1 INTRODUCTION to provide a framework for the prioritisation of

portfolios of mineral exploration projects as an aid

This manuel accompanies a 2 day short course in the allocation of limited exploration (financial and
designed to aid ore discovery by exploration geologists human) resources. It is stressed these conceptual
involved in the exploration for and evaluation of geological models should be subject to progressive
epithermal and porphyry deposits. The lectures expand modification as new data or ideas come to hand.
themes introduced in short courses provided with late
Terry Leach from 1992-8 and this manuel updates Section 1 seeks to introduce the terminology used for
the notes written in association with those short epithermal and porphyry deposit types later considered
courses (Corbett and Leach, 1998). The short course in detail (figure 1.1) and also provide a brief overview
lectures and these notes focus upon tools available to of the geological settings in which these deposits form.
exploration geologists in the field and the exploration
implications of the models presented herein. 1.1 SETTING OF EPITHERMAL-PORPHYRY
ORE DEPOSITS
Geological models considered herein evolved from the
analysis of many field examples and have been tested Epithermal and porphyry ore deposits develop in
and modified by application during mineral exploration response to plate tectonic processes, typically as
over many years (Corbett, 2009a, 2013b; Leach and partial melting related to subduction gives rise to
Corbett, 1993, 1994 1995, 2008, Corbett and Leach, magmatism mainly within compressional, and locally
1998). Early studies of SW Pacific rim ore systems transpressional, linear magmatic arcs extending into
synthesised this author’s field structural analyses with back arc extensional settings. Magmatic arcs are divided
petrology by Terry Leach on magmatic arc geothermal as island arcs underpinned by oceanic crust such as
and ore systems (Mitchell and Leach 1991), whereas in the SW Pacific rim and continental arcs formed at
this current work includes ore systems from the entire continental margins and underpinned by continental
Pacific rim and elsewhere such as locally Tethyan crust (Pirajno, 1992). Models presented later (section
magmatic Arcs. These geological models are expected 3.4) suggest transient changes in the nature of

HIGH SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag

steam heated
alteration permeable
RIFT phreatic
diatreme horizon
breccia
sinter
silica EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A
B B
BRECCIA O S
LITHOLOGICAL
A
STRUCTURAL B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

*
SEDIMENT HOSTED B et
m

CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au eor

REPLACEMENT Au ic w a t e r

*
MnO2
POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu

limestone marl S
WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
MINERALIZATION S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
Banded tension vein REPLACEMENT FLUIDS
Fissure vein Rising mineralised
EXOSKARN magmatic fluid
S Sheeted vein
Circulating meteoric-
Stockwork vein dominant water
Breccia fill Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
Lithological control
B - bicarbonate
Disseminated ENDOSKARN O - oxygenated

* Fluid mixing
Corbett Model_2017
Rising volatiles

Figure 1.1 Conceptual model for the styles of epithermal Au-Ag and porphyry Cu-Au mineralisation developed in subduction-related
magmatic arc – back arc settings.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 1

convergence, evidenced by vein configurations, partial melting. The subduction rate and inter-related
provide extensional environments for ore formation dip of the downgoing plate influence the development
within compressional magmatic arcs, as triggers for of porphyry Cu deposits, best formed at moderate
the onset of magmatic-hydrothermal processes. subduction angles (Sawkins, 1990), as shallow
Intrusion emplacement is also triggered by rapid uplift subduction creates insufficient melting and steep
and erosion including sector collapse of volcanic subduction promotes rifting in the back arc (Frisch et
edifices (Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea), or thrust al., 2011).
erosion (Porgera, Papua New Guinea). It is therefore
possible to resolve the space problem associated In the SW Pacific rim, the Pacific plate is subducting
with the emplacement of porphyry intrusions within below North Island New Zealand (figure 1.2). An
compressional settings. upstanding andesitic magmatic arc on the eastern
North Island passes westward to the rifted flat lying
The Pacific rim of fire represents the string of mainly Taupo Volcanic Zone, where geothermal studies
Tertiary and locally older magmatic arcs and related (Henley and Ellis, 1983; Simmons and Browne, 2000a
back arcs which overlie the deeper level subduction and references therein) have provided a framework for
plate boundaries (figure 1.2). Magmatism in Chile an understanding of hydrothermal systems in back arc
youngs from the deeply eroded Jurassic arcs in the environments (Henley, 1985a). A deep (5-6 km below
west to active systems in the east, while Cambrian the surface) batholitic magmatic source was interpreted
and Ordovician porphyry deposits occur in Eastern to provide heat and volatiles which combine with
Australia. A simplified model for the east Pacific rim deep circulating meteoric waters within the permeable
suggests the heavier oceanic Nazca Plate is being felsic volcanic pile to provide dilute geothermal fluids
created at the central Pacific spreading centre and (figures 1.4 & 1.5; Henley, 1985 a & b; Corbett and
subducted eastwards below the South American Leach, 1998 and references therein).
continental plate, as uplift and erosion exposes deeper
portions of older arcs on the western side (figure The late Terry Leach stressed the profound differences
1.3). Subduction draws the wet ocean floor sediments between the New Zealand back arc (or continental rift)
and basalts, with altered hydrous mineral assemblages and magmatic arc hydrothermal systems using his and
formed at the mid oceanic ridge, into the hot mantle others work in the Philippine arc geothermal systems
environment where the high water content promotes (figure 1.5). The Philippine geothermal systems

tka
u ko
- Ch
sk
ot
v

O kh v

ol- 0.7 v

ng 6
Mo
v v
v

v
v
OB
v

v v v
8 6
v
v

OR
Subduction zone
v

v
v

v
v
v

v
10
Spreading centre
Sa
v

A
Transform fault
n
v

nd

v
re
v

Orthogonal convergence
v

as

v 0.3 4
OR
F
v

8 OB
v

v
v

Philippine
Oblique convergence
vv

OB
v

8 Plate 10.7
v

8
v

0.3
v
v v

v
OB
v

4
v

v OR v
8
Direction and rate of
v v v
v

Eurasia v
6
v

Bismark movement in cm/y

v

5
vv
Plate
v
v

v
v

Solomon
v
v

v 10
OB
v

Plate
v

v
v

v v v
Magmatic arc
v

v v
7 0.3 10.2
v

v
Pacific
v

v v v
7.7
v

v
v

v
Plate
v
v

v
v
v
OR
Back arc
v

8 v
v v
v

v v
7 10
v

OR
v

v
v 6
v

Australia-India v
Nazca
v

Plate
v

5 10
Plate 6.5
v
v
v

5 OR
v

10
10
v

8 v 6.5
v

OB
v

7
v

v
v

v
v

6
v
v

v
v
v
v

0 2000 km
Adapted from Curcum-Pacific Council
or Energy and Mineral Resources, 1981. CORBETT ai1634

Figure 1.2 Pacific rim tectonic plates, magmatic island arcs, back arcs and spreading centres.

2 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

Figure 1.3 Conceptual cross section through a subduction zone, magmatic arc and back arc showing the settings of epithermal and
porphyry deposit formation. This cartoon could be analogous to the SE Pacific rim in a section line from the subducting Nasca plate
through the east dipping subduction zone below Chile and the Andes magmatic arc, to the Deseado Massif back arc in Argentine
Patagonia.

magmatic
ARC BACK ARC
solfatara

LOW SULPHIDATION
Au-Ag
HIGH SULPHIDATION hot spring
Au
F
travertine
steam heated 200
alteration
acid sulphate
felsic
bicarbonate waters caps
domes
eruption breccia
Carbonate-base Epithermal
silica
metal Au quartz Au
sinter
Quartz-sulphide +
D veins D veins waters
Au±Cu eteoric 200 chalcedony
c -m -ginguro
ati
gm
PORPHYRY Cu-Au ma Au-Ag
0
20

felsic
volcanics polymetallic
Ag-Au
Volatiles
Composite magmatic-
meteoric fluids
m et
e o r i c w a te r s
CORBETT ai1534

Figure 1.4 Ore systems within subduction-related magmatic arc and back arc settings.

