Environmental hazard: definition; Types, causes and solutions,

biological hazards (COVID-19)

Environmental hazard
An environmental hazard is a substance, state or event which has the potential to threaten the
surrounding natural environment or adversely affect people's health, including pollution and
natural disasters such as storms and earthquakes.

It can include any single or combination of toxic chemical, biological,

or physical agents in the environment, resulting from human activities
or natural processes, that may impact the health of exposed subjects,
including pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, biological
contaminants, toxic waste, industrial and home chemicals.

Hazards can be categorized in three types:

• Chemical
• Biological
• Nuclear

This section deals with biological hazards, its causes, ways of encountering them and preventive
measures that we can undertake for avoid or minimize the hazards. With this regard, we need to
identify the hazard and assess the environment for the presence of hazards. This step is called
environmental hazard identification.

Environmental hazard identification is the first step in risk assessment, which is the process of
assessing the likelihood, or risk, of adverse effects resulting from a given hazard.

Risk
In simplest of terms, risk is the possibility of something bad happening. Risk is the uncertainty
about the occurrence of a certain event such as injury, disease, death, economic loss, or damage.
It is usually expressed as a mathematical statement about the likelihood of the occurrence of the
event, or in other words, it is expressed in terms of mathematical probabilities.

Biological hazards
Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat to
the health of living organisms, primarily that of humans. This can include medical waste or
samples of a microorganism, viruses, or toxins (from a biological source) that can affect human
health.
Biological health hazards include bacteria, viruses, parasites and moulds or
fungi. They can pose a threat to human health when they are inhaled, eaten
or come in contact with skin. They can cause illness such as food poisoning,
tetanus, respiratory infections or parasite infection.

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 Image showing A) Bacteria, B) Mold/yeast, and C) Viruses

The main source of biological hazards is due to diseases caused by various factors. These diseases
can be classified into transmissible and non-transmissible diseases.

Non-transmissible diseases (NCD)

A non-communicable disease (NCD) is a disease that is not transmissible directly from one person
to another. NCDs include Parkinson's disease, autoimmune diseases, strokes, most heart
diseases, most cancers, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis,
Alzheimer's disease, cataracts, and others. NCDs may be chronic or acute. Most are non-
infectious, although there are some
non-communicable infectious
diseases, such as parasitic diseases
in which the parasite's life cycle
does not include direct host-to-host
transmission. NCDs are the leading
cause of death globally. In 2012,
they caused 68% of all deaths (38
million) up from 60% in 2000.

Transmissible/Communicable diseases
Communicable diseases, also known as infectious diseases or transmissible diseases, are illnesses
that result from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic (capable of causing disease)
biologic agents in an individual human or other
animal host. These diseases spread from one person
to another through a variety of ways that include:
contact with blood and bodily fluids; breathing in an
airborne virus; or by being bitten by an insect. Some
examples of the reportable communicable diseases
include Hepatitis A, B & C, influenza, measles, and
salmonella, tuberculosis, COVID-19, Ebola and
several others.

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Certain communicable diseases can spread at different rates and to varying geographical
locations, resulting in either an endemic, epidemic or a pandemic disease.

Endemic disease
An endemic disease is consistently present but limited to a particular region. This makes the
disease spread and rates predictable. Malaria, for example, is considered endemic in certain
countries and regions.

Epidemic disease
An epidemic is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of patients among a given
population within an area in a short period of time. Yellow fever, smallpox, measles, and polio are
prime examples of epidemics. An epidemic disease doesn't necessarily have to be contagious.

Pandemic disease
A pandemic is an epidemic of an infectious disease that has spread across a large region, for
instance multiple continents or worldwide, affecting a substantial number of individuals. Recent
pandemics include tuberculosis, Russian flu, Spanish flu, Asian flu, cholera, Hong Kong flu,
HIV/AIDS, and COVID-19.

COVID-19
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The first
known case was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The disease quickly spread
worldwide, resulting in the COVID-19 pandemic.

Symptoms
Symptoms of COVID‑19 are variable, but often include fever, cough, headache, fatigue, breathing
difficulties, loss of smell, and loss of taste. Symptoms may begin one to fourteen days after
exposure to the virus. At least a third of people who are infected do not develop noticeable
symptoms. Of those people who develop symptoms noticeable enough to be classed as patients,
most (81%) develop mild to moderate symptoms (up to mild pneumonia), while 14% develop
severe symptoms (dyspnea, hypoxia, or more than 50% lung involvement on imaging), and 5%
develop critical symptoms (respiratory failure, shock, or multiorgan dysfunction). Older people
are at a higher risk of developing severe symptoms. Some people continue to experience a range
of effects (long COVID) for months after recovery, and damage to organs has been observed.

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Transmission
COVID-19 is mainly transmitted when people breathe in air contaminated by droplets/aerosols
and small airborne particles containing the virus. Infectious particles range in size from aerosols
that remain suspended in the air for long periods of time to larger droplets that remain airborne
briefly or fall to the ground. Infected people exhale those particles as they breathe, talk, cough,
sneeze, or sing. Transmission is more likely the more physically close people are. However,
infection can occur over longer distances, particularly indoors.

SARS-CoV-2 Variants
As of December 2021, there are five dominant variants of SARS-CoV-2 spreading among global
populations:
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 Alpha variant (B.1.1.7, formerly called the UK variant)
Beta variant (B.1.351, formerly called the South Africa variant)
Gamma variant (P.1, formerly called the Brazil variant)
Delta variant (B.1.617.2, formerly called the India variant)
Omicron variant (B.1.1.529)

Treatment
Most people who become sick with COVID-19 will only have mild illness and can get better at
home. Symptoms might last a few days. People who have the virus might feel better in about a
week. Several treatment options are available to people with coronavirus (COVID-19) who are at
the highest risk of becoming seriously ill. The treatments available are:
Nirmatrelvir And Ritonavir (Paxlovid)
Sotrovimab (Xevudy)
Remdesivir (Veklury)
Molnupiravir (Lagevrio)

Vaccines for COVID-19

A COVID‑19 vaccine is a vaccine intended to provide acquired immunity against severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2), the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019
(COVID‑19). Mass vaccination programmes have been established by WHO, and nine vaccines
have been approved for emergency or full use by at least one stringent regulatory authority
recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO): Pfizer–BioNTech, Oxford–AstraZeneca,
Sinopharm BIBP, Moderna, Janssen, CoronaVac, Covaxin, Novavax, and Convidecia. Each of
these vaccines causes the immune system to create antibodies for fight COVID-19 using a
harmless version of a spike-like structure on the surface of the COVID-19 virus. These vaccines act
by different mechanisms, a few of which are explained below. The different types of vaccines
include:
Viral vector vaccines
mRNA vaccines
Whole virus vaccines
Protein sub-unit vaccines

Viral vector vaccine

In this type of vaccine, genetic material from the COVID-19 virus is placed in a modified version
of a different virus (viral vector). When the viral vector gets into your cells, it delivers genetic
material from the COVID-19 virus that gives your cells instructions to make copies of the S protein.
Once your cells display the S proteins on their surfaces, your immune system responds by creating
antibodies and defensive white blood cells. If you later become infected with the COVID-19 virus,
the antibodies will fight the virus. The Janssen/Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine is a vector
vaccine. AstraZeneca and Covaxin vaccines work on this principle.

