMENT
MURUB FILLING

230MM BRICK WATERPROOFING

1962 SC-1:100 KAAMANA SAHU

SOLID RAFT FOUNDATION 27/08/20 ABCM

2
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
PEDESTAL RAFT FOUNDATION
6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM

Flat plate type is not suitable when the column loads

are very heavy. To make it suitable, slab thickness
must be increased. The heavy loads from column FLOORPLATE

6000MM
introduces negative bending moments and diagonal
shear in to the slab. So, to resist this a portion of
slab under the column should be thickened. 300X300 COLUMN

15000MM

3000MM
Provision of pedestal under the column without
increasing slab thickness also helps to receive PEDESTAL

heavy loads.

6000MM
DEPTH - SPAN/20

30000

FLOOR FINISH
150 MM THK PCC BED

230 MM THK DRP LAYER

10 MM DIA@150MM C/C BAR FOR TIE

BAR
COLUMN RCC

4 NOS 18 MM DIA BARS MAIN

REINFORCEMENT
MURUB FILLING

230MM BRICK WATERPROOFING

CHAIR
SPACER BLOCK
18MM WATERPROOFING LAYER
100MM THK PCC BED

150MM THK GSB

HARD STRATA

1962 SC-1:100 KAAMANA SAHU

PEDESTAL RAFT FOUNDATION 27/08/20 ABCM

3
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
INDENT RAFT FOUNDATION
6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM

Flat plate type is not suitable when the column loads

are very heavy. To make it suitable, slab thickness
must be increased. The heavy loads from column FLOORPLATE

6000MM
introduces negative bending moments and diagonal
shear in to the slab. So, to resist this a portion of
slab under the column should be thickened. 300X300 COLUMN

Provision of indent under the column footing without

15000MM

3000MM
increasing slab thickness also helps to receive INDENT

heavy loads.

6000MM
DEPTH - SPAN/20

30000MM

FLOOR FINISH
150 MM THK PCC BED

230 MM THK DRP LAYER

10 MM DIA@150MM C/C BAR FOR TIE

BAR
COLUMN RCC

4 NOS 18 MM DIA BARS MAIN

REINFORCEMENT
MURUB FILLING

230MM BRICK WATERPROOFING

CHAIR
SPACER BLOCK

100MM THK PCC BED

150MM THK GSB

HARD STRATA

1962 SC-1:100 KAAMANA SAHU

INDENT RAFT FOUNDATION 27/08/20 ABCM

4
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
SLAB BEAM UPWARD FOUNDATION
6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM

This type of raft foundation is typically used where there are

unequally-distributed column loads. Reinforced concrete or
steel columns are positioned on intersections of reinforced
FLOORPLATE

6000MM
concrete ground beams, which add the required stiffness to
the slab.
300X300 COLUMN

Although it is usual for the raft to span over the ground

15000MM

3000MM
SLAB BEAM
beams, they can also be designed as upstand beams with a
precast concrete suspended floor at ground level. This then
creates a void between the raft and the ground floor.

6000MM
30000

FLOOR FINISH
150 MM THK PCC BED

230 MM THK DRP LAYER

10 MM DIA@150MM C/C BAR FOR TIE

BAR
COLUMN RCC

4 NOS 18 MM DIA BARS MAIN

REINFORCEMENT
MURUB FILLING

GROUND BEAM FOR FOUNDATION

CHAIR
230MM BRICK WATERPROOFING
SPACER BLOCK
18MM WATERPROOFING LAYER
100MM THK PCC BED

150MM THK GSB

HARD STRATA

1962 SC-1:100 KAAMANA SAHU

SLAB BEAM FOUNDATION 27/08/20 ABCM

1
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
CELLULAR RAFT FOUNDATION
This type of raft foundation comprises two concrete slabs,
which lock together via ground beams. Cellular raft
foundations are exceptionally rigid, and so they are most
suited for ground that is likely to settle unevenly, or where
very heavy loads are anticipated. Cellular rafts can also be
used where significant ground heave is expected to be a
problem. Rigid frame mat is referred when columns carry
extremely heavy loads and the connecting beams exceeds
90cm depth.

WHERE IT CAN BE USED:

· WATER UPTHRUST- The upward movement of the
ground due to the swelling of clay soils that expand
when wet could cause affect the stability the structure
leading to damage, in such cases Cellular Raft
foundation is laid.
· UNEVEN GROUND- Cellular raft foundations are
exceptionally rigid in characteristics, and so they are
most suited for ground that is likely to settle in uneven
manner.
· LOW BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL- Sites where
such foundations are expected to be found is heavy
mining areas or poor soil fields where large bending
moments need to be resisted due to uneven settlement
and upheaval. Murub has the best bearing capacity.
· LOADING IS HIGH

NOTE- For a bearing capacity of below 15, no rafts shall be

used apart from pile. For bearing capacity of 15-25, raft is
used. For bearing capacity over 25, normal footing is used.

