LIPIDS The membranes of cells and organelles

(structures within cells) are microscopically thin

Lipids are biological molecules that are insoluble
structures formed from two layers of
in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents.
phospholipid molecules.
Lipids have a wider spectrum of compositions
Membranes function to separated individual
and structures because they are defined in
cells from their environments and to
terms of their physical properties (water
compartmentalize the cell interior to structures
solubility).
that carry out special functions.
Lipids are the waxy, greasy, or oily compounds
So important is this compartmentalizing
found in plants and animals.
function that membranes, and the lipids that
- Wax coating that protects plants form them, must have been essential to the
- Used as energy storage. origin of life itself.
- Structural components (cell
Structure
membranes)
- Insulation against cold 1. Phospholipid Bilayer - Two layers of
phospholipids
In normal people, the amount of lipids accounts
for 25% of body weight, and most of them are 2) Phospholipid contains:
stored in adipose tissue in the form of
- 2 fatty acid chains that are nonpolar
triglycerides, which are variable lipids.
(hydrophobic)
Lipoid is the basic structure of the tissue, called - Polar Head (hydrophilic)
basic or fixed fat, accounting for 5% of the total
Chemical Properties
lipid content.
The most chemically reactive portion of fatty
The lipids present in various tissues are body
acids is the acidic carboxyl group (COOH).
fats, and the body fat stores huge energy.
It reacts with alcohols (R'OH) to form products
Lipid, any of a diverse group of organic
known as esters (RCOOR') and releases water in
compounds including fats, oils, hormones, and
the process.
certain components of membranes that are
grouped together because they do not interact This ester bond is the principal covalent bond
appreciably with water. linking fatty acid moieties to other groups in the
more-complex lipids.
One type of lipid, the triglycerides, is
sequestered as fat in adipose cells, which serve A second chemical bond, occurring much less
as the energy-storage depot for organisms and frequently in biological lipids involving fatty
also provide thermal insulation. acids, is the ether bond (R’ – O – R).
Some lipids such as steroid hormones serve as Ether bonds are chemically more stable than
chemical messengers between cells, tissues, and ester bonds.
organs, and others communicated signals
between biochemical systems within a single
cell.
Difference between ESTER AND ETHER HEART FAILURE

Ester - Decreased cardiac remodeling and

fibrosis.
- An ester is a group where one Oxygen
- Decreased thromboxane A2 production.
atom is doubly bonded to a Carbon
- Decreased platelet aggregation.
atom which is singly bonded to another
- Increased vasodilation.
Oxygen atom, which is again singly
bonded to another Carbon atom. ARRHYTMIA

Ether - Decreased fast voltage dependent

sodium and L-type calcium channels.
- An ether group is a group where an
- Inhibition of repolarization portion of
Oxygen atom is singly bonded to two
potassium current.
Carbon atoms (alkyl groups).
LIPID DIVISION
Fatty acids ethyl esters have been implicated as
important mediators of ethanol-induced 1. Saponifiable Lipids – contain esters,
cytotoxicity, organ damage, and disease. which can undergo saponification
(hydrolysis under basic conditions).
In addition, they serve as specific and sensitive
- Simple Lipids – contain two types of
biomarkers for ethanol intake. Following
components (a fatty acid and an
ethanol consumption, FAEE are found in
alcohol).
circulating blood bound to albumin or/and
Ex: waxes, triglycerides
lipoproteins.
- Complex Lipids – contain more than
ATHEROSCLEROSIS two components (fatty acids, an alcohol,
and other components)
- Increased NO mediated vasodilation. Ex: phosphoglycerates, sphingolipids
- Prevent atherosclerotic plaque
formation. Simple vs Complex Lipids
- Decreased pro-inflammatory
Simple Lipids
eicosanoids from AA.
- Increased expression or pro- - Definition: are a group of lipids
inflammatory cytokines. composed only of fatty acids, glycerol,
and alcohol.
DYSLIPIDEMIA
- Composition: fatty acids, glycerol, and
- Decreased hepatic TG synthesis. alcohol
- Decreased novo lipogenesis. - Other groups: Do not contain other
- Increased clearance of circulating TG. groups.
- Increased Fa beta-oxidation. - Ex: fats, oil, and wax