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 Schematic representation for the mechanism of action of the viral vector vaccine of COVID-19

mRNA vaccines
This type of vaccine uses genetically engineered mRNA to give your cells instructions for how to
make the S protein found on the surface of the COVID-19 virus. After vaccination, your muscle
cells begin making the S protein pieces and displaying them on cell surfaces. This causes your
body to create antibodies. If you later become infected with the COVID-19 virus, these antibodies
will fight the virus. Both the Pfizer-BioNTech and the Moderna COVID-19 vaccines use mRNA.

Schematic representation for the mechanism of action of mRNA vaccine of COVID-19

Whole virus vaccines

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Whole virus vaccines use a weakened (attenuated) or deactivated form of the pathogen that
causes a disease to trigger protective immunity to it. the advantages of an inactivated whole virus
vaccine include the fact its technology is well established, it is suitable for people with
compromised immune systems, and it’s relatively simple to manufacture.

Schematic representation for the mechanism of action of the whole virus vaccine of COVID-19

Protein subunit vaccine

Subunit vaccines include only the parts of a virus that best stimulate your immune system. This
type of COVID-19 vaccine contains harmless S proteins. Once your immune system recognizes
the S proteins, it creates antibodies and defensive white blood cells. If you later become infected
with the COVID-19 virus, the antibodies will fight the virus. Novavax is working on a protein
subunit COVID-19 vaccine. Covishield is one such vaccine prepared according to this method.

Schematic representation for the mechanism of action of the protein subunit vaccine of COVID-
19
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 Chemical Hazards: Bisphenol-A, Mercury

Chemical hazard
A chemical hazard is any non-biological substance that has the
potential to cause harm to life or health. It can include any single or
combination of toxic chemical, biological, or physical agents in the
environment, resulting from human activities or natural processes,
that may impact the health of exposed subjects. This can include
pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, biological contaminants,
toxic waste, industrial and home chemicals. Chemical hazards and
toxic substances pose a wide range of health hazards (such as
irritation, sensitization, and carcinogenicity) and physical hazards
(such as flammability, corrosion, and explosibility).

In this section, we will look at bisphenol A and problems associated with its poisoning in the
human body. We will also look at contamination due to heavy metals, specifically mercury.

Bisphenol A
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical compound primarily used in the
manufacturing of various plastics. It is a colourless solid which is
soluble in most common organic solvents but has very poor
solubility in water. BPA's largest single application is as a co-
monomer in the production of polycarbonates, which accounts
for 65-70% of all BPA production. The manufacturing of epoxy resins and vinyl ester resins
account for 25-30% of BPA use.

Products containing Bisphenol A

BPA is found in polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Polycarbonate plastics are often used
in containers that store food and beverages, such as water bottles. Epoxy resins are used to coat
the inside of metal products, such as food cans, bottle tops and water supply lines. Common
products that may contain BPA include:
• Items packaged in plastic containers
• Baby bottles
• Canned foods
• Toiletries
• Menstrual products
• Thermal printer receipts
• CDs and DVDs
• Household electronics
• Eyeglass lenses
• Sports equipment
• Dental filling sealants

Mechanism of action of BPA in the human body

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BPA binds to both nuclear estrogen receptors (ERs), ERα and ERβ, activating them. It can mimic
as well as antagonize estrogen, indicating that it is a selective estrogen receptor modulator
(SERM) or partial agonist. It also acts as an antagonist of the androgen receptor (AR) at high
concentrations.

Schematic representation of the mechanism of action of BPA in the human body

Health problems associated with BPA

BPA has been linked to causing reproductive, immunity, and neurological problems, as well as
an increased likelihood of Alzheimer’s, childhood asthma, metabolic disease, type 2 diabetes,
and cardiovascular disease.
• Several neurological health issues have been observed during pregnancy and
development, like reduced lung capacity, wheezing and asthma after birth, leading to
ban in the use of BPA in baby bottles.
• Studies have linked BPA and obesity; BPA exposure modifies insulin sensitivity and
insulin release without affecting weight.
• Other endocrine-related disorders include infertility, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)
and precocious puberty.
• BPA also disrupts thyroid function, binding to thyroid hormone receptor, and studies
have linked BPA with increased TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone).
• BPA exposure can lead to prostate cancer in men.

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 Summary of some health problems associated with BPA poisoning in the human body

Sources of BPA contamination

BPA can get in our body through eating or drinking foods heated in plastics; eating or drinking
foods stored in metal cans (canned foods) or plastics (take-out containers); and touching cash
register receipts. The major points of entry of bisphenol A into our body are summarized below.
• Major human exposure to BPA is diet, via ingestion of contaminated food and water.
• Plastics leach BPA when cleaned with harsh detergents, or when they contain acidic or
high-temperature liquids.
• BPA-based resin coatings in older water pipes can leach BPA.
• Several uses of BPA in digital media, electrical and electronic equipment, sports safety
equipment, electrical laminates in printed circuit boards, composites, paints and
adhesives can also lead to exposure.
• Bioaccumulation in water bodies, aquatic plants and organisms can result in toxicity.
• BPA is also found in high concentrations in thermal and carbonless copy paper, used for
printing receipts, airline tickets etc., and can be absorbed into body through skin.

Environmental effects of BPA

Even though BPA has a short half-life (4.5 days in soil and water, < 1 day in air), its ubiquity
makes it an important pollutant. It has a low rate of evaporation from water and soil, which
creates problems despite its biodegradability. It interferes with nitrogen fixation at the roots of
certain leguminous plants. BPA affects growth, reproduction and development in aquatic
organisms, especially fish, with endocrine-related effects observed in fish and other aquatic

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invertebrates, amphibians and reptiles. It also impacts reproduction in terrestrial animals and
insects, impairing development and inducing genetic aberrations.

Steps to limit BPA contamination

Heavy metal poisoning

Heavy metal poisoning refers to when excessive exposure to a heavy metal affects the normal
function of the body. Examples of heavy metals that can cause toxicity include lead, mercury,
arsenic, cadmium, and chromium. Exposure may occur through the diet, from medications, from
the environment, or in the course of work or play. Heavy metals can enter the body through the
skin, or by inhalation or ingestion. Toxicity can result from sudden, severe exposure, or from
chronic exposure over time.

Mercury
Mercury is a heavy metal belonging to the transition element series in the periodic table. It exists
in nature in three forms: elemental, organic and inorganic, each with its own profile of toxicity. It
is a liquid at room temperature; it has high vapour pressure and is released into the
environment as mercury vapour. Its most commonly occurring oxidation states are +1 +2.
Methylmercury is the most frequently encountered organic compound found in the
environment, formed as a result of methylation of inorganic mercuric forms of mercury by
microorganisms found in soil and water.