1962 SC-1:100 KAAMANA SAHU

CELLULAR RAFT FOUNDATION 27/08/20 ABCM

1
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
 230MM BRICK WALL

COLUMN (700x700)

150MM RCC CHAJJA

VENTILATOR (600x2100)

100MM RCC SILL

18MM PLINTH PROTECTION

WATER BAR
230MM BRICK WALL
18MM WATERPROOFING LAYER
RAFT FOUNDATION
LEAN CONCRETE FILLING
RETAINING WALL 450 MM
C.I. GUTTER 150 DIA
18MM MAIN BAR

18MM BARS IN PEDESTAL

SPACER BLOCKS
100MM PCC BED
150MM GSB
COMPACTED EARTH

DETAILED SECTION

1962 SC-1:50 KAAMANA SAHU

BASEMENT: RETAINING WALL 17/09/21 ARD 2

SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
 KEY PLAN

VENTILATOR

RETAINING WALL

RAFT FOUNDATION

FULL SECTION

1962 SC-1:100 KAAMANA SAHU

BASEMENT: RETAINING WALL 17/09/21 ARD 1

SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM 6000MM

FLOORPLATE

300X300 COLUMN
15000MM

3000MM
6000MM

30000

1962 SC-1:50 KAAMANA SAHU

BASEMENT: RETAINING WALL 17/09/21 ARD 3

SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE SEM-V
 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

Curtain Wall
Sir J. J. College of Architecture
 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

Facing, Cladding, and Infilling.

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 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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Sir J. J. College of Architecture
 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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Sir J. J. College of Architecture
 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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 ABC 05, B. ARCH 2020

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CHAPTER 8
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF
RETAINING WALLS

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability for earth or other materials at their
natural slopes. In general, they are used to hold back or support soil banks and water or to
maintain difference in the elevation of the ground surface on each of wall sides. Also, retaining
walls are often used; in the construction of buildings having basements, roads, or bridges when it
is necessary to retain embankments or earth in a relatively vertical position. Retaining walls are
commonly supported by soil (or rock) underlying the base slab, or supported on piles; as in case
of bridge abutments and where water may erode or undercut the base soil as in water front
structures.

8.2 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

There are many types of retaining walls; they are mainly classified according to their
behavior against the soil as shown in Fig.(8.1):-

(a) Gravity retaining walls are constructed of plain concrete or stone masonry. They depend
mostly on their own weight and any soil resting on the wall for stability. This type of
construction is not economical for walls higher than 3m.

(b) Semi-gravity retaining walls are modification of gravity wall in which small amounts of
reinforcing steel are introduced for minimizing the wall section.

(c) Cantilever retaining walls are the most common type of retaining walls and are generally
used for wall high up to 8m. It derives its name from the fact that its individual parts behave
as, and are designed as, cantilever beams. Its stability is a function of strength of its
individual parts.

(d) Counterfort retaining walls are similar to cantilever retaining walls, at regular intervals,
however, they have thin vertical concrete slabs behind the wall known as counterforts that tie
the wall and base slab together and reduce the shear and bending moment. They are
Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

economical when the wall height exceeds 8m. Whereas, if bracing is in front of the wall and
is in compression instead of tension, the wall is called Buttress retaining wall.

(e) Bridge abutments are special type of retaining walls, not only containing the approach fill,
but serving as a support for the bridge superstructure.

(a) GRAVITY WALLS (b) SEMI-RAVITY WALL

(c) CANTILEVER WALL (d) COUNTERFORT WALL (e) BRIDGE ABUTMENT

Ws
A A

H Anchor tie rod

H
Dredge line
Dredge line B
B
D
D Point of
C rotation
C

CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALL. ANCHORED SHEET PILE WALL.

(f) CRIB WALLS
(g) SHEET PILE WALLS.

Fig.(8.1): Common types of retaining walls.

2
Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

(f) Crib walls or coffer dams are cells or units to be filled with soil or built-up members of pieces
of precast concrete or metal and are supported by anchor pieces embedded in the soil for
stability.

(g) Sheet pile walls are classified as; anchored and cantilevered sheet pile walls; each kind of
them may be used in single or double sheet walls. Of these walls, only the cantilever
retaining walls and the bridge abutments are mostly used at present due to their great
economics.

