COUSE-504: LEARNING MATHEMATICS AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL

BLOCK-1 : IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING MATHEMATICS AT

ELEMENTARY STAGE OF SCHOOLING
 Piaget, and Bruner, believe that perceiving through manipulation of ‘concrete’ objects forms the
basis of human knowledge and thinking. Piaget, the famous Swiss child psychologist, proposed that
child’s thinking begins with two processes: perception (the knowledge of objects resulting from
direct contact with them) and representation (mental imagery of the perceived objects). Of course,
for giving shape to the representation, language plays an important part.
 Some of the important principles of perception are as follows which emerged from the studies of
Adelbert Ames Jrfar back in1938 and are getting much attention in recent times: We do not get our
perceptions from the objects around us. Our perceptions come from us. It is not to belittle the
importance of the object but to highlight the way in which each observer perceives the object.
Numbers are quite fascinating to many while these are dreaded figures for quite a large proportion
of people including adults and children. What we perceive is largely a function of our previous
experiences, our assumptions and our purposes or needs.
 each individual’s thought process follows the invariant process of organisation and adaptation as
equilibration of assimilation and accommodation, yet everyone is unique in his/her ways of thinking.
 three basic groups of mathematical concepts that are essential in all topics included in the
mathematics curriculum at the elementary school level are number and operations on
numbers, spatial thinking and measurement.
 Pre-number concepts ( matching, sorting, comparing, ordering, subitizing ) These concepts
can be developed in children during the preschool years. i.e. before attaining 7 years of
age(before the concrete operation stage).
 Matching forms the basis for our number system. This becomes a pre requisite skill for the
more difficult tasks of conservation.
 Ordering is foundational to our number system
 Subitizing: Instant recognition of a number pattern without counting is subitizing. The
pattern can be reconstructed without knowing the amount. Subitizing helps the children see
small collections as one unit. This provides an early perceptual basis for number, but it is not
yet “number knowledge”.
 Number Concepts: Counting, recognising and using numerals correctly, comparing numbers and
operations on numbers are considered as important milestones in the development of number
concepts.
 The process of counting involves two steps – first assigning a number to a particular object which
forms one of a sequence of objects is known as ordinal aspect of number. Second and final step of
counting is of knowing that the number of objects in a collection (‘manyness’, or ‘numerosity’) i.e.
the cardinal aspect.
 Ordinality develops earlier at about 3 to 5years of age after the child is able to match the objects in
two collections using the method of one-to-one correspondence as discussed earlier along with the
knowledge of number names. The knowledge of names of numbers from 1 to 9 develops around 2 to
3 years of age not as a matter of numerical ability, but as words in course of language
 development.Associating these words (one, two, three, four,….., nine) with the objects is the
beginning of the development of numerical skill
 Establishing one-to-one correspondence between the objects and the number names in a sequential
order is the process of ordinality. However, ordinality does not ensure knowing the size of the
collection of objects for two reasons – (i) child at the age of 2 to 4 years is yet to know the quantity
associated with number names, and (ii) he has not yet developed the conservation of numbers.
 the conservation of numbers which comes around age 6.
 the child acquires the conservation of length, area, volume and mass in later years during the
concrete operation period (i.e. from age 7to 11 or 12). Once the conservation of numbers is achieved
around the age of 4 to 5, he/she can group the objects and count to know the quantity of objects
within the group
 The child becomes ready to understand and use the numerals by the age 7, but it is by the age 11
that he/she can write large numbers stating the place value of each number
 In writing numerals for numbers ten and more than ten, the knowledge of place value is essential
which is developed around age 7 to 8 through process of counting
 Operations on numbers: Addition and its reverse process subtraction are observed to be performed
by children at a very early age even before age 6. Adding and taking away with concrete objects are
quite familiar to those who never visit the schools. But the real understanding of the structure and
operations comes around the age 9 to 11.
 H.C.F is the product of the lowest powers of each of the prime factors that commonly occurs in both
the numbers.
 L.C.M is the product of the maximum number of each prime factor that occurs in either of the
numbers
 From a developmental standpoint, children are able to learn multiplication at the same time that
they are able to learn addition. But in schools it is delayed and multiplication along with division is
taught in grade III i.e. till the children attain age 9. Again the structural properties of multiplication
and division in natural numbers are introduced in the later part of the concrete operation period
around age 11.
 Piaget identifies two processes i.e. conservation and transitivity upon which the measurement
process is dependent.
 the meaningful use of an instrument of measure rests on the notion of transitivity.