Mercury in the Environment

Mercury is a widespread environmental toxicant and pollutant, inducing severe alterations in the
body and a wide range of adverse health effects. It is ubiquitous in the environment, therefore,
making it difficult for plants, animals and humans alike to avoid exposure.

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 Schematic representation of the different forms of mercury in the environment. [Source:
https://webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/impacts/mercury/index.shtml]

Uses of Mercury
• Electrical industry (switches, thermostats, batteries)
• Dental fillings
• Industrial processes (production of caustic soda)
• Nuclear reactors
• Anti-fungal agents for wood processing
• Solvent for reactive and precious metals

Sources of Mercury Poisoning

• Major sources of exposure to mercury are through accidents, environmental pollution,
food contamination, dental care, preventive medical practices, industrial and agricultural
operations such as non-ferrous metal production, cement production etc.
• Major sources of chronic low level mercury exposure are through dental amalgams (50%
elemental mercury) and fish consumption.
• Mercury exposure can also occur by inhaling contaminated air, and improper
use/disposal of mercury-containing objects after spills or disposal of fluorescent lamps.
• Human activities that can result in Mercury release into environment: burning of coal (half
of atm. mercury) and gold mining.

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 • Mercury enters water either through Earth’s crust or through industrial pollution, which
are methylated by algae and bacteria in the water, which then bioaccumulates in fish,
and eventually into humans.
• Two most highly absorbed species: Hg(0) and methyl mercury.

Mechanism of Mercury in the Human Body

• Elemental mercury vapour is highly lipophilic and effectively absorbed through lungs
and tissues lining the mouth.
• After mercury enters the blood, it rapidly passes through cell membranes, including both
the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) and placental barrier (PB).
• Within the cell, it is oxidized to its highly reactive +2 state.
• Methyl mercury, from fish, is readily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract because of its
lipid solubility, and can cross the BBB and PB.
• Once absorbed, mercury has a very low excretion rate, accumulating in kidneys,
neurological tissues and liver, resulting in gastrointestinal toxicity, neuro and
nephrotoxicity.

Adverse Health Effects of Mercury

• Brain is the target organ for mercury, but it can also impair any organ leading to
malfunctioning of nerves, kidney and muscles.
• Mechanism: mercury binds to free thiol groups (cysteine residues).
• Symptoms depend on the type, dose and duration of exposure, including peripheral
neuropathy, skin discolouration (pink), swelling and desquamation (shedding or peeling
of skin).
• Mercury is neurotoxic, responsible for microtubule destruction, mitochondrial damage,
lipid peroxidation etc.
• High-levels of exposure to mercury: Minamata disease.
• Symptoms: acrodynia (pink disease) skin becomes pink and peels, kidney problems,
decreased intelligence.

Treatment and Prevention

• Mercury poisoning can be reduced by eliminating/reducing exposure to mercury and
related compounds.
• Powdered sulfur may be applied in case of a spill, resulting in a solid compound that can
be easily disposed off of.

Treatment
• First step is decontamination, disposal of clothes, washing skin with soap and water,
flushing eyes with saline as needed.
• Chelation therapy with DMSA and other sulfur-based compounds are effective for
inorganic mercury poisoning.
• DMSA can be used against severe mercury poisoning.

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 Nuclear Hazards

Nuclear hazards
Nuclear hazards are caused by radioactive substances that pose a risk to
human health/environment. These radioactive substances can be either
naturally occurring or man-made.

Natural Sources of Radiation

Cosmic radiation from outer space, quantity depends on altitude and latitude (higher at higher
altitudes and latitudes). Terrestrial radiation: Emissions from radioactive elements from the Earth’s
crust, e.g., radon-222, soil rocks, air, water and food containing one or more radioactive materials.
Internal radiation: All people contain radioactive potassium-40, carbon-14, lead-210 and other
isotopes inside their bodies from birth.

Anthropogenic Sources of Radiation

Some of the anthropogenic sources of radiation include:

1. Radiation emitted during the mining and processing of radioactive ores.

2. Radioactive materials in nuclear power plants and reactors, both raw materials and nuclear
waste.
3. Radioactive fallouts during nuclear weapons testing, both on the surface, and in the oceans
can also release a large amount of radiation. So too can leaks/accidents in nuclear power
plants.
4. Radioactive isotopes in medical technology (x-ray machines, radioisotopes used in
medicine) also release radiation.

Types of Ionizing Radiations Emitted

When a radioactive nucleus undergoes decay, it breaks up into several smaller atoms, also called
daughter isotopes, along with various types of ionizing radiations, which can be divided into three
types.

Alpha particles: are released when a radioactive

nucleus breaks up into daughter isotopes and
positively charged helium atoms, also called alpha
radiations. These are inherently positively charged.
They have low penetrating power, and can be easily
blocked by a sheet of paper or cardboard. They move
relatively slowly, and are attracted by negative
charges.

Beta particles: on the other hand, are produced when a

parent isotope undergoes decay into daughter isotopes,
along with the release of electrons, also called beta
radiations. These are usually high-speed electrons with
high penetrating power, requiring a thin aluminium
plate to stop. Being electrons, they are negatively
charged, and are deflected by positive charges.

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Gamma rays: are photons that move at the speed
of light. They are electromagnetic waves and can
be blocked only a thick lead or concrete block.
They are not affected by electric charges, either
positive or negative, and are neutral in nature.

Effects of Radioactive Poisoning

Radioactive emissions can penetrate biological tissues. For this reason, radiation is used to
destroy cancerous tumours. But high levels of radiation > 100 rem can cause cell division
blockage, prevents the normal replacement of blood, skin and other tissues, resulting in radiation
sickness, and finally death.

• Very high doses of radiation may totally destroy cells, causing immediate death
• Lower doses may damage DNA, causing malignant tumours, cancers such as leukaemia. It
also weakens the immune system, causing mental retardation and cataracts.
• DNA mutations affect genes and chromosomes, and are often carried over to offspring, up
to several generations
• Acute exposure: burns and radiation sickness, burns, miscarriages, eye cataract, cancers of
bone, thyroid, skin, lungs etc.

Protection from Radioactive Pollution

In case of a leak, there are only three ways in which we can protect ourselves from radioactive
pollution.

• Exposure time: the lesser the amount of time that you are exposed for, the lower the dose
of radiation that you will receive.
• Distance: the farther away that you are from the source of radiation, the less intense its
effects will be.
• Shielding: shielding yourself behind a thick concrete or lead door can stop most of the
harmful ionizing radiation, since they are very good at withstanding penetration.