8.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

8.3.1 Definitions of Terms
Definitions of retaining wall parts are shown in Fig.(8.2) as:-
(i) the base slab constitutes the slab, or footing, on which the wall rests,
(ii) the stem is the wall itself, the face of the wall is either the exposed portion (front face)
or the portion against which the backfill rests (back face),
(iii) the toe is the portion of the base slab which extends beyond the front face of the wall,
(iv) the heel is that portion of the base slab which extends away from the back face of the
wall. Toe and heel are also used to denote the extreme forward and rear parts of the
base slab, respectively,
(v) a buttress is a structural member used to tie the stem to the base slab, if the buttress is
in tension, the wall is termed a counterforted wall, and if it is in compression, the wall
is a buttressed wall. However, because of front clearances and appearance, the
buttressed wall is rarely used. Retaining walls are often built with a batter on the front
face sloping toward the backfill.
NOTE: If there is insufficient resisting force for wall stability, a key may be constructed beneath
the base slab to project into the subsoil for increasing the passive earth pressure. A key is
also often used when the base-slab concrete is poured separately from the stem to affect
a more shear-resistant joint between the stem and base. It may also be used to form a
vertical joint between the two sections of wall.

Backfill

Front face
Back face

Batter Key between successive concrete

pours for high walls.
Stem

Toe
Heel
Key

Base slab or footing

Fig.(8.2): Definitions of retaining wall parts.

3
Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

8.3.2 Tentative Dimensions of Common Types of Retaining Walls

Retaining wall design proceeds with the selection of tentative dimensions, see Fig.(8.3)
which are then analyzed for stability and structural requirements and revised as required. Since
this is a trial process, several solutions of the problem may be obtained, all of which are
satisfactory.

8.3.2.1 Gravity Retaining Walls

Gravity-wall dimensions may be taken as shown in Fig.(8.3-a). Gravity walls, generally,
are trapezoidal in shape, but also may be built with broken backs. The base and other dimensions
should be such that the resultant falls within the middle one-third of the base. The top width of
the stem should be not less than 30cm. Because of the massive proportions and resulting low
concrete stresses, low-strength concrete can generally be used for the wall construction.

8.3.2.2 Cantilever Retaining Walls

Dimensions of the retaining wall should be adequate for structural stability and satisfy
local building-code requirements. The tentative dimensions shown in Fig.(8.3-b) are based in
part on the history of satisfactorily constructed walls, and may be used in the absence of other
data. However, it may result in an overly conservative design. The top width of the stem should
not be less than 30cm. While the base of the stem should be thick enough to satisfy the shear
requirements without use of shear reinforcing steel. The base-slab dimensions should be such
that the resultant of the vertical loads falls within the middle one-third. If the resultant falls
outside the middle one-third, the toe pressures may be excessively large and only a part of the
footing will be effective.

8.3.2.3 Counterfort Retaining Walls

Typical proportions for counterfort retaining walls are as shown in Fig.(8.3c). These
dimensions are only a guide, and thinner walls of (10-15) cm thick sections may be used if
structural stability is satisfied. The use of a counterfort will be determined by the relative costs of
forms; concrete, reinforcing, and labor. The spacing of the counterforts is a trial process to give a
minimum cost. The most economical spacing appears to be (1/3-1/2) the height of the wall. A
counterfort may be built into the beginning of the wall or by allowing a part of the wall to
overhang. The overhanging configuration may prove to be more economical since it saves the
concrete and formwork on the two counterforts at the joint. The counterfort wall may be
constructed without a toe if additional front clearance is needed and the sliding and overturning
stability requirements are met.

Foundation Engineering
Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls
Dr.Farouk Majeed Muhauwiss.

4
Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

(a) GRAVITY WALL

(b) CANTILEVER WALL

(c) COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL

Fig.(8.3): Tentative dimensions of common types of retaining walls.

5
Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

8.4 FORCES ACTING ON RETAINING WALLS

The design of a retaining wall must account for all applied loads. The loads that are of
primary concern are the lateral earth pressures induced by the retained soil. Under normal
conditions, the lateral earth pressure is at rest condition. But, if the wall deflects slightly, stresses
were exerted in the soil, these are; a passive earth pressure ( PP ) in front of the wall, and an active
earth pressure ( Pa ) behind the wall. For design purposes, the passive earth pressure in front of
the wall, is neglected to avoid any problem resulting from removing the soil in front of the wall.