BLOOD PRESSURE Complex Lipids

- Increased vagal tone. - Definition: are a group of lipids that

- Improved LV diastolic filling. contain other groups as well.
- Composition: fatty acids, glycerol, and
other groups.
 - Other groups: contain other groups such - HDL “grabs” LDL and escorts it to the
as nitrogenous base carbohydrates, liver where LDL is broken down and
proteins, phospholipids, etc. eventually removed from the body.
- Ex: Phospholipids, glycolipids,
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
lipoproteins, lipopolysaccharides, etc.
- Have one or more carbon-carbon
2. Non – saponifiable Lipids – do not double bonds. The term unsaturated
contain ester groups, and cannot be indicates that fewer than the maximum
saponified (steroids, prostaglandins). possible number of hydrogen atoms are
bonded to each carbon in the molecule.
A non – saponifiable class is made up of “fat-
- The number of double bonds is
soluble” A and E vitamins and cholesterol.
indicated by the generic name –
Under basic conditions – like phospholipids, monounsaturated for molecules with
glycolipids, sphingolipids, and other waxes – it one double bond or polyunsaturated for
can be hydrolyzed. molecules with two or more double
bonds.
FATTY ACID
- Oleic acid is an example of a
Saturated Fatty Acids monounsaturated fatty acid.

- The simplest fatty acids are unbranched Trans polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
linear chains of CH2 (Methylene) groups
- Are produced by microorganisms in the
linked by carbon-carbon single bonds
gut of ruminant animals such as cows
with one terminal carboxylic acid group.
and goats, and they are also produced
- The term saturated indicates that the
synthetically by partial hydrogenation of
maximum possible number of hydrogen
fats and oils in the manufacture of
atoms are bonded to each carbon in the
margarine (the so-called trans fats).
molecule.
- There is evidence that ingestion of trans
- Many saturated fatty acids have a trivial
fats can have deleterious metabolic
or common name as well as a
effects.
chemically descriptive systematic name.
THE FACTS ON FAT
Saturated Fat
The American Heart Association recommends
- Meat, butter, etc. that are solid at a
replacing bad (saturated) fats with good
room temperature.
(unsaturated) fats as a part of a healthy eating
- Increase levels of “bad” cholesterol
pattern.
(low-density lipoprotein) that clogs
arteries. LOVE IT

Unsaturated Fat UNSATURATED (POLY & MONO)

- Vegetable oils - Lowers rates of cardiovascular and all-

- Liquid at room temperature cause mortality.
- Increased levels of “good” cholesterol - Lowers bad cholesterol and triglyceride
(high-density lipoprotein). levels.
 - Provides essential fats your body needs
but can’t produce itself.

LIMIT IT

SATURATED

- Increases risk of cardiovascular disease.

- Raises bad cholesterol levels.

LOSE IT

ARTIFICIAL TRANS FAT, HYDROGENATED OILS %

TROPICAL OILS

- Increases risk of heart disease.

- Raises bad cholesterol levels.

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS

Most of the fatty acids we need can be

synthesized in the body.

Two fatty acids, linoleic acid and linolenic acid, When surfactants are present above the critical
both polyunsaturated fatty acids with 18-carbon micelle concentration (CMC), they can act as
chains, cannot be synthesized with the body emulsifiers that will allow a compound that is
and must be obtained from the diet. normally insoluble (in the solvent being used) to
dissolve.
These are essential fatty acids. Both are found
in plants and fish oils. In the body, they are This occurs because insoluble species can be
used to produce hormone-like substances that incorporated into the micelle core, which is
regulate blood pressure, blood clotting, blood itself solubilized in the bulk solvent by virtue of
lipid levels, the immune response, and the head groups favorable interactions with
inflammatory reactions. solvent species.

MICELLES The most common example of this

phenomenon are detergents, which clean
In aqueous solutions, fatty acids associate with
poorly soluble lipophilic material (such as oils
each other in spherical clusters called micelles,
and waxes) that cannot be removed by water
in which the hydrocarbon tails tangle each other
alone.
up through dispersion forces, leaving a “shell” of
polar carboxylate ions facing outwards, in Detergents clean also by lowering the surface
contact with the water. tension of water, making it easier to remove
material from a surface. The emulsifying
Micelles are important in the transport of
property or surfactants is also the basis for
insoluble lipids in the blood, and in the actions
emulsion polymerization.
of soaps.
 Sebum, secreted by the sebaceous glands of the
skin, contains waxes that help to keep skin soft
and prevent dehydration.