Case Study: Chernobyl Disaster

The Chernobyl disaster is considered the worst nuclear disaster in history both in terms of cost
and casualties. It occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city
of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian SSR in the Soviet Union. It is one of only two nuclear energy
accidents rated at seven—the maximum severity—on the International Nuclear Event Scale, the
other being the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan. The accident was caused by the
malfunctioning of one of the steam turbines destabilizing the reactor. But this risk was not made
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evident immediately. So, operators continued the testing.
Instead of shutting down, an uncontrolled chain reaction began,
resulting in a core melt down. Explosions ruptured the core,
destroyed the building, resulting in an open-air reactor core
fire, which released considerable radioactive contamination
that was airborne, and spread for over 9 days, precipitating into
other parts of the USSR and Western Europe, before ending on
4th May 1986. The reactor explosion killed two engineers
immediately. Overall, 237 suffered from acute radiation
sickness, of whom 31 died within the first three months. The
most lethal radionuclides that spread from Chernobyl were
iodine-131, caesium-134, caesium-137 and strontium-90. The
initial emergency response, together with later decontamination of the environment, involved
more than 500,000 personnel and cost an estimated 18 billion Soviet rubbles—roughly US$68
billion in 2019, adjusted for inflation.

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 Air Pollution

Air Pollution
Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or
biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Household
combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are common sources of
air pollution. Pollutants of major public health concern include particulate matter, carbon
monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Outdoor and indoor air pollution cause
respiratory and other diseases and are important sources of morbidity and mortality.

Sources of Air Pollution

The sources of air pollution can be broadly
classified into natural and anthropogenic. The
natural sources include volcano, forest fire and
pollens, organic compounds from plants, sea
salt, suspended soils and dusts, etc. The
anthropogenic sources include everything
involving human activities such as:

Anthropogenic sources of air

pollution:
1) Burning of fossil fuels and motor vehicle
exhausts:
These can include gases emitted by the
burning of fossil fuels and vehicle exhausts.
This means that road traffic is one of the
biggest sources of air pollution. Vehicles emit
nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and particulate matter. Trains
pollute a lot less than cars. But they also cause
pollution, since they utilize a large amount of
electricity produced by power stations, which produces large quantities of nitrogen oxides,
carbon dioxides, sulfur dioxides and particulate matter. These pollutants may be categorised as
primary or secondary pollutants.
2) Agriculture:
Animals like cows and sheep release a massive amount of methane through belching and
breaking wind. Methane is a colourless gas which is produced in their stomachs when bacteria
break down the food that they eat. Across the whole world, livestock is the biggest source of
methane. Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas which can cause climate
change.
3) Waste disposal:
Waste disposal from landfills is the largest producer of methane emitted after agriculture and
livestock rearing.

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Primary Pollutants
Primary pollutants are directly emitted to the atmosphere, Air pollutants may have a natural,
anthropogenic or mixed origin, depending on their sources or the sources of their precursors.
Key primary air pollutants include particulate matter (PM), black carbon (BC), sulphur oxides
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX) (including nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide, NO2),
ammonia (NH3), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), non-methane volatile organic
compounds (NMVOCs), including benzene, and certain metals and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, including benzo[a]pyrenes (BaP).

Secondary Pollutants
Secondary pollutants are formed in the atmosphere from precursor gases through chemical
reactions and microphysical processes. Key secondary air pollutants are PM, ozone (O3),
NO2 and several oxidised volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Key precursor gases for
secondary PM are sulphur dioxide (SO2), NOX, NH3 and VOCs. These pollutants and their
precursor gases can be of both natural and anthropogenic origin including:
• Burning of fossil fuels in electricity generation, transport, industry and households
• Industrial processes and solvent use, for example in the chemical and mining industries;
• Agriculture
• Waste treatment
• Natural sources, including volcanic eruptions, windblown dust, sea-salt spray and
emissions of volatile organic compounds from plants

Types of Air Pollutants

The following pollutants form the major category of air pollutants.
Carbon monoxide (CO):
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Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and highly toxic gas that forms during the
incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials. Major sources are motor vehicle
exhaust, burning of forests and grasslands, smokestacks of fossil fuel–burning power plants and
industries, tobacco smoke, and open fires and inefficient stoves used for cooking. Carbon
monoxide can combine with hemoglobin in red blood cells, which prevents the normal binding
of oxygen with hemoglobin molecules. This in turn reduces the ability of blood to transport
oxygen to body cells and tissues. Long-term exposure can trigger heart attacks and aggravate
lung diseases such as asthma and emphysema. At high levels, CO can cause headache, nausea,
drowsiness, confusion, collapse, coma, and death.
Carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas. About 93% of the CO2 in the atmosphere is
the result of the natural carbon cycle. The rest comes from human activities, mostly the burning
of fossil fuels and the clearing of CO2-absorbing forests and grasslands. CO2 is being added to
the atmosphere faster than it is removed by the natural carbon cycle. This can contribute to
human health problems such as heat exhaustion and to the reduction of food supplies in some
areas, while causing water shortages, prolonged drought, or excessive flooding in other areas.
Nitrogen oxides:
Nitrogen oxides are emitted during fuel combustion from industrial facilities and the road
transport sector. NOX is a group of gases comprising nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). NO makes up the majority of NOX emissions. NOX contributes to the formation of
ozone and particulate matter.
Sulfur dioxide:
Sulphur dioxide is formed and emitted by combustion of fossil fuels (mainly coal and oil)
primarily for electricity generation. High concentrations of SO2 are associated with multiple
health and environmental effects. The highest concentrations of SO2 have been recorded in the
vicinity of large industrial facilities. SO2 emissions are an important environmental issue because
they are a major precursor to ambient PM2.5
Ground-level ozone:
Ground level ozone is created when sunlight reacts with,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrous oxides (NOx).
When particles in the air combine with ozone, they create
smog. Smog is a type of air pollution that looks like smoky
fog and makes it difficult to see. These can be transported
long distances by wind.
Photochemical smog:
Photochemical smog also results from interactions between
different air pollutants. This smog has a brown haze and can
be painful to the eyes, accounting for most of the smog we
see today. Photochemical smog forms from interactions between particulates, nitrogen oxides,
ozone, and other air pollutants, though primarily from VOCs and NOx since ozone comprises a
large portion of this smog.

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Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM):
Particulate matter is a mixture of aerosol particles (solid and liquid) covering a wide range of
sizes and chemical compositions. PM is either directly emitted as primary particles or it forms in
the atmosphere from emissions of certain precursor pollutants such as SO2, NOx, NH3. SPM is
emitted from many anthropogenic sources, including both combustion and non-combustion
sources. Natural emissions of PM also occur, including from sea salt and windblown Saharan
dust.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted as gases from certain solids or liquids. VOCs
include a variety of chemicals, some of which may have short- and long-term adverse health
effects.

Management of Air Pollution

Air pollution management aims at the elimination or reduction to acceptable levels, of airborne
gaseous pollutants, suspended particulate matter and physical and, to a certain extent,
biological agents whose presence in the atmosphere can cause adverse effects on human
health, deleterious effects on animal or plant life, damage to materials of economic value to
society and damage to the environment

Health Effects of Air Pollution

Our body has a number of natural defence mechanisms to help protect us against air pollution.
But prolonged or acute exposure to air pollutants, including tobacco smoke can overload or
break down these natural defenses.