 Around 6 to 7 years of age, the child uses non-standard unit of measuring length like his hand span or
his own height to measure the length The child begins to understand the conservation of volume of
liquid at about 7 to 8 years of age when he/she realizes that the liquid poured from a wider vessel
from a tall thin vessel is of same amount
 It is not until roughly around 8 to 10 years of age the average child can appreciate measurement in
terms of covering whatever is to be measured, with smaller units of measure. Up to this stage,
development of the measurement has been characterised by a trial and error approach. Now the
child is able to proceed by means of a more calculated approach
 The child reaches the final stage of development to measure area and volume by calculation of linear
dimensions (length, breadth, and height/thickness) by the age of 10 and 11 or a few years later.
 When the child has passed the scribbling stage, around three and half years of age, he/she can
distinguish between the closed and open figures. But all simple closed figures such as squares, circles
or triangles are all the same for him/her and are drawn the same way
 Around 7 to 8 years of age the child becomes able to differentiate between similar shapes such as
squares, rectangles and rhombus correctly. But it is not until the child reaches 10 years old, he/she is
able to name the figures correctly and it is not until a year or two older than this that he/she could
distinguish the presentation of 3D objects from those of the 2D figures
 characteristics of nature of mathematics learning as summarised by White Bread (Anghileri, 1995):
Mathematics starts from ‘home learning’ established in the child before he/she comes to school.
Mathematics is based on understanding. Mathematics puts great emphasis on the child’s own
methods of calculating and solving problems and rejects the previous practice of heavy emphasis on
standard written algorithms. Mathematics is regarded as a powerful tool for interpreting the world
and therefore should be rooted in real experience across the whole curriculum. Mathematics is
brought out of the child’s everyday situations. Mathematics with reason is rooted in action – learning
through doing. Mathematics with reason puts less emphasis on representing numbers on paper as
‘sums’ and more emphasis on developing mental images in the child. The main tool for child and
teacher to employ in the mastery of mathematics concepts is language, not pencil and paper
exercises from textbooks. The child is encouraged to talk about what he/she is doing. Errors are
accepted as essential part of the mathematics learning process. The child, freed from the fear of
criticism, will more readily experiment.
 . James (1985) reviewing the work of Bruner and others on the inter-relationship between
language and thought propounds a mathematics teaching procedure which he terms ‘do, talk and
record’. This involves children in doing mathematics practically, and then following a five-step
sequence of activities towards recording as follows: The learners explain their thinking to others;
They demonstrate their mental images either with objects or by sketches; They record in writing the
‘storey’ of what their sketches show; They make successive abbreviations of the process they used;
Finally, they can see the relevance of and adopt standard notations.
 From psychological point of view, the dominant model of human learning is of the child as an
information processor, attempting to derive meaning from experience by subjecting it to several
modes of processing like classification or categorisation of new information and relating those to the
existing experiences to derive meaning
 There are three main features of the human information processing system : learning by induction ,
limited working memory capacity , development of meta cognitive awareness and control .
 e, Miller has demonstrated from a whole range of evidence that we hold only about seven separate
pieces of information in our short-term or ‘working’ memory
 Development of mathematical concepts in children follows the trends of cognitive development.
 Pre-number concepts of matching, sorting, comparing ordering and subsidising develop during pre-
school years i.e. before the age of 6 years. While the number concepts and most of the
measurement concepts develop completely during the concrete operation period i.e. before the age
of 11, spatial thinking requires one or two years more to develop. The conservation and transitivity
of numbers, length, mass and weight take place before the onset of formal operation period whereas
those of volume and area take longer time.
 The position paper on mathematics for the National Curriculum Framework asserts that “our vision
of excellent mathematical education is based on the twin premises that all students can learn
mathematics and that all students need to learn mathematics. It is therefore imperative that we offer
mathematics education of the very high quality to all children.”
 According to C. G. Hempel “It can be derived from logic in the following sense: All concepts of
mathematics i.e. arithmetic, algebra and analysis can be defined in terms of concepts of logic. All the
theorems of mathematics can be deduced from these definitions by means of the principles of logic.
Thus, it can be said that in mathematics truth can be established with logic
 logical process of arriving at a generalized statement of relation observing the relation in several
cases in similar conditions is known as mathematical induction. If one statement is true for n number
of cases then it will be true for n+1 number of cases
 deductive method perfected in mathematics is perhaps the strongest model of all type of logic and is
a model for other logical system. Euclid’s geometry is an excellent example of this and his method of
breaking up the problem into ‘what is given?’, ‘what has to be established?’, and the method of
establishing is nothing but a logical procedure.