The active and passive pressures are assumed to increase linearly with depth as a function
of the weight of soil. The magnitude and direction of these pressures as well as their distribution
depend upon many variables; such as height of the wall, the slope of the ground surface ( β ), type
of backfill used, draining of the backfill, level of the water table, added loads applied on the
backfill (surcharges either live or dead loads), degree of soil compaction, and movement of the
wall caused by the action of the backfill. The forces acting on a retaining wall with level or
inclined backfill are shown Fig.(8.4).
The active and passive earth pressures are computed as:

1
Pa = .γH′ 2 .K a .………….………………..………………………..(8.1)
2
1
Pp = .γH 2p .K p …………………….….…..…………………….…..(8.2)
2
where, the coefficients of active and passive lateral earth pressures are computed as:
For a level backfill:
1 − sin φ
Ka = or K a = tan 2 (45 − φ / 2) …..….………....…….….(8.3)
1 + sin φ
For an inclined backfill:

cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ

K a = cos β ….……………….....….…….(8.4)
cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ

NOTE: A surcharge load has a same effect as an additional (equivalent) height of earth ( H su )
above the ground surface obtained as: H su = Wsu / γ backfill where Wsu is the
surcharge load per square unit and γ backfill is the unit weight of backfill soil. This
additional height due to surcharge, adds a rectangle of pressure behind the wall with a
total lateral force assumed acting at its mid-height

6
 Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

Surcharge
G.S. qs

w c1 w s1 w c1 w s1
This soil may This soil may
Ps = K a qs.H
be removed w s 2w c 2 be removed w s 2w c 2
1 1
Pa = γH 2 K a Pa = γH 2 K a
1
w c3 2
1
w c3 2
PP = γH 2
pKP PP = γH 2p K P H/2
2 H/3 2 H/3
B B

FR = c a .B′ + ∑ V tan δ FR = c a .B′ + ∑ V tan δ

e e
q heel q heel
q Toe q Toe
∑ V = ws + wc ∑ V = ws + wc
∑ FR = c a .B′ + ∑ V tan δ + PP ∑ FR = c a .B′ + ∑ V tan δ + PP

(a) level backfill without surcharge. (b) level backfill with surcharge

w s2
G.S. Surcharge
w s2 qs
β β Psv
a c Ps = K a qs.H ′
w c1 w s1 w c1 w s1 Psh
1 1 2
This soil may H′ Pa = γH ′ 2 K a This soil may Pav Pa = γH′ K a
2 2
be removed w w c2 be removed ws3 w c2
s3 β H ′ /2 Pah
w c3 w c3 H ′ /3
PP =
1 2
γH p K P H ′ /3 1 2
PP = γH p K P
2 2
B B

FR = c a .B′ + ∑ V. tan δ FR = c a .B′ + ∑ V. tan δ

e e
q Toe q heel q Toe q heel

∑ V = w s + w c + Pv ∑ V = w s + w c + Pv

where: Pah = Pa cos β , Pav = Pa sin β , H ′ = H + ac. tan β ,

ws = ws1 + ws 2 + ws 3 , wc = wc1 + wc 2 + wc 3 ∑ FR = c a .B′ + ∑ V tan δ + PP

(c) Sloped backfill without surcharge. (d) Sloped backfill with surcharge

Fig.(8.4): Forces acting on a retaining wall.

7
Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

8.5 STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

At the beginning, tentative dimensions can be used and then analyzed for both external and
internal (structural design requirements), for these purposes, computer programs for design and
analysis of retaining walls may be helpful.

8.5.1 EXTERNAL STABILITY

This stability includes five checks as shown below and explained with reference to
Fig.(8.5).
(1) Check for Overturning about Toe (point O),
(2) Check for Sliding along the Base of the Wall,
(3) Check for Bearing Capacity Failure of the Base Soil,
(4) Check for Settlement, and
(5) Check Rotational or Deep Shear Failure.
w s2
Surcharge
qs b

k a β
c Psv
Ps = K a qs.H′
w c1 w s1
Psh 1
This soil may ws3 Pav Pa = γH′2K a
w c2 2
be removed
H ′ /2 Pah
m L w c3
H ′ /3
Df 1 2
PP = γH p K P n j i h
d
2
B
O E
FR = c a .B′ + ∑ V. tan δ
G
R q heel
q Toe e

∑ V = w s + w c + Pv
where, Pah = Pa cos β , Pav = Pa sin β , H ′ = H + ac. tan β ,
ws = ws1 + ws 2 + ws 3 , wc = wc1 + wc 2 + wc 3 ∑ FR = c a B′ + ∑ V tan δ + PP

Fig.(8.5): Forces acting on a retaining wall (Sloped backfill with surcharge).