• Years of smoking or breathing polluted air can lead to other lung ailments such as
chronic bronchitis and emphysema, which leads to acute shortness of breath and usually
to death.
• Inhalation of small, fine and ultra-fine particles added to the atmosphere by coal-burning
power plants causes asthma attacks and other respiratory disorders.

Steps to Reduce Air Pollution

The best air quality management methods stress that the air pollutant emissions should be kept
to a minimum. Some of the methods that can be used to reduce or minimize air pollution are:
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 • Enforcement of the use of catalytic converters in vehicles or of emission standards in
incinerators
• Shut-down of factories or reduction of traffic during unfavourable weather conditions
• Strict laws for emission of pollutants, which emphasize prevention of emission
• Stricter laws need to be enforced on coal-burning power plants and industrial facilities so
that the harmful emissions of sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides can be controlled
• Use of air pollution control devices such as chemical scrubbers in emission towers that
can capture most of the harmful chemicals that might be emitted in industries. E.g., SO 2
can be removed by use of a lime scrubber
• Control devices such as inertial separators for particular matter and wet collectors
• Safe disposal methods to reduce the effects of the harmful agents
• Tax each unit of pollutant produced

We, as individuals can take a few steps to reduce consumption of energy and air pollution. They
are summarized as follows.

1. Walk, bike or use public transportation to reduce air pollution

2. Minimize pollution from cars by prevention of idling
3. Save energy and make sure you use energy efficiently
4. Recycle and reuse
5. Consume less and choose sustainable products
6. Avoid/minimize plastic bags
7. Reduction of forest fires and smoking
8. Use of fans instead of Air conditioners
9. Use filters for chimneys
10. Avoid usage of crackers
11. Avoid using of products with chemicals
12. Implement Afforestation

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 Water Pollution

Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water sources by substances which make the water
unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities. Pollutants include
chemicals, trash, bacteria, and parasites. All forms of pollution eventually make their way to
water. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water
pollution results when contaminants are introduced into these water bodies. Water pollution
can be attributed to one of four sources: sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural
activities, and urban runoff including stormwater.

Sources of Water Pollution

Sources of water pollution are either point sources or non-point sources.
1) Point Sources
Point sources have one identifiable cause, such as a storm drain, a
wastewater treatment plant or an oil spill. Because point sources
are located at specific places, they are fairly easy to identify,
monitor, and regulate.

2) Non-point Sources
Nonpoint sources are broad and diffuse areas, rather than points,
from which pollutants enter bodies of surface water or air.
Examples include runoff of chemicals and sediments from
cropland, livestock
feedlots, logged
forests, urban streets,
parking lots, lawns, and golf courses.

Types of Water Pollution

1) Ground-water Pollution
Groundwater gets polluted when contaminants—
from pesticides and fertilizers to waste leached from
landfills and septic systems—make their way into an
aquifer, rendering it unsafe for human use. Ridding
groundwater of contaminants can be difficult to
impossible, as well as costly. Once polluted, an
aquifer may be unusable for decades, or even
thousands of years. Groundwater can also spread
contamination far from the original polluting source
as it seeps into streams, lakes, and oceans. Common sources of ground water pollution include
septic tanks, industries like textile, chemical and tanneries, deep well injections, mining, etc.

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2) Surface-water Pollution
Covering about 70 percent of the earth, surface water
constitutes our oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, etc. Major
sources of surface water pollution are:
1. Sewage: emptying drains and sewers
2. Industrial effluents: industrial waste containing toxic
chemicals, acids, alkalis, salts and radioactive waste
3. Synthetic detergents: in washing and cleaning
4. Agrochemicals: fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides
5. Oil: spillage into sea during drilling and shipment
6. Waste heat: from industrial discharges increases
water temperature and affects the distribution and
survival of sensitive species

Types of Contaminants
Water pollutants can be classified as organic pollutants, inorganic pollutants, pathogens,
suspended solids, nutrients and agriculture pollutants, thermal, radioactive, and other
pollutants. Organic and inorganic pollutants are mainly discharged from industrial effluents and
sewage into the water bodies.

1) Organic Contaminants
The following are the types of organic contaminants that are responsible for water pollution
• Detergents
• Food processing waste: fats, grease, oxygen demanding substances
• Insecticides and herbicides: organohalides
• Petroleum hydrocarbons: fuels, lubricants and fuel combustion products
• Volatile organic compounds: industrial solvents
• Chlorinated solvents (PCBs, trichloroethylene)
• Drug pollution
• Personal hygiene and cosmetic products

2) Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compounds

Addition of compounds containing nitrogen and phosphorus helps in the growth of algae and
other plants that consume DO after death. Foul smelling gases are produced under anaerobic
conditions. Excess growth or decomposition of plant material changes CO2 concentrations,
thereby affecting water pH. These changes in DO, oxygen and temperature change the
physicochemical properties of water.

3) Inorganic Compounds
The following inorganic contaminants are responsible for water pollution. They are
• Acidity caused by industrial discharge (SO2)
• Ammonia from food processing waste

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 • Chemical waste
• Fertilizers containing nutrients (nitrates and phosphates)
• Heavy metals from moto vehicles and acid mine drainage
• Silt/sediment

4) Pathogens
Wastewater sewage contain several pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms and
viruses that can cause water-borne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice etc.
Coliform bacteria do not cause an actual disease, but is used as a bacterial indicator of water
pollution. High levels of pathogens may result from on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit
latrines) or inadequately treated sewage discharges. Combined sewers in certain cities
discharge untreated sewage during rain storms that can result in contamination. Pathogen
discharge can also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

5) Macroscopic Pollution
They are large, visible items polluting water, also called floatables or marine debris found in
open seas, including
• Trash/garbage: discarded by people, or washed by rainfall into storm drains and
eventually reaching surface waters
• Nurdles: small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets
• Shipwrecks: large, derelict ships

6) Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution, sometimes called "thermal enrichment", is the degradation of water quality
by any process that changes ambient water temperature. A common cause of thermal pollution
is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Thermal pollution
can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer
rivers. Fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by an
abrupt change in water temperature (either a rapid increase or decrease) known as "thermal
shock".

7) Radioactive Substances
Radioactive waste is any pollution that emits radiation beyond what is naturally released by the
environment. It’s generated by uranium mining, nuclear power plants, and the production and
testing of military weapons, as well as by universities and hospitals that use radioactive materials
for research and medicine. Radioactive waste can persist in the environment for thousands of
years, making disposal a major challenge.