 According to C. J. Keyser “The quality of mathematical thought, the certainty and correctness, its
conclusion are due to the characteristics of the concepts with which it deals precision, sharpness and
completeness. Such ideas admit of such precision, others do not, and the mathematician is the one
who deals with those that do
 During the elementary stage, the child is going through the concept of natural numbers, whole
numbers, integers, fractional numbers rational numbers and real numbers.
 Hierarchy structure of number system = natural nos. >> whole nos.>> integers >> rational nos.
 L, Bers said “The strength of mathematics is abstraction, but the abstraction is useful only if covers a
large number of special cases.”
 Abstraction is essential in mathematics. It is one of the amazing features of mathematics. This nature
of mathematics gives rise to the development of new areas of mathematics like algebra.
 the National Curriculum Framework (2005) states that clarity of thought and pursuing assumptions
to logical conclusions is central to the mathematical enterprise.
 Shakespeare’s words, “Brevity is the soul of wit”
 According to N. J. Fine, ‘a problem that is posed represents an outpost to be taken, a simple
engagement in our conquest of the unknown.’ The Hilbert’s Thesis on Mathematics quotes,
‘mathematics is forward looking, being more connected with solving outstanding problems and
creating powerful new concepts and methods than with merely contemplating knowledge that has
already been won’.
 George Polya, in his book Mathematical Discovery, defines problem solving as the conscious search
for some action appropriate to attain some clearly conceived, but not immediately attainable aim.
 To define mathematical thinking, the renowned mathematician H. Weyl stated “By the mathematical
thinking, I mean first that form of reasoning through which mathematics penetrates into the sciences
of the external world and even into our every day thoughts about human affairs.”
 mental abilities like thinking precisely, articulating clearly, think logically and systematically and
generalizing from patterns helps us immensely in our real life situations. Those are the process of
mathematical thinking.
 Intuitive thinking means learning by experimenting with concrete materials, through experiencing
ideas in various concrete ways, and by visualizing ideas relying on analytical thought processes.
 The processes of reflective thinking include reflecting, inventing, imagining, and playing (dealing)
with ideas, problem solving, theory building and generalizing.
 Sir James Jeans, the famous British astronomer, once told, “God is a supreme mathematician who
created this well ordered and systematic Universe”.
 According to David Wheeler, it is “more useful to know how to Mathematize than to know a lot of
mathematics”.
 According to George Polya, there are two kinds of aims in mathematics for school education such as
broader and narrower aims.
 Developing the ability of mathematization which is regarded as constituting the higher aims of
mathematics, includes developing such abilities as problem solving, use of heuristics, estimation and
approximation, optimisation, use of patterns, visualization, representation, reasoning and proof,
making connections, mathematical communication including developing aesthetic feeling. Such a
higher aim in mathematics “is to develop the child’s inner resources, to think and reason
mathematically, to pursue assumptions to their logical conclusion and to handle abstraction. It
includes a way of doing things, and the ability and the attitude to formulate and solve problems”
(NCERT, p.46),
 The problem solving skills include skills of observation, experimentation, estimation, reasoning and
verification. Abstraction, quantification, analogy, case analysis, reduction to simpler situations, even
guesses and verification are useful in many problem contexts
 regularity is the essence of mathematics. It provides the basis for inductive learning too.
 NCF-2005 is explicit in stating that “the narrow aim of school mathematics is to develop ‘useful’
capabilities, particularly those relating to numeracy- numbers, number operations, measurements,
decimals and percentages”
 some of the major aims of mathematics education: To develop the powers of thinking and
reasoning. To solve mathematical problems of daily life. To understand and acquainted with the
environment and culture To prepare the child for various technical and general future professions.
To prepare the child for higher study. To develop in the child the power for invention.
 The specific aims of mathematics education helps to design suitable methods for planning effective
classroom learning process, curriculum, guide to prepare TLMs, prepare evaluation procedures etc.
he following are some of the specific aims of mathematics education: To ensure a good start to the
students in learning mathematics. To give clarity on fundamental concepts and processes of the
subject. To create love, faith and interest for learning mathematics. To develop in them a taste and
confidence in mathematics. To develop appreciation for accuracy. To acquaint them with the relation
of mathematics with their present as well as future life. To see aesthetics in mathematics. To develop
in them the habits like regularity, practice, patience, self reliance and hard work. To apply
mathematics in other subjects. To acquaint them with mathematical language and symbolism. To
prepare them for the learning of mathematics of higher classes. To prepare them for mathematical
exhibitions.