(Mitchell and Leach, 1991; Corbett and Leach, 1998) ppm Cl as reflected in fluid inclusion salinity studies
which lie within andesitic arcs, are driven by shallow (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein).
level porphyry Cu style intrusion heat sources related Giggenbach (1997) also noted the significantly higher
to deeper magmatic bodies, and feature more saline CO2 concentrations in andesitic magmatic arcs
fluids (figure 1.5). Whereas the New Zealand systems (Philippine) than continental rifts (New Zealand)
contain only 3-4% magmatic component such as and this CO2 features in arc-related low sulphidation
<1000-2000 ppm Cl, the Philippine systems contain epithermal deposits. Terry Leach demonstrated that
up to 50% magmatic component and >10,000-50,000 although there is a greater emphasis upon the New

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 3

 ARC BACK ARC
4 perched sulphate bicarbonate aquifier 4
solfatara acid sulphate-
3 bicarbonate 3
vadose zone
phreatic zone
2
neutral 2
eruption acid sulphide
c chloride
epithermal ori neutral breccia alteration
le two phase spring
1
r tab x Au-Ag mete atic chloride acid spring, 1
a te mixing agm zone
and silica
w m spring
sinter
sea level sea level
convective
heat transfer two phase
porphyry Cu zone

s
bicarbonate

te r
-1 -1
intrusions

wa
waters
m e t e o ric
-2 conductive convective -2

me
heat transfer zone

teo
ric
-3 -3

wa
s

te
r
-4 -4
rising chloride
waters
--5 --5

magma source
-6 -6

-7
degassing -7
magma

-8 -8

CORBETT ai1535

Figure 1.5 Comparison of subduction-related magmatic arc and back arc geothermal systems, drawn at the same scale, from data
within Corbett and Leach (1998).
Zealand geothermal systems in many published vary with deposit type and some mineralisation styles
exploration models, the Philippine geothermal systems will be prioritised higher than others in different
provide better analogies to many epithermal-porphyry exploration programs.
ore deposits. Hence, fluid mixing models, some of
which feature CO2, provide better mechanisms for 1.2.1 Evolution of terminology
bonanza Au deposition than boiling models (Leach and
Corbett, 2008; section 7.5). Waldemar Lindgren (1922) defined the term
epithermal as hydrothermal deposits “formed by
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBDUCTION ascending hot waters near the surface in or near
RELATED ORE SYSTEMS effusive rocks at relatively low temperatures and
pressures”, and subsequently placed limits upon
A classification, derived from analyses of many epithermal deposit formation as < 1000 m depth
exploration projects and mines, aids in the distinction and < 200°C temperature (Lindgren, 1933, p. 454-5).
of different Au-Cu deposit types which display As Lindgren’s classification (op cit) appeared to be
varying characteristics such as: zoned wall rock influenced by shallow level hot spring deposits, the
alteration, geochemical and geophysical properties term epithermal is now extended to much deeper
during mineral exploration, metallurgical responses crustal levels approaching the porphyry environment,
during treatment, and overall value (potential metal and so includes higher temperature deposits that some
grades and size). Linkages occur between deposit workers might have formerly termed mesothermal. The
types which are presented here (figures 1.1 & 1.4) as term ‘deep epithermal’ may be employed for deposits
points within a continuum of deposit types at varying such as low sulphidation epithermal quartz-sulphide
crustal levels and/or tectonic settings. It is therefore Au ± Cu mineralisation which are locally analogous to
important to distinguish different deposit types, early D veins (figure 1.4), in the classification of Gustafson
in any exploration program in order to consider the and Hunt (1975).
exploration implications of the ore type classification
described above. For instance, exploration methods The rise in Au price in the early 1980’s prompted

4 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

 TERMINOLOGY REFERENCE
Epithermal Lindgren, 1922; Buchanan,
1981
Enargite-gold Ashley, 1982

Hot spring gold Giles and Nelson, 1982;

deposits 1982, Nelson and Giles,
1885
High sulphur Low sulphur Bonham, 1986, 1988, 1989

Acid sulphate Adularia-sericite Hayba et al., 1985

Heald et al., 1987
High sulphidation Low sulphidation Hedenquist, 1987
(based upon oxidation not sulphidation state)
Alunite-kaolinite + Adularia-sericite Berger and Henley, 1989
pyrophyllite
Acid sulphate Porgera type intrusion-relat- Adularia-sericite Sillitoe, 1989
ed base metal bearing Au
High sulphidation Low sulphidation White and Hedenquist,
1990
High sulphidation Low sulphidation Sillitoe, 1993