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Effects of Water Pollution
• Increase of oxygen demand: Demand of O2 increases with addition of biodegradable
organic matter, expressed as biological oxygen demand (BOD)
• Diseases: In humans, drinking or consuming polluted water in any way has many
disastrous effects on our health. It causes typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and various other
diseases.
• Destruction of Ecosystems: Ecosystems are extremely dynamic and respond to even
small changes in the environment. Water pollution can cause an entire ecosystem to
collapse if left unchecked.
• Biomagnification: Non-biodegradable waste biomagnifies, causing toxic effects at
various levels of the food chain. Several chemicals such as DDT are not water soluble,
and tend to accumulate in body lipids, building up at successive levels of the food chain.
• Eutrophication: Chemicals in a water body, encourage the growth of algae. These algae
form a layer on top of the pond or lake. Bacteria feed on these algae and this decreases
the amount of oxygen in the water body, severely affecting the aquatic life there.
• Effects the food chain: Disruption in food chains happens when toxins and pollutants in
the water are consumed by aquatic animals (fish, shellfish etc) which are then consumed
by humans.

Control of Water Pollution

The best way to protect streams from pollution is to prevent it at the source. The following are
some of the methods that can be implemented to control water pollution.
• Judicious use of pesticides and fertilizers
• Use of nitrogen-fixing plants
• Prevent manure run-off into surface water, instead divert them into basins for settlement
that can be used later as fertilizer
• Separate drainage of sewage and rain water to prevent overflow and contamination
• Planting trees would reduce pollution by preventing runoff
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• Treatment of wastewater is essential to prevent pollution from point sources
• Parameters considered for water quality: BOD, chemical oxygen demand (COD),
nitrates, phosphates, oil and grease, toxic metals
• Waste water should be treated properly by primary and secondary methods to reduce
BOD, COD levels up to permissible levels for discharge

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 Soil Pollution

Soil Pollution
Soil contamination, soil pollution, or land pollution as a part of
land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic
(human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil
environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity,
agricultural chemicals or improper disposal of waste.
Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization
and intensity of chemical substance. The concern over soil
contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct
contact with the contaminated soil, vapour from the
contaminants, or from secondary contamination of water
supplies within and underlying the soil.

Types of Soil Pollutants

All soils, whether polluted or unpolluted, contain a variety of compounds (contaminants) which
are naturally present. Such contaminants include metals, inorganic ions and salts (e.g.
phosphates, carbonates, sulfates, nitrates), and many organic compounds (such as lipids,
proteins, DNA, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, PAHs, alcohols, etc.). These compounds are mainly
formed through soil microbial activity and the decomposition of organisms (e.g., plants and
animals). Additionally, various compounds get into the soil from the atmosphere, for instance
with precipitation water, as well as by wind activity or other types of soil disturbances, and from
surface water bodies and shallow groundwater flowing through the soil. When the amounts of
soil contaminants exceed natural levels (what is naturally present in various soils), pollution is
generated. This can occur through anthropogenic (man-made) causes as well as natural causes.

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Anthropogenic Soil Pollutants
Anthropogenic (man-made) soil pollution originates in several types of processes, some
deliberate (industrial) and others, accidental. Human-caused soil pollution can work in
conjunction with natural processes to increase the toxic contamination levels in the soil.
• Accidental spills and leaks during storage, transport or use of chemicals (e.g., leaks and
spills of gasoline and diesel at gas stations)
• Foundry activities and manufacturing processes that involve furnaces or other processes
resulting in the possible dispersion of contaminants in the environment;
• Mining activities involving the crushing and processing of raw materials, for instance,
heavy metals, emitting toxic substances;
• Construction activities
• Agricultural activities involving the diffusion of herbicides, pesticides and/or insecticides
and fertilizers;
• Transportation activities, releasing toxic vehicle emissions
• Chemical waste dumping, whether accidental or deliberate – such as illegal dumping;
• The storage of waste in landfills, as the waste products may leak into groundwater or
generate polluted vapours
• Cracked paint chips falling from building walls, especially lead-based paint.

Construction sites are the most important triggers of soil

pollution in urban areas, due to their almost ubiquitous
nature. Almost any chemical substance handled at
construction sites may pollute the soil. However, the higher
risk comes from those chemicals that can travel more easily
through the air as fine particulate matter. The chemicals that
travel as particulate matter are more resistant to
degradation and bioaccumulate in living organisms, such as
PAHs.
Additionally, construction dust may easily spread around
through the air and is especially dangerous because of its
lower particle size (less than 10 microns). Such construction
dust can trigger respiratory illnesses such as asthma and
bronchitis, and even cancer. Moreover, the sites that involve
the demolition of older buildings can release asbestos, a
toxic mineral that can act as a poison in soil. Asbestos particles can be redistributed by the wind.

Natural Pollutants
Apart from the rare cases when a natural accumulation of chemicals leads to soil pollution,
natural processes may also have an influence on the human released toxic chemicals into the
soil, decreasing or increasing the pollutant toxicity and the level of contamination of the soil.
This is possible due to the complex soil environment, involving the presence of other chemicals
and natural conditions which may interact with the released pollutants.
The following are some of the natural processes leading to soil pollution:

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• There may be a natural accumulation of compounds in soil due to imbalances between
atmospheric deposition and leaking away with precipitation water (e.g., concentration and
accumulation of perchlorate in soils in arid environments).
• Natural production in soil may also occur under certain environmental conditions (e.g.,
natural formation of perchlorate in soil in the presence of a chlorine source, metallic object
and using the energy generated by a thunderstorm).
• Sewer lines may leak from into the subsurface (e.g., adding chlorine could generate
trihalomethanes such as chloroform).

Effects of Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is devastating to the environment and has consequences for all forms of life that
encounter it. The toxic substances that are deposited on the earth's surface harm our health and
well-being and affect food, water and air quality directly and indirectly. The most important
effects of soil pollution are indicated below:

1. Effect on Health of Humans

Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain ourselves, its contamination has major
consequences on our health. Crops and plants grown on polluted soil absorb much of the
pollution, which is then passed on to us. This could result in the sudden surge of certain
illnesses. Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-up of the body, causing
congenital illnesses and chronic health problems that cannot be cured easily. In fact, it can
sicken the livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning over a long period of
time. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in
it.
There are three main routes where soil can directly enter the body: inhalation, eating, or
through skin contact.
Inhalation
This route mostly affects people, like workers, who are continually working with soil or those
who reside nearby such areas. These types of environments have fine dust particles floating
around, which can be inhaled and eventually absorbed by the body.
Eating
Adults consume soil through accidental ingestion. An example of this is when the ingested food,
like vegetables, still has some soil attached to it. However, in some parts of the world, the soil is
deliberately consumed due to cultural reasons. On the other hand, children, especially those
under the age of three, are at high risk for soil contamination exposure as they tend to eat soil
while playing outdoors. In addition, their biological makeup is more likely to absorb more of the
toxic chemicals than that of an adult.
Skin Contact
Also known as “dermal absorption” or “cutaneous absorption,” this route is most applicable to
volatile organic compounds. However, some heavy metals do cause skin contact problems.

2. Effect on Growth of Plants

The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the widespread contamination of the
soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically within a
short period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together, begin to decline,
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which creates an additional problem of soil erosion. The fertility of the soil thus slowly
diminishes, making the land unsuitable for agriculture and for any local vegetation to survive.
Soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become hazardous to health.