 National Policy on Education, 1968, which shared the dream of all round development in every field
through technological and scientific advancements of the National Commission on Education 1964-
66,remarked that “advent of automation and cybernetics in this century marks the beginning of the
new scientific industrial revolution and makes it all the more imperative to devote special attention
to the study of mathematics”.
 The National Policy on Education 1986 proposed that “Mathematics should be visualized as the
vehicle to train a child, to think, reason, analyze and to articulate logically. Apart from being a specific
subject, it should be treated as a concomitant to any subject involving analysis and reasoning”
 Children understand the basic structure of mathematics: Arithmetic, algebra, geometry and
trigonometry, the basic content areas of school mathematics, all offer a methodology for abstraction,
structuration and generalization. A
 Crude Assessment: Most of our mathematics curriculum emphasized on memorization of formulas.
Our class room teaching process is also examination oriented. In our school, different tests are
designed to assess student’s knowledge of procedure and memory of formulas and facts. Questions
are set not to expose student’s experience but to get a fixed answer.
 The Learning Without Burden Report rightly said “joyless learning a situation where a lot is taught
but little is learnt or understood”.
 The higher aim is to develop the child’s resources to think and reason mathematically, to pursue
assumptions to their logical conclusion and to handle abstraction. It includes a way of doing things,
and the ability and the attitude to formulate and solve problems.
 The narrow aim of school mathematics is to develop so called ‘useful’ capabilities, particularly those
relating to numeracy- numbers, number operations, measurements, decimals and percentages.
 Inductive-deductive Method -- he oldest and the most basic method of teaching as well as learning
mathematics
 Deductive method: Here the learner proceeds from general to particular, abstract to concrete and
formula to examples. A preconstructed formula or principles be told to students and they are asked
to solve the different relevant problems with the help of the earlier formula. So in this method first
you give the relevant formula, principles and ideas to students and explain further its application of
the formula to problems.
 Deductive approach of teaching follows the steps given below for effective teaching -- Clear
recognition of the problem >> Search for a tentative hypothesis >> Formulating of a tentative
hypothesis/Choosing the relevant formula for solution >>. Solving the problem. >> Verification of the
result
 Inductive method helps the learner in developing the ability to reason by observing common
elements in the similar instances and arriving at the generalised statement or rule. Deductive
method is all about applying the established rules and formulae in solving various mathematical
problems. Almost all the problems in mathematics textbooks can be solved through the application
of deductive method.
 the students proceeds in the logical sequence like- given A is true, therefore B is true, hence C is true.
Here A is known to be true and the status of C is unknown and required to be ascertained as true.
Proceeding from A to C is Synthetic. But the other way, sometimes student proceeds from unknown
to known, i.e. C is true, if B is true; B is true, if A is true. The way of proceeding from unknown C to
known A is called Analytic method.
 Analytic method we break up the unknown problem into simpler parts and then see how these can
be recombined to find the solution. So we start with what is to be found out and then think of
further steps or possibilities that may connect the unknown built the known and find out the desired
result. The nature of the analytic method is that -- It leads from conclusion to hypothesis. It proceeds
from unknown to known.
 Analytic statements are not considered as the statements of proofs for the problem. Rather analysis
is considered as the means of discovering the proof. Synthetic method provides the proof of the
problem
 In Synthetic method, we proceed from what is given to proving what is required. To synthesizes
means to place together things that are apart. It starts with the data available or known and
connects the same with the conclusion. It is the process of putting together known bits of
information to reach the point where unknown information becomes obvious and true.
 Method of analysis and synthesis is applied for such problems in mathematics where ‘if – then’ type
of logic is needed. In proving geometric relationships, and algebraic identities and in solving algebraic
problems this method can be effectively used.
 The project based learning followed the following steps. a. Providing the situations b. Choosing and
purposing c. Planning for the project d. Executing the project e. Judging the project f. Recording the
project.