High sulphidation Intrusion-related: Adularia-sericite Leach and Corbett, 1993,

quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu epithermal Au-Ag 1994, 1995; Corbett and
carbonate-base metal Au Leach, 1998; Corbett,
epithermal quartz Au 2002a, 2004
High sulphidation Intermediate sulphidation Low sulphidation Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2003
High sulphidation Epithermal baned Corbett, 2005a
chalcedony-
ginguro Au-Ag
Table 1.1 Summary of epithermal terminology evolution showing introduction of each new term.
renewed interest in epithermal Au-Ag deposits to became low and high sulphidation epithermal, initially
now also include many mined as bulk low grade open (Hedenquist, 1987) related to oxidation state, but
pit operations in addition to historic bonanza Au later (White and Hedenquist, 1990), based upon the
grade underground vein mines. Studies by Buchanan sulphidation state of specific ore minerals. Although
(1981) and Berger and Eimen (1983) in the western these terms continue to be used, this study also
US provided analyses of the characteristics of focuses upon the nature of ore fluid which provides
epithermal Au deposits and attempted to develop characteristic ore and gangue mineralogy along with
genetic frameworks to account for features such as zoned wall rock alteration as more applicable to
vertical zonation in geochemistry as well as the ore, distinguish deposit types in exploration (table 1.2).
gangue and alteration mineralogy, and the exploration
significance of these features. At the same time 1.2.1.1 Two low sulphidation epithermal deposit
analyses of active geothermal systems (Henley and groups
Ellis, 1983) contributed towards an understanding
of the environments in which epithermal deposits By the early 1990’s most published literature described
formed. Different classifications of ore deposit styles low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag veins as sulphide-
(table 1.1) emerged based upon wall rock alteration poor banded quartz ± adularia veins with laterally
and vein mineralogy as low and high sulphur, along zoned wall rock illite alteration, as recognised at
with local alkalic styles (Bonham, 1988). The former mines in Western US (Midas), Japan (Hisikari), New
two types, originally termed acid sulphate and Zealand (Waihi) and Drummond Basin, Australia
adularia-sericite (Hayba et al., 1985; Heald et al., 1987), (Pajingo), and compared these to the geothermal
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 5
studies of the back arc Taupo Volcanic Zone active transition in the Americas from underground mines, to
geothermal systems of New Zealand (Henley and the exploitation of rich supergene blankets to porphyry
Hedenquist, 1986). These deposits are herein classed Cu deposits, by early open pit operations using steam
as banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins (figure shovels and train lines (Chuquicamata, Chile from
1.1) and occupy only a small portion of the epithermal 1915, Bateman, 1950; Bingham Canyon, USA from
spectrum. 1906, Porter et al., 2012). An early categorisation of
a porphyry copper deposit is provided (from and
Working in Southwest Pacific rim magmatic arcs in the engineering perspective) by Parsons (1933) who
1980’s, Corbett (Porgera, Papua New Guinea; Fleming focused on “their huge size, particularly with respect
et al., 1986) and Leach, each identified sulphide-rich to horizontal dimensions; the relative uniformity
low sulphidation epithermal deposits which did not with which the copper minerals are disseminated
fit the standard low sulphidation banded vein models through the mass; and low Cu per-ton content of the
(above), and which Leach came to regard as analogous exploitable ore”.
to intrusion-related geothermal systems in the
Philippines magmatic arcs (Mitchell and Leach, 1991). Porphyry Cu deposits became significant economic
propositions in the southwestern USA and parts of
Consequently, in the early 1990’s, based upon South America as a result in advances in bulk mining
Southwest Pacific rim exploration studies, and Terry technologies after World War II. Geologists therefore
Leach’s geothermal experience in New Zealand sought to better understand these deposits as an aid
back arc and the Philippines arc environments, low to exploration. From the 1960’s synthesised studies
sulphidation Au-Ag deposits were divided into two (in Titley and Hicks, 1966; Beane and Titley, 1981;
groups (figures 1.1 & 1.4; table 1.1, Leach and Corbett, Titley, 1982) provided deposit descriptions and brought
1993, 1994, 1995; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett, together different disciplines in order to develop
2013b) developed in two fluid flow trends (figure 1.8). deposit models. Government sponsored work aided
1. The intrusion-related, sulphide-bearing, magmatic prospecting with an understanding of the weathered
arc Au mineralisation grades from broadly early, deep surface expression (Jerome, 1966; Blanchard, 1968),
crustal level and higher temperature, to late, shallow especially in view of the economic importance of
crustal level and lower temperature as: buried supergene enriched Cu blankets. Data acquired
• quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu, from exploration examples led to the development of
• carbonate-base metal Au (including polymetallic early geological models (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970,
Ag-Au veins in Latin America, Corbett, 2002a, Sillitoe, 1972), some with a component of paragenetic
2004, 2005a, 2013b), and sequences (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). The high value
• epithermal quartz Au (Leach and Corbett, 1995), of porphyry Cu deposits prompted continued interest
now slightly modified from the original term to as review papers sought to synthesise the progressively
account for the empirical dominance of high evolving understanding of porphyry Cu deposits
fineness free Au. (Titley and Beane, 1981; Titley, 1993; Corbett and
2. The sulphide-poor banded quartz veins, originally Leach, 1998; Cooke et al., 2002; Seedorff et al., 2005;
termed adularia-sericite style (Hayba et al, 1985), Sillitoe, 2010; Cooke et al., 2014 and many more). The
common in extensional rift or back arc settings and definition of porphyry Cu deposits with Au or Mo
listed above, are now termed epithermal banded variations is provided below (section 1.2.2.5), and the
chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins (Corbett, 2005a), in a detailed deposit description in section 5.
move to focus more upon descriptive names using the
critical gangue and ore mineralogy (Cooke and Deyel, 1.2.2 This terminology
2003). Mainly in Latin America, these deposits pass
down into the polymetallic Ag-Au veins as Ag-rich vein This section introduces the terminology used herein
equivalents of the carbonate-base metal Au deposits. to describe epithermal and porphyry deposits (figure
The recent intermediate sulphidation term (table 1.1) is 1.1) as an aid to the understanding of the exploration
considered below. tools - alteration, structure and breccias (sections 2-4)
, prior to the detailed description of each deposit
1.2.1.2 Porphyry Cu type (sections 5-8) and then prospecting marginal to
mineralisation (section 9).
The porphyry terminology came from descriptions
of a common ore type. While veins and supergene As classified above, epithermal deposits include
enriched caps to porphyry Cu deposits have been ore systems developed above the porphyry level.
worked since pre-history, the ‘porphyry copper era’ The primary aspect of epithermal classification
began as early as 1905-10 (Bateman, 1950) with the
6 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN HIGH AND LOW SULPHIDATION FLUIDS
High Sulphidation Low Sulphidation
magmatic
solfatara
travertine
boiling
spring
Au Epithermal quartz silica
ore system Au sinter
with zoned
alteration Cu CO2 rich
+ waters Chalcedony-ginguro
Au Au-Ag
epithermal
hot acid

dissociation of Carbonate-base metal Au

H2SO4 + HCl Cu ground magmatic-
to give H+ waters meteoric
fluids

Polymetallic Ag-Au
barren advanced
Quartz-sulphide

e rs
argillic alteration

s
Au±Cu

id

at
ic w

ral flu
m ete o r
disproportiation of magmatic SO2

neut
magmatic
s
4SO2 + 4H2O 3H2SO2 + H2S
volatiles ticl fluid

near
H2O, CO2 Acid sulphate
alteration
magma

SO2, H2O Steam heated

HCl, HF alteration
oxidised acidic fluid reduced near neutral fluid Oxidising low
S as SO2 S as H2S pH waters
CORBETT ai1576

Figure 1.6 Fluid flow paths for low and high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits (modified from Corbett and Leach, 1998).

distinguishes between low and high sulphidation Au-Ag bearing sulphides, rises, it may combine with
epithermal mineralisation styles developed from two varying quantities of shallower circulating meteoric
profoundly different evolving ore fluid types, which waters and other evolved fluids, which deposit much
might be simplistically considered to originate as of the gangue such as quartz, adularia or carbonate.
open or closed systems (figure 1.6). Low sulphidation The two low sulphidation epithermal deposit groups
fluids develop in an open system in equilibrium with introduced above are distinguished by the magmatic
the wall rocks, as rising near neutral magmatic fluids versus meteoric contents of the ore fluid. There is
are diluted by variable entrainment within circulating a significantly higher magmatic fluid component in
meteoric waters. By contrast, the fluids which deposit the intrusion-related sulphide-rich deposits typical
high sulphidation epithermal ores might be considered of arcs, and the stronger meteoric component in the
to rise from the magmatic source at depth as a closed sulphide-poor banded quartz vein deposits typical of
bubble, not in equilibrium with the wall rocks, and extensional settings. A comparison of figures 1.1, 1.4
evolve to take on an acidic character, prior to later and 1.5 illustrates the settings of the two groups of
cooling and neutralisation by wall rock reaction (section low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits in the two
2.2.4.4). Each epithermal mineralisation style might tectonic environments (arcs and back arc or rift).
now be defined as derived from a distinctly different
hydrothermal fluid and display characteristic ore and 1.2.2.1.1 Low sulphidation fluids
gangue mineralogy as well as wall rock alteration, rather
than the original definition based on the sulphidation The synthesis (Corbett and Leach, 1998) of studies
state of specific ore minerals. Confusion created by from the back arc Taupo Volcanic Zone geothermal
the incorrect application of the term intermediate in New Zealand (Henley and Ellis, 1983; Simmons
sulphidation is resolved below. and Brown, 2000a; Simpson et al., 2001 and references
therein) with Philippine arc geothermal systems
1.2.2.1 Low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag (Mitchell and Leach, 1991; Reyes, et al., 1993;
Giggenbach, 1997; Corbett and Leach, 1998) provides
Low sulphidiation epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation three fluid types (figure 1.7):
is deposited from evolving near neutral composite • Neutral chloride
magmatic-meteoric ore fluids in which S occurs as H2S. • Bicarbonate waters
In essence, as an evolving magmatic fluid, which hosts • Acid sulphate waters
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 7
 Low sulphidation High sulphidation
Fluid Dilute, S as H2S Saline S as SO2
Wall rock Local early propylitic with dominance zoned advanced argillic - argillic as vughy silica-
alteration of zoned argillic illite Gp with quartz, >alunite Gp->kaolin Gp->illite Gp, and abundant
carbonate, pyrite pyrite
Ore Low sulphide < 2% (locally <5%) Enargite-pyrite with low temperature luzonite
minerals Pyrite, sphalerite (variable Fe:Zn), galena, and varying to covellite, chalcocite, bornite,
chalcopyrite, Ag sulphosalts chalcopyrite at depth