3. Decreased Soil Fertility

The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility, which in turn affects its yield.
The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables, which lacks quality
nutrients and may contain some poisonous substance that can cause serious health problems to
the people consuming them.

4. Toxic Dust
The emission of toxic and foul gases that emanates from landfills pollutes the environment,
causing serious health problems to people. Another side effect is the unpleasant smell causes
that causes inconvenience to people living in the vicinity.

5. Changes in Soil Structure

Soil pollution can lead to the death of several soil organisms (e.g., earthworms) in the soil that
can alter the soil structure. In addition, it could also force animals to migrate to other places in
search of food.

6. Poisoning of the Underground Water Table

Soil pollution can also result in contamination of the underground water table. This water, being
present beneath soil layers, the toxins can easily percolate slowly and steadily into the water
table. Since this is the water that is available for consumption and usage through wells and tube
wells, it causes a lot of ill effects on our health. Diseases like arsenic poisoning, food poisoning
and others are caused due to the prolonged consumption of this toxic underground water.
These diseases could also prove to be quite fatal.

Possible Solutions to Soil Pollution

With a global population that is projected to exceed 9 billion by 2050, our current and future
food security hinges on our ability to increase yields and food quality using the soils that we
already have available today. Soil pollution negatively impacts us all, and has been identified as
one of the main threats to soil functions worldwide. We need to be aware of the causes of soil
pollution so that we can create and implement solutions. Soil protection and conservation starts
with us. Making sustainable food choices, properly recycling dangerous materials like batteries,
composting at home to reduce the amount of waste that enters landfills or managing antibiotic
waste more responsibly, are just a few examples of how we can be part of the solution. On a
larger scale, we need to promote sustainable agricultural practices in our communities. Soil
pollution is a complex problem that ought to be solved. It is essential that we all realize how
important soil is for us. The earlier we realize, the better we will be able to solve this problem. It
is a complex problem, and thus, it requires everyone, from an individual to the government, to
work in complete unison. Listed below are a few things that could help in reducing soil
pollution.

1. Reduced Use of Chemical Fertilizers

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Chemical fertilizers do more harm than good. While proper amounts could enhance the fertility
of the soil, excess of it actually poisons the soil. The excess of chemical fertilizers could pollute
the soil in several ways. It could mess with the pH levels of the soil. It could also destroy the
good microorganisms in the soil. Not only that, but the runoffs from such soils also cause water
pollution as well. Thus, using chemical fertilizers is like a double-edged sword.

2. Promotion of Reforestation and Afforestation

One of the major causes of soil pollution is soil erosion due to deforestation. It is natural that
with the ever-growing population, the humankind needs more and more space to expand their
civilization. Often it is achieved at the cost of the health of the soil. To prevent this from
happening, reforestation of a deforested area should be promoted. Also, afforestation should
be promoted in the barren lands. The roots of the plants bind the soil particles together and
even capture good microorganisms in the soil. It also ensures the maintenance of the
underground water table.

3. Recycle and Reuse Products

These steps not only reduce waste generation but also ensure that soil pollution is reduced. At
present, plastic forms a significant portion of the generated wastes. More often than not, these
wastes are buried in landfills. In these landfills, these plastics and other materials decompose
slowly and release toxic materials into the soil. These toxic substances are very harmful to the
health of the soil and are a major source of soil pollution. By reusing and recycling things, we
can ensure that lesser wastes are dumped in these landfills, and this, in turn, would reduce soil
pollution.

4. Get the Locals Involved

In order to ensure that a problem like soil pollution is solved, it is essential that every individual
must get involved. It is with their involvement that things can work out better. Awareness
programs could be designed so that people understand soil pollution better. If people are
aware, they will help even subconsciously.

5. Promote Use of Natural Manure

Natural manure is one of the best sources of nutrients for the soil. It is harmless and completely
organic. It adds essential nutrients to the soil and restores the health of the soil. It has no harmful
by-products that could harm the soil or the environment in any way.

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 Soil Waste Management

Soil Waste Management

Solid waste management refers to the process of collecting and treating solid wastes. It also
offers solutions for recycling items that do not belong to garbage or trash. As long as people
have been living in settlements and residential areas, garbage or solid waste has been an issue.
Waste management is all about how solid waste can be changed and used as a valuable
resource.

Solid waste refers to any unwanted or discarded material we produce that is not a liquid or a
gas. Solid waste can be divided into two types.

1. Industrial solid w aste: produced by mines, farms, and

industries that supply people with goods and services.
2. Municipal solid w aste (MSW): often called garbage or
trash, which consists of the combined solid waste produced
by homes and workplaces. Examples include paper and
cardboard, food wastes, cans, bottles, yard wastes, plastics,
metals, glass and e-waste.
3. Hazardous/toxic w aste: which threatens human health or
the environment because it is poisonous, dangerously
chemically reactive, corrosive, or flammable. Examples
include industrial solvents, hospital medical waste, car
batteries (containing lead and acids), household pesticide
products, dry-cell batteries (containing mercury and
cadmium), and incinerator ash.

Waste Management
Solid waste can be dealt with in two ways, the first being waste management, while the second
approach is waste reduction.
• Waste Management refers to controlling waste in
ways so as to reduce their environmental harm
without any serious efforts to reduce the amount of
waste produced.
• Waste Reduction refers to the approach by which
lesser amounts of waste and pollution is produced.
So, there is greater emphasis on the reuse,
recycling and composting of resources.
But there is no single solution to the solid waste problem. Most analysts call for using integrated
waste management, which include a variety of coordinated strategies for both waste disposal
and waste reduction.

Integrated Solid Waste Management

Integrated waste management has three main priorities for waste reduction and elimination.

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It has three main priorities, which are summarized as follows:
1. The first priority is control of pollution and waste prevention. This involves changing
industrial processes to eliminate the use of harmful chemicals. Swapping a more harmful
product with a safer alternative; or, making products that last longer, and can be recycled,
reused or are easy to repair.
2. The second priority is control of secondary pollution and waste prevention. This focuses
mainly on the three Rs, i.e., reduce, reuse and recycle.
3. The third priority is waste management. This is adopted in cases where waste cannot be
avoided, charting out safe methods to eliminate and dispose of hazardous waste, so that it
does not cause further environmental pollution. This flow chart helps you understand the
entire process of IWM. It lists out ways to deal with the different kinds of waste. E.g., plastic,
glass, metal and paper can be reused or recycled, whereas, food waste or garden waste can
be converted into compost. On the other hand, hazardous waste such as harmful chemicals
and metals are dealt with in a different manner. They are either disposed off into sanitary
landfills, so that it is burnt up in an incinerator.

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Waste Disposal
Waste disposal refers to methods adopted in order to safely dispose off with waste in order to
avoid further pollution and damage to the environment. Waste disposal can be done by either
burning or burying solid waste. They can be classified into the following methods. Landfills:
either open dumps or sanitary landfills, biocomposting, incineration

Open dumps
Open dumps are essentially fields or holes in the ground where
garbage is deposited and sometimes burned. They are rare in
more-developed countries, but are widely used near major cities in
many less-developed countries, lacking a proper waste disposal
system.