 STEPS FOR PROBLEM SOLVING IN MATHEMATICS : 1) Ideentifying the problem ..2) defining the
problem …..3) collection of relevant information ……4) formulating tentative hypothesis ……5 ) testing
the hypothesis …..6) construct physical models…..7) verification of the result
 benefits of problem posing for learning? It develops the spirit of inquiry. The more we observe, the
more we want to find out. It leads the learner into unknown territory. It requires and promotes
reflective thinking especially during posing the problems. It supports learners in asking the perennial
question that mathematicians pose: Is this always true? That is, did this relationship occur
fortuitously, or does a pattern lurk behind these numbers? The other benefit is that problem posing
involves searching for patterns.
 LEARNING CENTERED APPROACHES OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS : 1) 5 E’s Learning model ….2)
interpretation construction ( ICON ) design model ………..3) CONCEPT MAPPING ……..4 ) ACTIVITY
BASED .
 5E’s Learning Model -- In this model of learning, students learn in five sequential phases i.e.
Engagement-Exploration-Explanation-Elaboration-Evaluation
 ENGAGEMENT PHASE- students will get an opportunity to relate their previous knowledge with the
existing ideas. Your job in this phase is to identify the earlier knowledge of students and their
misconceptions/ alternative conceptions related to the concepts they are going to learn.
 EXPLORATION PHASE -- important characteristics of this phase is students’ collaboration (i.e. group
work). As they work together in teams, students build a base of common experience which assists
them in the process of sharing and communicating
 Elaboration Phase: The Elaboration phase of this learning cycle provides an opportunity for students
to apply their knowledge to new situations, which may include raising new questions and hypotheses
to explore. The students expand and apply on the concepts they have learned from the earlier three
phases, and make connections to other related concepts, and apply their understanding to real world
around them.
 Evaluation Phase: Evaluation, the fifth ‘E’, is an on-going diagnostic process that allows you to
determine, whether the learner has attained understanding of concepts and knowledge.
 INTERPRETATION CONSTRUCTION ( ICON ) DESIGN MODEL : SEVEN STEPS – OBSERVATION >>
CONTEXTUALIZATION >> COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP >>COLLABORATION >> INTERPRETATION AND
CONSTRUCTION >> MULTIPLE INTERPRETATIONS >> MULTIPLE MANIFESTATIONS …………This method
when applied in mathematics teaching – learning processes in the classroom situation, helps both
the learners and the teacher in successfully formulating multiple ways of solving a problem which
was thought to be possessing only one correct method of solution
 Cognitive apprenticeship: Learners are encouraged to exercise their minds though different
brainstorming activities by the teacher. As a teacher, you need to guide them how to analyse and
interpret the problem at this stage. You will find your students are having several alternative
conceptions or misconceptions.
 Multiple manifestations: The learners try to apply various interpretations one by one for the problem
solution and thus acquire multiple solutions to the problem. Further they also gain multiple
manifestation of the same interpretation.
 The Experiential Learning Cycle includes five sequential steps, or stages. The steps are as follows:
Experiencing: (This is the initial stage of the cycle): Almost any activity that involves self-assessment
or interpersonal interaction may be used as the “doing” part of experiential learning……………..
Publishing: After participants have experienced an activity, they are ready to share or publish what
they observed and how they felt during that experience………………………………………………………….
Processing: (This is the pivotal step in the experiential learning cycle). This step, referred to as the
group dynamics stage, includes systematic examination of shared experiences by the members of the
group.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Generalizing: In this stage, the members of the group begin to focus on their awareness of situations
in their personal or work lives that are similar to those they experienced in the group………………………
Applying: In this final stage, the facilitator helps participants apply generalizations to actual
situations in which they are involved.
 mathematics laboratory as it can act like a concomitant between teacher and students.

 BLOCK 3 : LEARNER ASSESSMENT IN MATHEMATICS

 Principles of assessment of mathematics learning: The three fundamental educational principles
which form the foundation of all assessment that supports effective education are equally applicable
for assessment of mathematics learning: --- CONTENT PRINCIPLE , LEARNING PRINCIPLE , EQUITY
PRINCIPLE .
 The Learning Principle: Assessment should enhance mathematics learning and support good
instructional practice.
 Besides these three principles, a good assessment of mathematics learning needs to satisfy the
following three criteria: ● Assessment should be an open process. Three aspects of assessment are
involved here. ■ First, information about the assessment process should be available to those
affected by it, the students. ■ Second, teachers should be active participants in all phases of the
assessment process. ■ Finally, the assessment process should be open to scrutiny and modification
 Assessment should promote valid inferences about mathematics learning. A valid inference is based
on evidence that is adequate and relevant. The amount and type of evidence that is needed depends
upon the consequences of the inference. For example, a teacher may judge students’ progress in
 understanding place value through informal interviews and use this information to plan future
classroom activities. However, a large-scale, high-quality assessment requires much more evidence
and a more formal analysis of that evidence.