Economic Au>Ag less common Cu Zn Bi Te Au>Ag+Cu

metals
Au Generally good Good in oxide ores
metallurgy poor where Au encapsulated in fine As Enargite hosts refractory Au
pyrite Uncommon good Cu ores at depth

Gold Variable with style of low sulphidation In SW Pacific Ag-poor

fineness including high and low fineness end Latin America Ag-bearing and locally Ag>>Au
Ag:Au members
Controls Ore shoots controlled by lithology, Permeability by host rock structure and dome/
structure, styles and mechanisms of Au breccias
deposition

Table 1.2 Comparison of low and high sulphidation epithermal, modified from Corbett & Leach (1998).

kaolin, cristobalite,
alunite, pyrite sulphur solfatara

acid sulphate neutral chlorite spring

spring
chlorite, carbonate,
water table
illite-smectite + kaolin alteration
acid sulphate waters
eruption breccia,
*
bicarbonate waters travertine
H2 S acid sulphate cap,
mixing silica sinter, acid
acid sulphate waters sulphate spring

* CO2

bicarbonate waters felsic

CO2
*
mixing
tuff
me

or
te

ic
w a te rs
*
te
rs

a
quartz, K-feldspar (adularia), m ete o ri c w
chlorite, illite, carbonate, pyrite alteration
quartz, K-feldspar (adularia),
chlorite, illite, carbonate, pyrite alteration
me

neutral chloride waters or

te

ic
w a te rs

neutral chloride waters

CORBETT ai1536

Figure 1.7 Evolved low sulphidation style hydrothermal fluids in magmatic arc and back arc settings.

8 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

 HIGH SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag
steam heated
alteration permeable
RIFT phreatic
diatreme horizon
breccia
sinter
silica EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A

BRECCIA C O
B B
S
LITHOLOGICAL
A
STRUCTURAL B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

*
SEDIMENT HOSTED B et

m
CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au eor
REPLACEMENT Au ic w a t e r

*
MnO2 A
POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu
B
limestone marl S
WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
MINERALIZATION S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
Banded tension vein REPLACEMENT FLUIDS
Fissure vein Rising mineralised
EXOSKARN magmatic fluid
S Sheeted vein
Circulating meteoric-
Stockwork vein dominant water
Breccia fill Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
Lithological control
B - bicarbonate
Disseminated ENDOSKARN O - oxygenated

* Fluid mixing
Corbett Model_2013F
Rising volatiles

Figure 1.8 Low sulphidation epithermal Au fluid flow trends recognised in different terrains.
In path A, typically in compressional magmatic island arcs of the Southwest Pacific rim, ore fluids deposit mineralisation in order
characterised as: quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu, overprinted by carbonate-base metal Au which in turn evolves to epithermal quartz Au.
In path B developed in strongly extensional settings such as the Sierra Madre of Mexico, Southern Peru or Argentine Patagonia, quartz-
sulphide Au evolves to the polymetallic Ag-Au variant of carbonate-base metal Au, and then banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins
as substantial meteoric waters deposit chalcedony-adularia and the sulphide vein portion evolves to form ginguro bands. Chalcedony-
ginguro Au-Ag veins also occur in the SW Pacific where they bottom as base metal sulphide-rich quartz veins.
Fluid flow path C represents the rare case where a high sulphidation fluid might become sufficiently neutralised to form a lower
sulphidation fluid and deposit ores typical of carbonate-base metal Au and epithermal quartz Au mineralisation.

Neutral fluids which rise by convective flow from 2000a), where Terry Leach (pers. commun.) noted fluid
buried magmatic source rocks contain CO2 and Cl, mixing provided the deposition of anomalous gold. At
in far greater proportions in arc (Philippine) than rift shallow levels in the vadose zone (aerated region above
(New Zealand) environments (above and Corbett the saturated phreatic zone, figure 1.5) H2S gas derived
and Leach, 1998; Simmons and Browne, 2000a; from the deeper two-phase zone is oxidised to produce
Giggenbach, 1997). In arc environments deep acid sulphate waters, which contain sulphuric
hydrothermal fluids rise and react with the wall rock acid, while oxidation of H2S in the atmosphere
to provide alteration assemblages grading from potassic produces native sulphur and steam (Corbett and Leach,
to propylitic at depth and chlorite-zeolite at 1998). Thus, there are two end member (bicarbonate
shallow levels (Corbett and Leach, 1998). In shallow and acid sulphate) evolved waters derived from the
level outflow zones, when vapour pressure of the original neutral chloride precursor (figure 1.7). The
rising fluid eventually exceeds confining pressure, bicarbonate waters, which are more abundant in arc
water vapour and other gasses (mainly CO2 and lesser than rift settings and associated with the formation
H2S) exsolve from the hydrothermal fluid. Then in of carbonate-base metal Au deposits, show empirical
the two-phase zone, absorption of CO2 by ground relationship with high level felsic (dacite) domes as a
waters produces moderately low pH bicarbonate possible link to the magmatic source for CO2 and H2S.
waters (Corbett and Leach, 1998). In magmatic arcs the There is an exploration implication that elevated
abundant bicarbonate waters may vent to form surficial Au grades result from the effective destabilization of
travertine deposits, and are apparent on the margins of bisulphide complexes which transport Au, as oxidising
the rift Ohaaki-Broadlands geothermal system in New low pH bicarbonate and acid sulphate waters mix with
Zealand (Hedenquist, 1990; Simmons and Browne, rising ore fluids (section 7.5; Leach and Corbett, 2008).

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 9

 B A
LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag

RIFT phreatic
breccia
sinter
EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A
B B
O S

A
B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

C
*
B et

m
CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au eor
ic w a t e r

*
MnO2 POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu

WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
D FLUIDS
Rising mineralised
magmatic fluid
Circulating meteoric-
dominant water
Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
B - bicarbonate
O - oxygenated
Rising volatiles
Corbett Model_2013A1

Figure 1.9 Low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation styles develop within magmatic arcs as the ore fluid evolves from early to late
and deep to shallow crustal levels.
A - Modified figure 1.1 to illustrate the fluid flow and paragenetic sequence for the formation of mineralisation styles.
B- Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation is characterised by quartz and coarse crystalline auriferous pyrite, from Bilimoia, Papua New
Guinea.
C - Carbonate base-metal Au comprises early pyrite (of the quartz-sulphide Au + Cu event) followed sphalerite (here dark Fe-rich) with
lesser galena and later carbonate, here as open space breccia fill, from Kelian, Indonesia.
D - Epithermal quartz Au mineralisation is characterised by bonanza grade high fineness yellow free gold with quartz and green
roscoelite (V illite) gangue, from Porgera Zone VII, Papua New Guinea.