8
Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

(1) Check for Overturning about Toe (point O):

Re sisting.Moments ∑ MR
SFoverturning = = ………..…………….......................(8.5)
Overturning.Moments ∑ M o
≥ 1.5 for cohesionless soils or ≥ 2.0 for cohesive soils.
To determine the resisting forces and moments, the following table should be prepared:
Weight Arm from O Moment
Part
(kN/m) (m) (kN-m/m)
Soil: (1) ws1 xs1
(2) ws2 xs2
(3) ws3 xs3
Concrete: (1) wc1 xc1
(2) wc2 xc2
(3) wc3 xc3
Psv Ps sin β
Pav Pa sin β

∑V = ∑ MR =

Overturning moment: ∑ M o = Pah .( H ′ / 3) + Psh .( H ′ / 2)

(2) Check for Sliding along the Base of the Wall:

In sliding stability analyses, it is common practice to omit the soil in front of the wall.
Re sisting.Forces ∑ FR
SFSliding = = …..….…………………….….…..…..……..........(8.6)
Sliding.Force FS
≥ 1.5 for cohesionless soils or ≥ 2.0 for cohesive soils
where, the sliding force ( FS ) = ( Pa + Ps ) or ( Pah + Psh )

1
Pa = γH 2 K a ……………...for level ground surface,
2
1
Pah = γH ′ 2 K a cos β ……..for inclined ground surface,
2
Resisting force = ∑ FR = C a .B ′ + ∑ V. tan δ

∑ V = all the vertical forces, including the vertical component of Pa ,

B ′ = B − 2e B = the effective length of the base slab,

B
eB = −x,
2 Foundation Engineering
Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls
Dr. Farouk Majeed Muhauwiss.

9
Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

Net.Moment ∑ M R − ∑ M o
Location of resultant of ∑ V from Toe ( x ) = =
∑V ∑V

2 3 2 3
C a = c..to.. c and δ = φ..to.. φ
3 4 3 4
NOTE: If SFSliding is unsafe: Increase the base dimension B, or Use a key beneath the base

near the stem or at the heel, as shown in Fig.(8.21) until SFSliding ≥ 1.5 − 2.0

(a) key near the stem. (b) Key at the heel (more effective).

Fig.(8.21): Effect of shear key on retaining wall stability.

(3) Check for Bearing Capacity Failure of the Base Soil:

Net.ultimate.bearing.capacity q ult. (net )

SFBearing.Capacity = = ……..…….….…..….…..(8.7)
Max..bearing.pressure q actual

≥ 2.5-3.0
Calculate the eccentricity by:
B B ∑ M R −∑ M o
eB = −x = −
2 2 ∑V

Check e B with B / 6 : to see whether the resultant of ∑ V (all the vertical forces, including
the vertical component of Pa ) is within the middle third or not, and falls to the
right or to the left of the wall centerline.
• If e ≤ B / 6 , the maximum bearing pressure is calculated by:
∑V 6.e
q actual = q max . = q Toe = (1 ± B )
min. Heel B.(1) B

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

• If e. > B / 6 , the maximum bearing pressure is calculated by:

2.∑ V
q max . = and q min . = 0
⎡L ⎤
3.B⎢ − e B ⎥
⎣2 ⎦

NOTE: In this case, it is better to change the dimension (B) until the eccentricity be e ≤ B / 6 .

The net ultimate bearing capacity of the base soil can be calculated from Hansen's equation,
considering the wall as a strip footing with width B ′ at a depth D f using c 2 and φ 2 shear
strength parameters for the base soil.

q ult.( net ) = cN c S c d c i c + q ( N q − 1)S q d q i q + 0.5γ.B ′.N γ S γ d γ i γ …………..….…..(8.8)

where,
c = cohesion of the base soil,
q ′ = surcharge load or overburden pressure for shallow side,
γ = unit weight of the base soil,
B ′ = B − 2e B ; B′ is the retaining wall effective base width,
N c , N q ,.Nγ = Hansen's bearing capacity factors obtained from:-

N q = e π. tan φ tan 2 (45 + φ / 2) ; N c = ( N q − 1). cot φ ; N γ = 1.5(Nq − 1). tan φ

S c , S q ,.Sγ ; d c , d q ,.dγ ; and i c , i q ,.iγ = Shape, depth, and inclination factors obtained from

Table (8.1).

Table (8.1): Shape, depth, and inclination factors for Hansen's equation.
Shape factors Depth factors Inclination factors
1− iq
d c = 1 + 0.4k * ic = iq −
N q −1
S c = S q = S γ = 1 .0
5
⎛ 0.5H ⎞
since the retaining wall d q = 1 + 2. tan φ(1 − sin φ) 2 k * i q = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
is a continuous footing ⎝ V + A C
f a cot φ ⎠
(L/B >10) 5
⎛ 0.7 H ⎞
dγ = 1.0 for all φ values i γ = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ V + A f C a cot φ ⎠
* NOTE:
Df D
k= for f ≤ 1
B B
D D
k = tan −1 f for f > 1 (in radians), D f is the depth of footing from the shallow side.
B B

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

(4) Check for Settlement [S T ≤ S all. ] :

Calculate the total settlement components as mentioned in chapter five to know whether it
will be acceptable or not in comparison of the permissible or tolerable or allowable settlement.