 Assessment should be a coherent process. Three types of coherence are involved in assessment. ■
First, the phases of assessment must fit together. ■ Second, the assessment must match the purpose
for which it is being conducted. ■ Finally, the assessment must be aligned with the curriculum and
with instruction.
 Nature of assessment of mathematics learning : appropriate to sequence of mathematics learning ,
experiential and contextual , concrete- contextual to abstract , orality to performance – activity to
written , combinatorial .
 Dimensions of assessment of mathematical learning : concepts and procedures , mathematical
reasoning , dispositions towards mathematics , using mathematical knowledge and techniques to
solve problems , communication.
 At the elementary stage, all the mathematical concepts and procedures can be included in ten
broad areas: ■ Number (Real number system) ■ Number operations (Four processes) ■ Fractions
(including decimals) ■ Space and spatial thinking ■ Measurement (both standard and non-standard
measures) ■ Problem solving ■ Patterns ■ Data handling ■ Basic algebraic processes (only in upper
primary stage) ■ Simple equations (only in upper primary stage)
 Dispositions towards mathematics - Mathematics learning both influences and is influenced by
learner’s perception, interest, attitude and personality characteristics. When taught and assessed
properly in a learner friendly environment, the learners can enjoy learning mathematics and can get
rid of the anxiety and phobia associated with mathematics learning at the early stage of schooling.
 In the words of Cameron et al. “Learning occurs when students are, “thinking, solving the problems,
constructing, transforming, investigating, creating, analyzing, making choices, organizing, deciding,
explaining, talking and communicating, sharing, representing, predicting, interpreting, assessing,
reflecting, taking responsibility, exploring, asking, answering, recording, gaining new knowledge, and
applying that knowledge to new situations.”
 Self assessment in mathematics will improve learning because, it ? ■ Focus student attention on the
objectives measured ■ Motivate the students ■ Learn how to think about their learning and how to
self-assess ■ Construct their own understandings ■ Know how to use assessment information and
improve performance
 Techniques of self assessment in mathematics learning: ● Scrutiny: After the learner completes a
task or develops a model he/she has to minutely scrutinize the outcome after each step followed to
complete the task and the final outcome against the expected outcomes. home assignments, project
work, participation in teaching learning process etc.) with those of other learners in the class. ● Self
analysis: The learner analyzes his own response/result/solution in terms of the steps, formula,
principle and techniques followed to solve the problems with own answer. In course of such analysis,
he/she tries to detect omissions, repetitions, mistakes etc in his/her performance. ● Reflection: After
the analysis of his/her own performance, the learner reflects on the quality of the totality of his/her
performance and tries to estimate it. And while reflecting on the performance he/she draws a
mental balance sheet of his mistakes, limitations and excellence in the performance and accordingly
estimates the results.
 A long assignment can be assessed by rating the components of the responses : Understanding on
the concept 2) Style of presentation 3) Logical steps for solution 4) Use of own language 5) Use of
 appropriate formula 6) Use of proper mathematical symbols 7) Length of the answer 8) Correlation
with previous knowledge and experiences
 The focusing points of learning assessment in mathematics at primary level are related to
understanding: ● how children learn mathematics, ● the mathematical concepts included in primary
school curriculum, and ● child understanding of mathematics.
 Aspects of assessment of mathematics at primary level : mathematical communication, reasoning ,
use mathematical knowledge to solve problem, concepts and procedures , disposition towards
mathematics .
 Types of test items in mathematics : objective based items ,
 it is the nature of learning outcome (specific objective) that determines the type of item to be used
for assessment.
 “Portfolio is a purposeful collection of students work that exhibit the students’ efforts, progress, or
achievement in (a) given area(s). This collection must include: ● Students participation in selection of
portfolio content, ● The criteria of selection, ● The criteria of judging merit, and ● The evidence of
student self-reflection.”(Reckase, 1995).
 Spenser and Angus(1998) point out that student exhibition involve complex cognitive skills as they
must “collaboratively synthesize and evaluate information, and effectively communicate their ideas
to others.”