The term steam heated is commonly used in the

geological literature to describe the evolved waters and 1.2.2.2.1 Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu
associated wall rock alteration in both shallow crustal with local As, Hg and Sb mineralisation varies from
level low and high sulphidation epithermal regimes. Cu-rich at depth to Au-rich at elevated crustal settings,
However, here steam heated is reserved for alteration and is the earliest deposited of the sulphide bearing
in the uppermost portions of high sulphidation low sulphidation epithermal Au styles, where it may
epithermal Au-Ag deposits whereas acid sulphate display an association with intrusion source rocks
describes the near surficial acid waters and associated (figures 1.1 & 1.4; table 1.2; Leach and Corbett, 1993,
alteration in low sulphidation epithermal terrains 1994, 1995; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett, 2013b).
(figures 1.1, 1.4, 1.6. & 1.7). These deposits occur over a considerable
vertical range and so include very deep level batholith
1.2.2.2 Styles of low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag intrusion-related quartz-sulphide deposits regarded
mineralisation as orogenic by some workers (Lang and Baker,
2001), through to mineralisation deposited within
Different styles of low sulphidation Au-Ag typical epithermal crustal levels (Nolans & Mt Wright
mineralisation are derived from two hydrothermal fluid Australia, Round Mountain, Nevada), and rising to near
flow trends which broadly equate to compressional surficial settings such as the giant Ladolam deposit,
magmatic arcs and more strongly extensional settings, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea (Corbett et al., 2001 and
such as back arc environments, or intra-arc rifts, below). Gold occurs in association with sulphides.
but not restricted to these settings (figure 1.8). As Mineralogy is dominated by quartz with (auriferous)
mentioned earlier, the terminology is introduced here, pyrite, the latter varying to include low temperature
while deposit types, associated wall rock alteration and marcasite and arsenean pyrite at a shallow crustal
the exploration implications of this classification are level, while at a deep crustal level sulphides include
considered in detail in later chapters. high temperature pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and locally

10 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

specularite/magnetite. Quartz varies from chalcedony mineralisation and display strong associations with
or opal at shallow crustal levels, to mostly slow cooled felsic high level intrusions, typically rhyolite-dacite
coarser grained crystalline or comb quartz in vein domes, and also phreatomagmatic breccias for the
deposits developed at deeper crustal levels. Quartz- carbonate-base metal Au deposits. Extensional listric
sulphide veins are transitional to many D veins formed faults dominate as settings for polymetallic Ag-Au
marginal to porphyry intrusions (in the classification of vein deposits. These deposits are characterised by
Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) but not including enargite Au-Ag in association with pyrite-galena-sphalerite
veins described by those workers (figure 1.4). Variable and lesser chalcopyrite and tennantite-tetrahedrite
Au grades include supergene Au enriched ores (Section with gangue dominated by quartz-carbonate. The
7.6.2). elevated Ag content of polymetallic Ag-Au deposits
is commonly hosted within Ag sulphosalts such as
1.2.2.2.2 Carbonate-base metal Au, tennantite-tetrahedrite (freibergite) at deeper crustal
originally defined in the southwest Pacific rim (Leach levels rising to argentite-acanthite at elevated settings.
and Corbett, 1993 1994; 1995; Corbett and Leach The polymetallic Ag-Au deposits, which may also be
1998), and later recognised elsewhere, including enriched in barite, display an argentite-acanthite rich
the related (table 1.4) polymetallic Ag-Au deposits epithermal end member and, with the addition of
of Latin America (Corbett, 2002a, 2004, 2005a), chalcedony from meteoric waters, evolve at high crustal
have been some of the most important Au and level extensional settings into banded chalcedony-
Ag producers in those regions and host significant ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation. As illustrated in figure
unexploited resources. The carbonate-base metal 1.9 the carbonate-base metal Au deposits evolve to
Au and polymetallic Ag-Au deposits contain early epithermal quartz Au mineralisation.
lower precious metal grade quartz-sulphide Au±Cu

B EPITHERMAL Au
HIGH SULPHIDATION A C
LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag
steam heated
alteration permeable
RIFT phreatic
diatreme horizon
breccia
sinter
silica EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A
B B
BRECCIA O S
LITHOLOGICAL
A
STRUCTURAL B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

*
SEDIMENT HOSTED B et
m

CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au eor

REPLACEMENT Au ic w a t e r

*
MnO2
POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu

limestone marl S

WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
MINERALIZATION S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
Banded tension vein REPLACEMENT FLUIDS
Fissure vein Rising mineralised
EXOSKARN magmatic fluid
S Sheeted vein
Circulating meteoric-
Stockwork vein dominant water
Breccia fill Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
Lithological control
B - bicarbonate
Disseminated ENDOSKARN O - oxygenated

* Fluid mixing
Corbett Model_2013E
Rising volatiles

Figure 1.10 Two low sulphidation epithermal bonanza Au end members.

A - Graphic combines the two fluid flow trends in figures 1.9 and 1.11 which evolve to host bonanza Au.
B - In magmatic arcs, epithermal quartz Au mineralisation is characterised by high fineness free Au and little gangue, from Porgera
Zone VII, Papua New Guinea
C - In strongly extensional settings such as back-arcs or rifts, banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation contains low fineness Au
with abundant Ag, typically within the black sulphidic ginguro bands, which are locally interlayered with the poorly mineralised banded
chalcedony, local adularia and quartz after platy calcite gangue, from Hishikari, Japan, 948 g/t Au & 3,720 g/t Ag.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 11

 Deposit type Typical Characteristic
Ag:Au ratio
Quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu 1 Quartz and Fe sulphides typically pyrite, varying to marcasite
/ arsenean pyrite at high levels. Chalcopyrite specularite or
pyrrhotite common at depth.
Carbonate-base metal Au 2-10 Fe/Mn/Mg/Ca carbonate with pyrite, sphalerite>galena and
quartz. MnO if weathered.
Polymetallic Ag-Au Commonly >100 Banded veins with layers of quartz, Fe/Mn/Mg/Ca
carbonate, and sulphides as pyrite, sphalerite, galena. MnO
if weathered.
Epithermal quartz Au <1 High grade, high fineness, free Au, commonly with quartz
and locally banded chalcedony.
Epithermal chalcedony- 2-10 commonly Banded veins comprising interlayered chalcedony, ginguro
ginguro Au ± Ag >10 and local adularia and quartz pseudomorphing platy calcite.
Sediment hosted <1 Impure limestone replaced by siliceous arsenean pyrite
replacement Au commonly as breccias and with styolites. Jasper common.

Table 1.3 Field characteristics of different low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag styles.

Carbonate-base metal Au Polymetallic Ag-Au

Metal Au-rich Generally Ag > Au local Zn

Au fineness Moderate Low
Form Breccias, fracture/veins local Generally as fissure veins,
fissure veins commonly in listric faults
Relationship to other deposits Significant early quartz- Minor early quartz sulphide
sulphide. Evolve to chalcedony-ginguro in
Overprinted by epithermal higher portions of strongly dilatant
quartz Au±Ag systems
Setting Magmatic island arcs Extensional arc and back arc
Relation to intrusions Many deposits associated with Felsic domes common at prospect
diatreme flow dome complexes, scale
also marginal to intrusions
Dilution May be stoped out by late Common dilution of ore grade by
breccias post-mineral quartz

Ore fluid transport Bisulphide dominant Chloride locally important

Table 1.4 Essential differences between the low sulphidation carbonate-base metal Au and polymetallic Ag-Au deposits.

Consequently, there are two low sulphidation

epithermal end members at shallowest crust levels 1.2.2.2.3 Epithermal quartz Au
readily distinguished at by mineralogy and Ag:Au ratio mineralisation (originally defined as epithermal quartz
(figures 1.1 & 1.9; tables 1.3-5). Epithermal quartz Au-Ag in Leach and Corbett, 1995; Corbett and Leach
Au mineralisation is characterised by high fineness 1998) typically forms at shallow crustal levels within
free Au and commonly very little gangue, while magmatic arcs overprinting quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu
banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation and carbonate-base metal Au deposits, and hosts high
is characterised by high Ag in ginguro bands and fineness locally bonanza grade free Au typically with
abundant gangue of chalcedony and quartz and other very little gangue (described in section 7.2.1.3). Some
minerals such as adularia (figure 1.9). deposits comprise high fineness Au within banded
12 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual
 Characteristic Epithermal quartz Au Epithermal chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag

Visible Au Abundant Present

Ore mineralogy Free Au local Te and Bi minerals Electrum, silver sulphosalts and Ag-bearing sulphides
local Se minerals
Au fineness High Low
Ag:Au ratio Low High
Gangue quantity Commonly low Generally high gangue which may dilute ore
Gangue type Quartz, local clay or chlorite Banded chalcedony with local quartz pseudomorphing
calcite and adularia. Common post-mineral calcite
Setting Magmatic arc Extensional settings which are most common in rifts,
(back arc and intra arc)
Associated Commonly overprint low Commonly pass downwards to polymetallic Ag-Au in
mineralisation sulphidation quartz-sulphide Latin America or base metal sulphides in the SW Pacific
and carbonate base metal Au

Table 1.5 Comparison of the two end members of low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation.

A LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag

RIFT phreatic
breccia
sinter
EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A
B B
O S

A
B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

*
B et
m

eor
B
CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au ic w a t e r

*
MnO2 POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu

WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
C FLUIDS
Rising mineralised
magmatic fluid
Circulating meteoric-
dominant water
Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
B - bicarbonate
O - oxygenated
Rising volatiles
Corbett Model_2013B1

Figure 1.11 Evolution of low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation styles within strongly extensional settings such as back arcs or rifts
(Sierra Madre of Mexico, Southern Peru or Argentine Patagonia).
A - In strongly extensional settings the banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins develop as the ore fluid evolves and combines with
meteoric waters which deposit chalcedony, adularia and quartz after platy calcite interlayered in veins, such as this example from
Golden Cross, New Zealand. Note the symmetry in the bands and central open space as these veins grow inwards as open space fill.
B - Some polymetallic Ag-Au deposits evolve to host late stage mineralisation characterised by argentite-acanthite, pyrite and white
Fe-poor sphalerite, such as this example from Juevos Verde, Argentine Patagonia.
C - Polymetallic Ag-Au mineralisation is characterised by pyrite (as part of the early quartz-sulphide Au + Cu component, locally with
barite) along with sphalerite (here yellow low to moderate Fe), galena and Ag sulphosalts with gangue of quartz and carbonate (here
rhodochrosite). This sample from Caylloma mine, Peru, assayed 30,00g/t Ag, contained mostly within dark freibergite, the Ag-rich
tetrahedrite.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 13

chalcedony-adularia veins (Sleeper, Nevada; Gosowong, low sulphidation epithermal quartz-sulphide style
Indonesia), while others are strongly anomalous in ore fluids from magmatic source rocks at depth to
Te (Emperor, Fiji), locally with Bi such as quartz- higher crustal levels where they react with permeable
tellurobismuthite (Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea) and impure limestone and mineral deposition occurs
chlorite gangue (Cracow, Australia). by sulphidation reactions (Leach, 2004). These
deposits are characterised by microfine refractory Au
1.2.2.2.4 Epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro encapsulated within typically arsenean pyrite which
Au-Ag varies from pseudomorphous lithological replacement
mineralisation (figures 1.10 & 1.11) develops by to breccia fill and feature anomalous Hg and Sb, in
the combination of mineralised ginguro bands of addition to As, as an indication of the interpreted
magmatic origin, with bands of gangue deposited from formation at elevated crustal settings.
dominantly meteoric waters, comprising chalcedony
(low temperature quartz), adularia (as low temperature 1.2.2.3 High sulphidation epithermal Au miner-
K-feldspar) locally with platy calcite pseudomorphed alisation
by quartz (Corbett, 2005a). Chalcedony is deposited
from cooling fluids at a higher temperature than The high sulphidation epithermal Au terminology
evolution from amorphous silica and may evolve to developed from a focus on the high sulphur content, to
quartz over time (section 2.1.7). Veins typically form the sulphidation state of the ore minerals (above), but
in strongly extensional settings such as back arcs and might now be better defined in the field by exploration
intra-arc rifts. The term ginguro is derived from the geologists on the basis of the characteristic zoned
early Japanese miners who recognised best Au-Ag alteration developed by the reaction of hot acidic fluids
occurred within bands or breccia fill of black metallic with wall rocks and enargite-bearing ore minerals with
material comprising fine pyrite, Ag sulphosalts such as barite-alunite gangue. The hot, acidic, magmatically-
argentite-acanthite, along with electrum and gold with derived, ore fluid is saline, hosts sulphur as SO2 and
minor chalcopyrite. Sado gold mine began production is extremely oxidising (below). There is a variation in
in 1452 and for many years the shogunate of Japan was Ag content, from virtually absent in most SW Pacific
based on Sado Island at the source of income. These deposits, to Ag-rich and locally dominant in value
deposits are therefore generally Ag-rich. over Au in some Latin American deposits, although
the terminology herein focuses upon Au. Cu is locally
In Latin America many polymetallic Ag-Au deposits economic as Cu-rich, As-poor, sulphides (covellite-
are capped by epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro chalcocite) dominate at depth.
Au-Ag veins and some SW Pacific rim epithermal
banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins pass The process for the formation of high sulphidation
downwards to sub-economic base metal bearing epithermal Au deposits varies dramatically from
quartz + carbonate veins similar to polymetallic Au-Ag low sulphidation ore fluids. A fluid rich in magmatic
mineralisation (Waihi, New Zealand; Kupol, Eastern volatiles (SO2, CO2, H2S HCl and HF), and including
Russia). Epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro vein brine, is interpreted (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and
systems are recognised in active near surficial settings references therein) to vent from a magmatic source
as hot spring deposits and may display an association at depth and rise rapidly up a dilatant structure to an
with eruption breccia pipes (section. 4.4.6). elevated crustal setting without significant interaction
with ground waters or wall rocks, essentially as a
1.2.2.2.5 Sediment hosted replacement Au bubble. This closed system is diametrically opposed
deposits occur throughout the Pacific rim and so to the open system involved in the formation of low
a derivation of the ‘sediment-hosted disseminated sulphidation epithermal deposits. In the formation of
precious metal deposit’ terminology (Bagby and high sulphidation epithermal deposits, the volatile-rich
Berger, 1985, Berger and Bagby, 1991) provides fluid, which would have been pressurised and near
a preferred (Cooke and Deyel, 2003) descriptive neutral pH at porphyry levels, becomes progressively
term, rather than the commonly used Carlin-style depressurised as it rises rapidly, like a bubble, up the
terminology (Cline et al., 2005 and references therein), host structure causing volatiles to progressively come
named after the district in Nevada from where these out of solution. As the temperature of the rising
deposits were originally well documented. Sediment fluid falls below 400°C, vapour phase magmatic SO2,
hosted replacement Au deposits are now interpreted exsolved from the depressurised fluid, undergoes
(Leach, 2004) to develop at elevated crustal settings by disproportionation to yield H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) and
a combination (Corbett and Leach, 1998) of several H2S (Rye et al., 1992). Consequently, an originally hot
features. Dilatant structures facilitate transport of near neutral fluid becomes progressively more acidic

14 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

 A

andesite

fiamme tuff Mineralisation B

Vughy (residual) silica

Silica-alunite

Pyrophyllite - diaspore
structure
Dickite-kaolinite ± illite
CORBETT ai1674

C D E

F H G

Figure 1.12 High sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation is associated with characteristic zoned advanced argillic alteration grading
outwards from the core of the alteration system.
A – Graphic illustrates the localisation of a high sulphidation epithermal system at the intersection of a feeder structure and permeable
lithology which then controls fluid flow (see figure 1.1) and alteration zonation. Mineralisation overprints the competent residual vughy
silica.
B - Vughy silica at the centre of the advanced argillic alteration zone, from Sappes, Greece.
C - Silica-alunite grading outwards from the centre, from Sappes, Greece.
D - Pyrophyllite-diaspore in the outer portion of the advanced argillic alteration, from Sappes, Greece.
E - Dickite-kaolinite grading outwards to illite then more marginal smectite discernible as a swelling clay as the argillic halo to advanced
argillic alteration, from Sappes, Greece.
F - Mineralisation post-dates alteration as breccia fill (black) enargite with additional (white) alunite, from Nena, Papua New Guinea.
G - Disseminated enargite-pyrite within vughy silica, from Mt Kasi, Fiji.
H - Enargite-pyrite vein cuts vughy silica, from Cerro Quema, Panama.