(5) Check Rotational Stability:

Usually, tilting is the result of rotation about toe. This may be attributed to an adequate
backfill weight or by the foundation failure in the zone of the toe resulting from a poor layer of
soil underlying the footing.

The rotational stability can be investigated using the Swedish circle method as follows:
(1) Draw the wall-soil system and soil layers to convenient and large scale.

(2) Draw a circle with radius sufficient to penetrate into any soft underlying layers.

(3) Compute all the forces acting against the vertical plane through the heel point and

moment arm with respect to the trial circle center.

(4) Divide the trial circle into a convenient number of slices and compute the slice weight and

the friction and cohesion (tangential) components acting on the base of each slice.
(5) Conduct a moment summation about the circle center to obtain the safety factor as:

∑ MR
SFRotational..Stability = .. ≥ 1.5 …………………………………...…....……..(8.9)
∑ Mo

• For level backfill: SFRotational..Stability =

(∑ N. tan φ + c.L)R
R (∑ T) + Pa .y

• For inclined backfill: SFRotational..Stability =

(∑ N. tan φ + c.L )R
R (∑ T) + Pah .y + Pav .x
where, tan φ = coefficient of friction, c = cohesion of soil, L = (R.θ) ;length of trial circle
arc.

(6) Make several trials so that the minimum factor of safety is found. If this is too small, a
revision may be made to wall dimensions, or the base is placed at a greater depth. The
safety factor should not be less than 1.5.

NOTE: when the slip surface passes through several soil layers, c.L will be equal to
c1 .L1 + c 2 .L 2 + c 3 .L 3 + ……

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

8.5.2 INTERNAL STABILITY

(1) Design of Stem:
Shear and moments in the stem are found using differential equations since the pressure
distribution is triangular:-

Load: q y = K a .γ.y ……………. for a level backfill,

q y = K a cos β.γ.y ……… for inclined backfill.

h
Shear: Vy = ∫ q y .dh
0

1
Vy = K a .γ.y 2 + K a .q s .y …………..….for a level backfill with surcharge,
2
1
Vy = K a cos β.γ.y 2 + K a cos β.qs.y ...... for inclined backfill with surcharge.
2
h
Moment: M y = ∫ Vy .dh
0

1 1
My = K a .γ.y 3 + K a .q s .y 2 …………...for a level backfill with surcharge,
6 2
1 1
My = K a cos β.γ.y 3 + K a cos β.q s .y 2 . for inclined backfill with surcharge.
6 2
Divide the stem into (4) sections that is at; y = 0, 0.25H, 0.5H, 0.75H, and H. Then,
determine (d) from wide beam shear and moments as shown below and compare the obtained (d)
values with those available and use the larger (d) value.

G.S.

G.S. β y′
y h h
q y = γ.y.K a q y′ = γ.y′.K a cos β Vy′ = ∫ q y′dh M y′ = ∫ Vy′.dh
H′ 0 0
H

V q H = γ.H.Ka V q H′ = γ.H′.K a cos β

M
M V M
q (level and inclined backfills).

Fig.(8.7): Shear and moment along the stem.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

• (d) from wide beam shear:

0.17(0.75) ……….…………..…………….….…(ACI 318 14 section 11.3)
; take and solve for (d).
• (d) from moment:

d where, 0.42(0.60) ……...….…(ACI 318 14 section 22.2)

• Stem thickness:
t Bottom = t Top + S.x
where, S is the slope of the stem calculated as: S = ( t Bottom − t Top ) / H
7.5 cm (concrete cover).

• Stem reinforcement (As):

where, is the larger of: 1.4/ or 0.25 /

0.0020 b t ------------ for 420 MPa
0.0018 b t ---------- for 420 MPa
b t ---- for 420 MPa
Compare with and take the larger value for design as well as extend the steel
reinforcement beyond cutoff points to satisfy ACI Code bond requirements.

(a) Development length for stem tensile steel:

provided that 300 mm.

(b) Development length for stem compression steel:

(0.043 ) provided that 200 mm.

All notations mentioned above are as defined previously in Chapter Six.