 Guba and Lincoln (1981) suggest that the evaluation generates five kinds of information: a)
descriptive information regarding the evaluation objectives, b) information about relevant issues, c)
information responsive to concerns of relevant audiences(here the parents and the teachers), d)
information about values, e) information about standards to merits,
 e individual progress card to record the learner performance in mathematics suggested by the
National Council for Educational Research &Training, New Delhi
 TYPES OF ERRORS -- Reading errors(R) - committed if the child could not read a key word or symbol
in the written problem to the extent that this prevented him/her from proceeding further along an
appropriate problem- solving path ● Comprehension errors (C) - committed when the child had been
able to read all the words in the question, but had not grasped the overall meaning of the words and,
therefore, was unable to proceed further along an appropriate problem solving path. ●
Transformation errors (T) - committed when the child had understood what the questions wanted
him/her to find out but was unable to identify the operation, or sequence of operations, needed to
solve the problem. ● Process skills errors (P) - committed when the child identified an appropriate
operation, or sequence of operations, but did not know the procedures necessary to carry out these
operations accurately. ● Encoding errors (E) - committed when the child correctly worked out the
solution to a problem, but could not express this solution in an acceptable written form.
 Newman(1977) suggested a diagnostic process of structured interview to identify the typical
mistakes in mathematics learning committed by the learner .
 SECTION 24(d) & 24(e) of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 states
A teacher appointed under sub-section (1) of section 23 will perform the following duties, namely;-
(d) Assess the learning ability of each child and accordingly supplement additional instructions, if any,
as required; (e) Hold regular meetings with parents and guardians and appraise them about the
regularity in attendance, ability to learn, progress made in learning and other relevant information
about the child.
 BLOCK-2 : ENRICHING CONTENTS AND METHODOLOGY
 Present decimal system is known as hindu-arabic numerals.
 , 0 is called the place holder in the decimal system of numbers
 each integer is a rational number.
 Rational numbers are denoted by the symbol Q. Obviously a fraction is a rational number.
 When a rational number is written in the form p/q where p and q have 1 as the only common factor
with q > 0, the number is said to be the standard form.
 Properties of addition in natural nos. and whole nos. – closure property (Sum of two natural/whole
numbers is also a natural/ whole number) , commutative property , associative property and
additive identity in whole nos.
 Additive Identity in Whole Numbers: In the set of whole numbers, 4 + 0 = 0 + 4 = 4. Similarly, p + 0 = 0
+ p = p (where p is any whole number). Hence, 0 is called the additive identity of the whole numbers.
 Properties of multiplication : commutative property , closure property , associative property , identity
of multiplication (The number ‘1’ is the identity of multiplication.) , distributive property of
multiplication over addition ( multiplication distributes over addition.)
 Prime number is defined on natural number greater than one number like 0,1,-1,-2,…, 1 /1 , 2/ 3 etc.
are neither a prime number nor a composite number.
 Two natural numbers are co-primes ( or mutually primes ) if those do not have a common factor.
Following are the examples- (i) 8 and 27 are co-primes (even if each of them is composite). (ii) 17 and
20 are co-primes.
 Twin Primes: Two prime numbers, the difference between is 2, are known as twin primes. 3 and 5, 5
and 7, 11 and 13, 17 and 19 are examples of twin primes.
 Thus, the prime numbers between 1 and 100 are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47,
53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97
 Operations on integers : All the properties of addition in whole numbers such as (i) Closure property
(ii) Commutative property (iii) Associative property (iv) Existence of additive identity also occur in
integers. The extra property that occurs in integers is the following:- 1) existence of additive inverse
 Subtraction in Integers is the addition of the opposite numbers (i.e. additive inverse). Thus, if ‘p’ and
‘q’ are two integers, then p – q = p + (–q)
 division in natural numbers as the reverse process of multiplication.
 rational numbers of which the denominators have no factor other than 2 or 5, can be represented as
decimal numbers. Such decimal numbers are known as terminating decimals.
 : A terminating and a non-terminating and recurring decimal each represents a rational number. But
a non-terminating and non-recurring decimal number does not represent a rational number.
 L.C.M is the product of the maximum number of each prime factor that occurs in either of the
numbers.
 Percentage is a comparison of one number with another. While comparing, we treat the 2nd number
as 100.
 Basic Axioms of Geometry I: Every line (i.e. straight line) and plane is a set of points. II: Through one
point innumerable lines can be drawn. III: Through two different points one and only one straight line
 can be drawn. IV: The line drawn through two given points in a plane also lies in the plane. V: There
exists only one plane containing three points not lying in a line. VI: If two planes intersect, their
intersection is a straight line.