as it rises and so by the stage it has reached epithermal Wafi-Golpu, Papua New Guinea).
levels it might be characterised by a pH of 0-2 and
temperature of 250-300°C. This environment in which In the epithermal regime the hot acidic fluid is
fluid evolution occurs provides a distinct gap between progressively cooled and neutralised by wall rock
any high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit and its reaction to provide the characteristic zoned advanced
underlying intrusion source (figures 1.1 & 1.4), in the argillic hydrothermal alteration grading outwards
order of several hundres metres. The exploration from residual (vughy) silica to mineral assemblages
implication is that high sulphidation epithermal Au dominated by alunite, pyrophyllite, dickite and so on
deposits do not immediately overlie source intrusions with variations described in detail later (section 2.2.4.4;
as illustrated in some ore deposit models. However, figure 1.12). The hot acidic fluid breaks up into two
many high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits may phases. A faster moving volatile-rich phase reacts
sit on top of older intrusions, possibly telescoped in with the wall rocks to provide the characteristic zoned
conditions of rapid uplift and erosion (Caspiche, Chile; advanced argillic alteration by progressive wall rock
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 15
reaction. The slower liquid-rich phase deposits later fluids responsible for kaolin alteration styles commonly
Au-Ag mineralisation within sulphides comprising collapse into deeper levels in the hydrothermal system
pyrite and enargite, or luzonite, its low temperature where they might mix with rising ore fluids and
polymorph, along with barite-alunite gangue discussed promote the development of high precious metal grade
in detail later (section 8.3; figure 1.12). At epithermal mineralisation discussed herein.
crustal levels hydrothermal fluid flow in the wall rocks
is controlled by permeable lithologies, breccias or 1.2.2.4 Does intermediate sulphidation exist?
structure (figure 1.1, section 8).
The acidic fluids associated with high sulphidation
The early 1980’s term ‘acid sulphate, which is now epithermal Au deposits locally become cooled and
replaced by high sulphidation for epithermal Au neutralised to form lower sulphidation states late in
deposits of that type, is maintained for kaolin-alunite the paragenetic sequence, and/or at the margins of
bearing blankets of alteration developed near the some high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits (fluid
palaeo surface as caps to low sulphidation Au-Ag flow path C in figure 1.8). This has been described for
deposits (section 2.2.4.5). Similar near palaeo surficial Link Zone at the margin of the Wafi high sulphidation
caps to high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits Au deposit, Papua New Guinea (section 8.6.6; Leach,
are termed steam heated alteration, characterised by 1999) and at El Indio mine district, Chile (section
cristobalite, kaolin and powdery alunite and basal silica 8.6.1; Corbett and Leach, unpubl. reports, 2000 in
ledges (figure 1.1; section 2.2.4.5). Near surficial acidic Heberlein, 2008). At the Viento vein system (figure

A B
Dilational
ore environments shoot 4

link B
flexure
structures shoot 3 C

C
shoot 2 D
El Indio Mine
3965 level
0 100m Viento veins
El Indio
veins

shoot 1 E
Campana D
o
uan
Paih

fluid flow

mined
F
Faults 0 250m

Copper veins
Gold veins
CORBETT ai1672a

Figure 1.13 Transition from high to lower sulphidation at the El Indio-Viento veins, Chile, showing the trend in mineralogy in space and
time.
A - Sketch map of the El Indio-Viento vein system showing the sigmoidal loop mapped by Stan Caddy at El Indio, from Jannas et al.
(1990), and the Viento veins with ore shoots, from Corbett unpubl. reports (2000) in Heberlein (2008).
B - Quartz-Au (shoot 4).
C - Quartz-rhodochrosite-sphalerite-galena (shoots 2 & 3).
D - Enargite-luzonite (mined & shoot 1).
E - Banded enargite-pyrite ore at the El Indio veins shown in green on the graphic.
F - Bonanza quartz-Au El Indio ore shown in red in the graphic.

16 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

1.13), El Indio, there is a progressive change along alteration. The carbonate-base metal Au deposits are
strike in ore mineralogy, from typical high sulphidation characterised by a range of sphalerite compositions
enargite-luzonite in the south, to carbonate-base metal and colour, not restricted to low Fe honey coloured
Au style (pyrite, galena, sphalerite and rhodochrosite) sphalerite (section 7.2.1.2.1), and some deposits
in the centre and epithermal quartz Au (quartz with contain pyrrhotite or chalcopyrite, all not consistent
high fineness free Au) in the north, all overprinting with the intermediate sulphidation definition above.
advanced argillic alteration of the high sulphidation Au For instance the important examples (described as
event (figure 1.13; Corbett and Leach, unpubl. reports, intermediate sulphidation by Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2000 in Heberlein, 2008). Similarly, the adjacent El 2003), Porgera, Papua New Guinea and Kelian,
Indio veins are zoned in time as an early copper stage, Indonesia, each feature black Fe-rich sphalerite and
transitional stage and later gold stage (Jannas, 1995 pyrrhotite (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Furthermore,
in Heberlein, 2008) as the bonanza quartz Au event the carbonate-base metal Au deposits are characterised
overprints the enargite-bearing Cu event (section by argillic hydrothermal alteration derived from the
8.6.1). These are examples of fluid evolution from interaction of a typical near neutral low sulphidation
high to lower sulphidation both overprinting in time epithermal fluid with the wall rocks, not the advanced
and marginal to the high sulphidation system. Typical argillic as would be expected in the definition above.
carbonate-base metal Au and epithermal quartz Au The description of carbonate-base metal Au deposits
mineralogy also overprint advanced argillic alteration as quartz-poor intermediate sulphidation by Sillitoe and
in settings of fluid evolution from high to lower Hedenquist (2003) is similarly incorrect (see quartz in
sulphidation at Orcopampa (section 8.6.2; Salazar et al., figure 7.15, Corbett and Leach, 1998). Many deposits
2009) and the La Zanja districts in Peru (section 8.6.3; described as intermediate sulphidation in the geological
Corbett, unpubl. reports, 2014). literature have formed within a typical low sulphidation
fluid flow trend not the evolution from high to lower
The term intermediate sulphidation (Einaudi et sulphidation.
al., 2003), was defined as ores comprising (low
temperature) Fe-poor sphalerite, tennantite-tetrahedrite Consequently, as is the custom in science, this study
and lacking pyrrhotite (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003), uses the first published terminology for the large
developed as a stage in the fluid evolution from group of deposits categorised as carbonate-base metal
high to low sulphidation, and therefore overprinting Au, (Leach and Corbett, 1993, 1994, 1995; Corbett
high sulphidation advanced argillic alteration, similar and Leach, 1998), and including the Ag-rich variant,
to the examples described above. Using a similar polymetallic Ag-Au (Corbett, 2002a), each with wall
sulphide-bearing and sulphide-poor distinction in rock argillic alteration.
Nevada by John (2001), to that previously defined in
the SW Pacific rim for low sulphidation epithermal 1.2.2.5 Porphyry Cu mineralisation
deposits (Leach and Corbett, 1993, 1995, Corbett and
Leach,1998), the intermediate sulphidation terminology The term porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits which
has been extended (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) came about from mining, has persisted as these
to include the entire suite of sulphide-bearing low deposits represent attractive exploration targets,
sulphidation epithermal deposits previously classified typically as high total value, bulk mining, low metal
as low sulphidation carbonate-base metal Au (Leach grade open pit operations, although many are also
and Corbett, 1993,1995; Corbett and Leach,1998) worked as underground mines. While the term
and including the Ag-rich variant, polymetallic Ag-Au porphyry Cu herein implies some Au and Mo may be
deposits (Corbett, 2002a). present, mention is made where these add significant
value.
The large group of carbonate-base metal Au
(including polymetallic Ag-Au) deposits should not Definitions of porphyry Cu deposits in current use
be categorised as intermediate sulphidation. They are focus upon the porphyritic texture of dominantly
derived from a sulphide-rich low sulphidation fluid calc-alkaline intrusions, which host Cu ± Au ± Mo
which has evolved through two low sulphidation mineralisation associated with sulphides (pyrite-
fluid flow paths, preceded by quartz-sulphide Au + chalcopyrite-bornite) as disseminations, breccia fill and
Cu and followed by either epithermal quartz Au or mostly within stockwork and sheeted quartz-sulphide
chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation, as illustrated veins (figure 1.14). Best mineralisation may occur in the
in fluid flow paths A and B in figure 1.8. Intermediate upper margins of plutons or apophyses of vertically
sulphidation deposits are derived from the fluid attenuated spine-like stocks derived from deeper
flow path C in figure 1.8, overprinting earlier high magmatic source rocks and rising to depths of 1 - 2
sulphidation systems with associated advanced argillic
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 17
 A C