Sanitary landfills
Sanitary landfills are a method of waste disposal in which solid
wastes are spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered daily
with a fresh layer of clay or plastic foam, which keeps the material
dry and reduces leakage of contaminated water from the landfill. This covering also reduces the
risk of fire, decreases odour and reduces accessibility to vermin. The bottom and sides are also
lined with strong double liners and containment systems that collect liquid leaching (leachate)
from them. Some are equipped with systems for collecting and burning methane, which is
produced when wastes decompose in the absence of oxygen.
Sanitary landfills have their set of advantages and disadvantages. They are commonly used
because they have low operating costs and can handle large amounts of waste. The filled land
can also be used for other purposes. Certain disadvantages associated with sanitary landfills
are: they can release greenhouse gases such as methane and carbon dioxide. They can
contaminate the groundwater.

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Disposal of hazardous waste
IWM suggests three priority levels in dealing with hazardous waste, namely, produce less;
convert as much of it as possible to less hazardous substances; and put the rest in long-term,
safe storage. The top priority should be pollution prevention and waste reduction. With this
approach, industries try to find substitutes for toxic or hazardous materials, reuse or recycle the
hazardous materials within industrial processes, or use them as raw materials for making other
products.

Let us look at some of the methods to detoxify or dispose hazardous waste briefly. Some of the
detoxification methods include: Physical methods, Chemical methods, Nanomagnets, Biological
methods, Incineration and the Plasma arc torch method.

1. Physical methods for detoxifying hazardous wastes include using charcoal or resins to filter
out harmful solids, distilling liquid wastes to separate out harmful chemicals, and
precipitating, or allowing natural processes to separate, such chemicals from solution.

2. Chemical methods are used to convert hazardous chemicals to harmless or less harmful
chemicals through chemical reactions. For example, cyclodextrin (a type of sugar made
from cornstarch) is used to remove toxic materials such as solvents and pesticides from
contaminated soil and groundwater. Cyclodextrin acts like a sponge picking up chemicals
from the soil.

3. Nanomagnets are magnetic nanoparticles coated with certain compounds that can remove
various pollutants from water. E.g., magnetic nanoparticles coated with chitosan, derived
from the exoskeletons of shrimps and crabs, are used to remove oil and other organic
pollutants from contaminated water. Magnetic fields are used to remove the pollutant-
coated nanomagnets. The pollutants can then be separated out and disposed of or
recycled, and the magnetic nanoparticles can be reused.

4. Biological methods are used for treatment of hazardous waste. Some of

the methods used are bioremediation and phytoremediation,
bioremediation utilizes Bacteria and enzymes help destroy
toxic/hazardous substances, or convert them to harmless compounds.
Phytoremediation involves using natural or genetically engineered
plants to absorb, filter, and remove contaminants from polluted soil and
water.

5. Plasma arc torch breaks them down at very high temperatures. Plasma

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 can decompose liquid or solid hazardous waste to gas consisting mostly of carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) and a molten, glassy, solid material can be used to
encapsulate toxic metals and keep them from leaching into groundwater. This method is
not widely used due to its high cost.

Storage of hazardous waste

Storage of hazardous waste such as burial or long-term storage should be
considered as the third and final resort, after the first two priorities have been
exhausted. The most commonly used disposal methods are deep-well
disposal and surface impoundments.
1. In deep-w ell disposal, liquid hazardous wastes are pumped under
pressure through a pipe into dry, porous rock formations far beneath
aquifers that are tapped for drinking and irrigation water. However, this
fairly cheap, out-of-sight and out-of-mind approach presents some
problems. There are a limited number of
such sites and limited space within them. Sometimes the
wastes can leak into groundwater from the well shaft or
migrate into groundwater in unexpected ways.

2. Surface impoundments are lined ponds, pits, or

lagoons in which liquid hazardous wastes are stored as the
water evaporates, the waste settles and becomes more
concentrated. But using no liner, using leaking single
liners, and failing to use double liners can allow such wastes to percolate into the
groundwater, and because these impoundments are not covered, volatile harmful
chemicals can evaporate into the air.
3. Secure hazardous w aste landfills: are used for waste that cannot be destroyed, detoxified
or safely buried. In such cases, they are put into metal drums or containers that are buried in
salt mines or bedrock caverns, where they can be inspected on a regular basis, and
retrieved, if necessary.

Steps to reduce waste as an individual

• Follow the three Rs, i.e., reduce, reuse and recycle.
• Try to avoid packaging material whenever possible when you buy a particular item.
• Rent, borrow or barter goods and services when you can buy second-hand, and donate
or sell unused items.
• Buy things that are reusable, recyclable or compostable, and be sure to reuse, recycle
and compost them.
• Avoid disposables and throwaway paper and plastic cups, eating utensils and other
disposable items when reusable versions are available.
• Use email or text-messaging in place of conventional paper email. Read newspapers and
magazines online and read e-books.
• Buy products in bulk or concentrated form whenever possible.

Steps from the government to improve recycling and waste reduction

• Increase in subsidies and tax breaks for reuse and recycling materials (positive incentive).
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 • Decrease subsidies and tax breaks for producing items from virgin resources (negative
incentive).
• Fee-per-bag waste collection systems.
• Encourage purchases of recycled products.
• Pass laws requiring companies to take back and recycle/reuse packaging and electronic
waste discarded by consumers.

Case study: Industrial Ecosystems: Biomimicry

Biomimicry is the science and art of discovering and using natural principles to help solve
human problems. For example, scientists have studied termite mounds to learn how to cool
buildings naturally. One way for industries to mimic nature is to reuse or recycle most of the
minerals and chemicals they use, instead of burying or burning them or shipping them
somewhere. Another way for industries to mimic nature would be to interact through resource
exchange webs in which the wastes of one manufacturer become the raw materials for another—
similar to food webs in natural ecosystems.
Industrial ecosystem: Kalundborg, Denmark
In Kalundborg, an electric power plant and nearby industries, farms, and homes are
collaborating to save money and to reduce their outputs of waste and pollution, within what is
called an eco-industrial park, or industrial ecosystem. They exchange waste outputs and convert
them into resources. This cuts pollution and waste and reduces the flow of non-renewable
mineral and energy resources through the local economy.

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Biomimicry also encourages companies to come up with new, environmentally beneficial, and
less resource-intensive chemicals, processes, and products that they can sell worldwide. In
addition, these companies convey a better image to consumers based on actual results rather
than public relations campaigns. Biomimicry involves two major steps.
• The first is to observe certain changes in nature and to study how natural systems have
responded to such changing conditions over many millions of years.
• The second step is to try to copy or adapt these responses within human systems in
order to help us deal with various environmental challenges. In the case of solid and
hazardous wastes, the food web serves as a natural model for responding to the growing
problem of these wastes.