Depth Vy My (d) (d) (d)

As
y wide beam shear moment Available
(kN) (kN.m/m) (cm2/m)
(m) (m) (m) (m)
0
0.25H
0.50H
0.75H
H

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 Foundation Engineering Chapter 8: Design and Analysis of Retaining Walls

(2) Design of the Base Slab:

The pressure distribution on the base is shown below:-
Pav
B
XT XH

q 2 = γ s .H avg. + γ c .D c
Omit soil q 1 = γ c .D c (weight of
Overlying toe V
M V
Dc Dc

d M d q heel = q min .
B
q toe = q max . 1
S q = (q min . − q 2 ) + S.x
A
Xt
q = (q max . − q1) − S.x Xh
q − q min .
Slope of the pressure diagram: S = max .
B
Toe Heel

Equations for Toe Design Equations for Heel Design

q = (q max . − q1 ) − S.x q = (q min . − q 2 ) + S.x
XT XH
S.x 2 S.x 2
V= ∫ q.dx = (q max . − q1 ) x −
2
V= ∫ q.dx = (q min . − q 2 ) x + 2 − Pav
0 0
XT XH
x2 S.x 3 x2 S.x 3
M= ∫ V.dx = (q max . − q1) 2 − 6 M= ∫ V.dx = (q min . − q 2 ) 2 + 6 − Pav .x
0 0

The thickness of toe and heel is calculated as:

Find V at (d) from the face of the stem; at point (A) Find V at (d) from the face of the stem; at point (B)
where: ( x = x T − d ), and d = t base − 7.5cm − d b / 2 . where: ( x = x H − d ), and d = t base − 7.5cm − d b / 2 .
V( x H − d ).L.F.
V( x T − d).L.F. νc all. = (0.17)(0.75) f ′c ; νc act. =
νc all. = (0.17)(0.75) f ′c ; νc act. = b..d
b..d
Put and solve for (d) = ?
Put and solve for (d) = ?

The required reinforcement is calculated as:

Find M at face of stem; at x = x T : [i.e., M ( x T ) ] Find M at face of stem; at x = x H : [i.e., M ( x H ) ]

Mu M ( x T ).L.F. Mu M ( x H ).L.F.
As = = As = =
0.9.fy.0.9.d 0.9.fy.0.9.d 0.9.fy.0.9.d 0.9.fy.0.9.d

Compare with and take the larger value. Compare with and take the larger value.

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BASEMENT

Appendix E in Approved Document B of the Building Regulations defines a

Basement storey as a storey with a floor that at some point is more than 1.200 m
below the highest level of ground adjacent to the outside walls. This definition is
given in the context of inhibiting the spread of fire within a building, and generally
the fire resistance requirements for basements are more onerous than for the ground
or upper storeys in the same building. This section on basements is concerned only
with basement storeys that are below ground level.
The structural walls of a basement below ground level are in fact retaining walls,
which have to offer resistance to the soil and groundwater pressures as well as
assisting to transmit the superstructure loads to the foundations. It is possible to
construct a basement free of superstructural loadings, but these techniques are
beyond the scope of this book.

WATERPROOFING
Apart from the structural design of the basement walls and floor, waterproofing
presents the greatest problem in basement construction. Building Regulation C2
requires such walls to be constructed so that they will not transmit moisture from
the ground to the inside of the building or to any material used in the construction
that would adversely be affected by moisture. Building Regulation C2 also imposes
similar conditions on the construction of floors. Basement structures can be
waterproofed by one of three basic methods:
1. Monolithic structures:
2. Drained cavities:
3. Membranes:

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DRAINED CAVITIES
This method provides an excellent barrier to moisture penetration of basements
by allowing any moisture that has passed through the structural wall to drain
down within a cavity formed between the inner face of the structural wall and
an inner non-load bearing wall. This internal wall is built of a floor covering of
special triangular precast concrete tiles, which allows the moisture from the cavity
to flow away under the tiles to a sump, where it is discharged into a drainage system
either by gravity or by pumping. This method of waterproofing is usually studied
in detail during advanced courses in construction technology.
MEMBRANES
A membrane is a relatively thin material placed on either the external or internal
face of a basement wall or floor to provide the resistance to the passage of moisture
to the inside of the basement. If the membrane is applied externally protection is
also given to the structural elements and the hydrostatic pressure will keep it firmly
in place, but a reasonable working space must be allowed around the perimeter of
the basement. This working space will entail extra excavation and subsequent
backfilling after the membrane has been applied. If adequate protection is not given
to the membrane it can easily be damaged during the backfilling operation. An
internally applied membrane gives no protection to the structural elements, and
there is the danger that the membrane may be forced away from the surfaces by
water pressure unless it is adequately loaded. These loading coats will reduce the
usable volume within the basement (see Figs 2.6.2 and 2.6.3).
Suitable materials that can be used for forming membranes are fibre-reinforced
bituminous felt, polythene sheet, polyisobutylene plastic, epoxy resin compounds,
bituminous compounds and mastic asphalt. Also, more recent developments for
impervious membrane applications include polymer-modified bitumen with
polyester reinforcement. This is available as styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS)
oratactic polypropylene (APP).
ASPHALT TANKING
Asphalt is a natural or manufactured mixture of bitumen with a substantial proportion
of inert mineral matter. When heated, asphalt becomes plastic and can be moulded
by hand pressure into any shape. Bitumen is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and
has both waterproofing and adhesive properties. In its natural state asphalt occurs
as a limestone rock impregnated with bitumen, and is mined notably in France,
Switzerland and Sicily. Another source of asphalt is the asphalt lake in Trinidad in
the West Indies.