B D

Figure 1.14 Some characteristics of porphyry Cu-Au deposits discussed in detail in section 5.
A - Typical porphyritic host rock, Woodlark Is., Papua New Guinea.
B - Stockwork (M style) laminated quartz-magnetite veins, from Copper Hill Australia.
C - Stockwork of several overprinting vein events from the Ridgeway porphyry , Australia.
D - Wallrock porphyry as interpreted sheeted veins outside the source intrusion, Cadia Hill, Australia.
km below the palaeo surface. While porphyry deposits compositions and display variations in form Corbett
typically display characteristic paragenetic sequences et al., 2009). Au-rich variants, termed porphyry Cu-
of zoned hydrothermal alteration and vein styles, best Au deposits are recognised in many settings (Sillitoe,
metal grades are associated with those systems which 1993, 2000). Some workers have focused upon K-rich
feature multiple intrusions and hence polyphasal intrusion compositions with Au mineralisation (Müller
mineralisation events, although post-mineral intrusions and Groves, 1993, 2000, 2016), while others the
may stope out ore. (figure 5.1 section 5). influence of oceanic crust in their formation (Cooke
et al., 2002; 2014), and arc reversal and remelting
This work expands upon existing porphyry definitions or oceanic crust (Solomon, 1990). Gold porphyry
with reference to the exploration implications of deposits, although with local anomalous Cu and Mo,
structure and the paragenetic sequence porphyry might be distinguished as those mined for only Au,
alteration and mineralisation expanded from earlier as the primary mineralisation, or a possible overprint
work by Corbett and Leach (1998). Dilatant fracture (Fort Knox, Alaska, section 5.3.2.3). Suggested Sn and
systems host sheeted quartz-sulphide veins which W-rich porphyry styles (Seedorff et al., 2005) would
transport mineralisation from magmatic source rocks need to display porphyry alteration and mineralisation
at depth to higher crustal level cooler sites of mineral styles in order to be included in this class.
deposition. Porphyry Cu deposits display characteristic
hydrothermal alteration which is zoned in space and The term ‘wallrock porphyry deposits’ (Newcrest
time analysed as a major component of this study Mining Staff, 1996) has been used for Au-rich porphyry
(section 5). This zoned hydrothermal alteration, Cu-Au style mineralisation developed wholly within the
along with marginal veins and pebble dykes may wall rocks outside the source intrusion, which may not
be used as vectors towards buried porphyry targets have been identified, as different to the more limited
(section 9). Ore hosting quartz-sulphide veins are also mineralisation normally documented extending from
characterised as different vein styles which consistently a mineralised porphyry into the adjacent wall rocks
display the same paragenetic sequence of formation. (Cadia Hill & Cadia East, Australia; Gaby, Ecuador;
Spine-like mineralised stocks may cluster above more some Maricunga belt occurrences, figure 5.2). Some
deeply buried magma sources commonly aligned along deposits classed as Au porphyry might represent
regional structures (Goonumbla & Cadia, Australia). intrusion wall rock hosted deep epithermal low
sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu mineralisation.
While Mo is recognised in many porphyry Cu deposits,
a separate group of porphyry Mo deposits (White et
al., 1981) are associated with more granitic porphyry

18 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

1.2.2.6 Skarn style to porphyry Cu-Au, commonly as wallrock
porphyry Cu-Au. High sulphidation epithermal fluids
Skarn deposits defined by the characteristic calc- may overprint earlier porphyry Cu intrusions (Golpu
silicate mineralogy (Einaudi et al., 1981; Meinert, 2000; porphyry, Wafi, Papua New Guinea; Hayward et al.,
Meinert et al. 2005 and references therein) mostly 2011; Menzies et al., 2013), but there should be a
develop by the metasomatic replacement of carbonate- physical separation between the high sulphidation Au
bearing rocks and display paragenetic similarities to deposit and its source intrusion at depth.
porphyry alteration and mineralisation (Corbett and
Leach, 1998) with prograde and retrograde phases Apparent magmatic arc mineralisation occurs in belts
often overprinted by epithermal mineralisation, known for orogenic mineralisation such as Yukon-
discussed in detail later (section 6). Alaska terrain, where the White project (MacKenzie et
al., 2010) displays ore (auriferous pyrite) and alteration
1.2.2.7 Linkages between deposit types (K-feldspar-specularite) mineralogical typical of
intrusion-related deep epithermal quartz-sulphide Au
Linkages or transitions exist between most of the mineralisation (Corbett unpubl. reports, 2007-2009),
deposits described above as illustrated in figures 1.1 and Fort Knox, Alaska is described as a Au porphyry
and 1.4. The low sulphidation epithermal deposit types (Bakke et al., 1998) and skarns occur nearby.
described herein all represent end members within
evolving fluid trends. In compressional magmatic arcs, 1.3 CONCLUSIONS AND EXPLORATION
many intrusion-related low sulphidation epithermal IMPLICATIONS
Au deposits (Porgera, Papua New Guinea) or districts
(Morobe goldfield, Papua New Guinea) contain several Section 1 sought to introduce the terminology used
of the individual deposit types as: quartz-sulphide Au to describe epithermal and porphyry deposit types
+ Cu, carbonate-base metal Au and epithermal quartz in order to facilitate the following discussion of the
Au. Similarly, in Latin American strongly extensional exploration tools - alteration, structure and breccias,
settings, polymetallic Ag-Au mineralisation passes and then these deposits will later be considered in
upwards to epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro greater detail. The exploration implication is that
Au-Ag veins, while some SW Pacific chalcedony- the explorationist must understand the style of
ginguro veins terminate down-dip as sub-economic mineralisation present as the first step in the evaluation
base metal bearing quartz veins likened to polymetallic of any project, in order correctly interpret field
Au-Ag mineralisation. Some districts (Great Basin, observations as well as geophysical, geochemical and
Nevada) and deposits contain elements of both low hyperspectral data. Comparisons with known deposits
sulphidation epithermal fluid flow trends (Frute del of that style will then facilitate prioritisation of any
Norte, Ecuador; Gosowong, Indonesia; Karangahake, portfolio of prospects, or identify potential problems
New Zealand). Transitions are recognised from high (supergene enrichment), even at the initial stage of an
to (intrusion-related) lower sulphidation mineralisation exploration program.
(El Indio, Chile) and from deep epithermal intrusion-
related low sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 19