Waxes are used commercially to make

cosmetics, candles, ointments, and protective
polishes.

Types of Lipids: Steroids and Waxes

STEROIDS

- Are characterized by 4 ring structure.

SOAPS
- Steroids are found in the cell
NaOH produces “hard” soap, commonly found membrane, where they influence the
in a bar soap, KOH produces a “soft” soap, such membrane’s fluidity.
as those in shaving creams and liquid soaps. - They can also act as hormones in the
body.
These salts combine two solubility
characteristics: WAXES

- A long, nonpolar, water-insoluble - Are esters made of an alcohol chain and

(hydrophobic) hydrocarbon “tail”. fatty acid chain.
- A charged, water-soluble (hydrophilic) - Many plants have wax-covered leaves to
“head”. prevent water loss.

In water, the “tails” become tangled, leaving the TRIGLYCERIDE

charged heads sticking out into the solution,
Triglycerides are lipids (waxy fats) that give your
forming a structure called micelle.
body energy. Your body makes triglycerides and
WAXES also gets it from the foods you eat.

Waxes are simple lipids contain a fatty acid High triglycerides combined with high
joined to a long-chain (12-32 carbons) alcohol. cholesterol raise your risk of heart attack,
strokes, and pancreatitis. Diet and lifestyle
Waxes are insoluble in water, and not as easily changes can keep triglyceride levels in a healthy
hydrolyzed as fats and oils. They often occur in range.
nature as protective coating on feathers, fur,
skin, leaves, and fruits.
Triglycerides are a type of fat (lipid) found in - The fatty acids at the first and second
your blood. When you eat, your body converts positions are variable, so there are a
any calories it doesn’t need to use right away number of different possible lecithins.
into triglycerides. - Commercially, lecithin extracted from
soybeans is used as an emulsifying
agent in margarine and candies to
provide a smooth texture.
- It is used for treating memory disorders
such as dementia and Alzheimer’s
disease.
- It is also used for treating gallbladder
disease, liver disease, certain types of
depression, high cholesterol, and
Triglycerides can be broken apart with water anxiety.
and an acid catalyst (hydrolysis), or by digestive - Some people apply lecithin to the skin
enzymes called lipases. Fat is a triglyceride, also as moisturizer.
known as triacylglycerol.
According to Japanese study published in the
Journal of Dermatology, consuming soy sauce,
fermented soybeans, chocolate, cheese, coffee,
and yoghurt causes worsening of eczema
symptoms.

After the participants avoided these foods for

three months, they all had significant less
eczema symptoms.

COMPLEX LIPIDS CEPHALINS

PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES - Phosphoglycerides that contains the

amino alcohol ethanolamine or serine
- Phosphoglycerides are complex lipids are called cephalins.
that are major components of cell - Cephalins are found in most cell
membranes. membranes and are particularly
- Phosphoglycerides and related abundant in brain tissue. They are also
compounds are called phospholipids. found in blood platelets and play a role
- Glycerophospholipids or in blood clotting.
phosphoglycerides are glycerol-based - They have a role in blood coagulation.
phospholipids. They are the main They accelerate blood clotting because
component of biological membranes. they enter in the structure of
- Example: Neural Membranes thromboplastin, which is essential for
blood clotting.
LECITHINS

- Phosphoglycerides that contain the

amino alcohol choline are called
lecithins.
 BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANE

Most cell contain about 60% lipids and 40%

proteins:

- Phosphoglycerides (e.g. lecithin and

cephalin)
- Sphingomyelin
- Cholesterol

The fluid-mosaic model of the cell pictures the

cell membrane as being composed of a lipid
bilayer, in which the nonpolar tails of lipids
point towards the “interior” of the bilayer,
SPHINGOLIPIDS
leaving the polar, hydrophilic portions pointing
- Are complex lipids that contain outwards.
sphingosine instead of glycerol.
Your brain is mostly fat. Consisting of minimum
Sphingomyelins 60% fat, your brain is the fattest organ in your
body. This is why healthy fats, such as omega-3s
- Have sphingosine or a dihydroxyamine and omega-6s, are vital for brain and overall
as their backbone. body health.
- Abundant in brain and nerve tissue.
- Major constituents of the coating FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
around nerve fibers.
The fluid mosaic model explains various
GLYCOLIPIDS observations regarding the structure of
functional cell membranes. According to this
- Are sphingolipids that contain biological model, there is a lipid bilayer in which
carbohydrates (usually protein molecules are embedded. The lipid
monosaccharides). They are also bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the
referred to as cerebrosides because of membrane.
their abundance in brain tissue.
The proportions of proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates, in the plasma membrane vary
with cell type.
STEROIDS - Testosterone, which contributes to the
development and maintenance of male
- Steroids are classified as lipids because
secondary sex characteristics.
they are soluble in nonpolar solvents,
but they are non-saponifiable because Estrogen:
the components are not held together
- Estradiol, which contributes to the
by ester linkages.
development and maintenance of
- The basic steroid structure contains four
female secondary sex characteristics.
fused rings.
CHOLESTEROL

- Cholesterol is the most abundant

steroid in the body.
- It is an essential component of cell
membranes, and is a precursor for other
steroids, such as the bile salts, sex
hormones, vitamin D, and the
adrenocorticoid hormones.
- There is apparently a correlation
between high levels of cholesterol in
the blood and atherosclerosis.

STEROID HORMONES

Corticosteroids:

Glucocorticoids:

- Cortisol, a glucocorticoid whose

functions include immunosuppression.

Mineralocorticoids

- Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid which

helps regulate blood pressure through
water and electrolyte balance. Metabolic Syndrome: Disease of the Modern
Era
Sex Steroids:
Constellation of several risk factors that increase
Progestogen:
chance of coronary artery disease, peripheral
- Progesterone, which regulates cyclical vascular disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.
changes in the endometrium of the
Combination of 3 or more of the following risks:
uterus and maintains a pregnancy.
- Abdominal obesity
Androgen: - Triglyceride levels above 150 mg/dL
- Low HDL cholesterol
 - Elevated blood pressure (> 130/85 mm After binding to lipids, proteins take part in
Hg) transporting lipids in plasma, so they are called
- Fasting blood glucose > 100 mg/dL apolipoproteins.

Aging a major contributor: prevalence in 20-29

yr olds = 6.7%; 60-69 yr olds = 43.5%

METABOLISM

The liver and pancreas are important sites for

lipid metabolism and play an important role in
the process of lipid digestion, absorption,
synthesis, decomposition and transport.

Lipids are insoluble in water, and lipids in

plasma can only be transported to the body
throughout the blood cycle by binding to
proteins and becoming hydrophilic.

Free fatty acids bind to albumin while the

remaining lipids combine with globulin to form
lipoproteins.

Lipoproteins containing more TG are with low Lipogenesis is the conversion of fatty acid and
density, and those containing less TG have glycerol into fats OR metabolic process through
higher density. which acetyl-CoA is converted to triglyceride for
storage in fat.
According to the density of lipoproteins, plasma
lipoproteins can be divided into four categories: Fatty acids are produced in the cytoplasm of
cells by repeatedly adding two-carbon units to
- chylomicrons (CM) acetyl-CoA.
- very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)
- low density lipoprotein (LDL)
- high density lipoprotein (HDL).
 PANCREATIC ENZYMES

Lipase. This enzyme works together with bile,

which your liver produces, to break down fat in
your diet. Lipase. This enzyme works together
with bile, which your liver produces, to break
down fat in your diet.

Protease. This enzyme breaks down proteins in

your diet. It also helps protect you from germs
that may live in your intestines, like certain
bacteria and yeast. Undigested proteins can
cause allergic reactions in some people.

Amylase. This enzyme helps break down

Triacylglycerol synthesis on the other hand, starches into sugar, which your body can use for
occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane energy. If you don't have enough amylase, you
of cells by bonding three fatty acid molecules to may get diarrhea from undigested
a glycerol molecule. Both processes take place carbohydrates.
mainly in liver and adipose tissue.

Those produced by the liver are secreted from it

in the form of very-low-density lipoproteins
(VLDL).

VLDL particles are secreted directly into blood,

where they function to deliver the
endogenously derived lipids to peripheral
tissues.