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Natural rock asphalt is crushed and processed to remove unwanted mineral matter
before being compounded into mastic asphalt. Bitumen for use with mastic asphalt
is also made on a large scale as a residue in the distillation of petroleum.
Mastic asphalt is a type of asphalt composed of suitably graded mineral matter
and asphaltic cement to form a coherent, void less and impermeable mass. The asphalt
cement consists of bitumen, lake asphalt, asphaltite or blends of these, sometimes
with the addition of flux oil, which is used for softening bitumen or rendering it less
viscous. Fine aggregates of natural rock asphalt and limestone combine with coarse
aggregates of igneous and calcareous angular stones if required. Naturally occurring
graded siliceous material can also be added.
The basic principle of asphalt tanking is to provide a continuous waterproof
membrane to the base and walls of the basement. Continuity between the vertical
and horizontal membranes is of the utmost importance, and as asphalt will set
rapidly once removed from the heat source used to melt the blocks, it is applied in
layers over small areas; again continuity is the key factor to a successful operation.
Joints in successive coats should be staggered by at least 150 mm in horizontal work
and at least 75 mm in vertical work.

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On horizontal and surfaces up to 30° from the horizontal three coats of asphalt
should be applied to give a minimum total thickness of 30 mm. Vertical work
should also be a three-coat application to give a total thickness of 20 mm. The
junction between horizontal and vertical work should be strengthened by a two-coat
angle fillet forming a 50 mm 50 mm chamfer. To prevent curling and consequent
infiltration of moisture behind the vertical tanking the top edge should be turned
into a splayed chase or groove 25 mm wide 25 mm deep.
It is essential that vertical asphalt is suitably keyed to its background. Concrete
formed by using sawn boards for the formwork will usually provide an acceptable
surface, but smooth concrete will need treatment such as bush-hammering the
surface and washing to remove all loose particles. Alternatively a primer of
sand/cement plastic emulsion or pitch/polymer rubber emulsion can be used.
Brick walls can be constructed of keyed bricks, or the joints can be raked out to a
depth of 20 mm as the work proceeds to provide the necessary keyed surface.
During the construction period the asphalt tanking must be protected against
damage from impact, following trades and the adverse effects of petrol and oil.
Horizontal asphalt tanking coats should be covered with a fine concrete screed at
least 50 mm thick as soon as practicable after laying. Vertical asphalt tanking coats
should be protected by building a half brick or block wall 30 mm clear of the
asphalt; the cavity so formed should be filled with a mortar grout as the work
proceeds to ensure perfect interface contact. In the case of internal tanking this
protective wall will also act as the loading coat.
Any openings for the passages of pipes or ducts may allow moisture to penetrate
unless adequate precautions are taken. The pipe or duct should be primed and
coated with three coats of asphalt so that the sleeve formed extends at least 75 mm
on either side of the tanking membrane before being placed in the wall or floor. The
pipe or duct is connected to the tanking by a two-coat angle fillet (see Fig. 2.6.2).
Basements 99
The main advantages of mastic asphalt as a waterproof membrane are as follows:
nIt is a thermoplastic material and can therefore be heated and reheated if
necessary to make it pliable for moulding with a hand float to any desired
shape or contour.
nIt is durable: bituminous materials have been used in the construction of
buildings for over 5000 years and have remained intact to this day, as shown
by excavations in Babylonia.
It is impervious to both water and water vapour.
It is non-toxic, vermin and rot proof, and is odourless after laying.
It is unaffected by sulphates in the soil, which, if placed externally, will greatly
improve the durability of a concrete structure.
The application of mastic asphalt is recognized as a specialist trade in the
building industry and therefore most asphalt work is placed in the hands of
specialist subcontractors, most of which are members of the Mastic Asphalt Council
and Employers Federation Limited. The Federation is a non-profit-making
organization whose objectives are to provide technical information and promote
the use of mastic asphalt as a high-quality building material.
OTHER SHEET MEMBRANES
Plastic and bitumen sheeting materials are suited to shallow basements. The base
structure of concrete or masonry is prepared with a primer of bituminous solution
before sheeting, and is hot bitumen bonded with 100 mm side and 150 mm end
lapping in at least two layers. Figure 2.6.4 shows application to wall and floor.

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