 Variables having inverse variation in them Let us consider the following situations: 3 workers can
complete a work in 5 days. If one worker has to work alone, how many days would he take to
complete ? Our experience shows that he can complete it in 5 + 5 + 5 = 5 × 3 days Hence it is seen
that – If 3 worker complete a work in 5 days then, 1 worker completes the work in 5 × 3 = 15 days
 8 persons consume a certain quantity of food in 5 days, then 1 person will consume the same food 5
× 8 = 40 days. (ii) If 1 person can complete a work in 24 days, then 3 persons will complete the work
in 24 ÷ 3 = 8 days (iii) If 1 person consumes a certain stock of food in 30 days, then 5 persons will
consume the stock in 30 ÷ 5 = 6 days…………If the first variable is made twice the second becomes
half. If the first variable become one fourth, the second variable becomes 4 times. The above pairs of
variables are said to have inverse variation between them
 Angle(definition) : If A, B and C are 3 non-collinear points, then the figure formed by the rays AB
 and AC  is known as an angle BAC. (written as BAC)
 Degree measure of ABC is denoted as m /_ABC
 Axiom: With each angle a real number greater than 0 and less than 180 is associated. This number is
known as the measure of the angle (in degrees).
 Classification of angles: From measure point of view, angles are classified into the following
categories- (i) An angle of measure less than 90° and more than 0° is known as an acute angle. (ii) An
angle of measure 90° is known as a right-angle. (iii) An angle of measure greater than 90°and less
than 180° is known as an obtuse angle.
 Adjacent angles:If two angles have a common vertex and a common arm and further their interiors
have no common point, then the pair of such angles are known as adjacent angles.
 Complementary angles: Two angles are said to be complementary if the sum of their measures is 90°.
Obviously each of them would be an acute angle.
 A pair of complementary angles may or may not be a pair of adjacent angles.
 Supplementary angles:A pair of angles are said to be supplementary angles if the sum of their
measures is 180°.: A pair of supplementary angles may or may not be adjacent
 You can measure the angles formed when a transversal cuts a pair of parallel lines and observe that
(i) Exterior alternate angles are of equal measure and interior alternate angles are of equal measure.
(ii) Corresponding angles are of equal measure.
 Triangle ABC and its interior taken together are known as the triangular region.
 Obtuse angled triangle: A triangle in which one angle is obtuse, it is an obtuse angled triangle
 Convex quadrilateral and reentrant quadrilateral.
 CATEGoRIES OF QUADRILATERALS: trapezium, parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus , square.
 Area of a quadrilateral = sum of the areas of the pair of triangles obtained by drawing a diagonal.
 In a rhombus, the diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
 Area of the rhombus ABCD = ½ (product of the lengths of two diagonals)
 AB is a chord of the circle ABC. AB divides the circular region into two parts and each part is known as
a segment. The segment that does not contain the centre O, is known as the minor segment and
segment that contains the centre O is known as the major segment.
 Congruence of triangles: Two triangles become congruent under the following conditions: (i) Two
triangles are congruent if two sides of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding sides of
another and the angles included between them are congruent. This condition of congruence is
known as, S-A-S postulate. Two triangles are congruent if three sides of one triangle are congruent
to the corresponding sides of the other triangle. This condition is known as SSS congruence. Two
triangles are congruent if two angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding angles of
the other triangle and the sides included between them are congruent. This is known as “A-A-S
congruence.” Two right angled triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and one side of one
triangle are respectively congruent to the hypotenuse and the corresponding side of the other. This
is known as ‘RHS congruence
 The image of a point lying in the mirror line is its own image.
  ABC is an equilateral triangle. It has 3lines of symmetry and those are PQ , RS and TV . Each of them
joins a vertex with the mid point of the opposite side
 e during a complete rotation, there occur 4 positions when it looks to have the original situation.
Hence we say that the wind-mill, shown in Fig6.68 has rotational symmetry of order 4
 Bodies with extensions in three directions mutually at right angles are known as 3D bodies.
 Thus 1m3 = 10, 00,000 cm3 = 106 cm3 1 cm3 , 1 m3 etc. are known as cubic units.
 1cm2 is the unit of area-measure, but a cm-square is a square each side of which is 1 cm long. Thus
1cm2 and a cm-square represent completely different concepts.
 PRISMS :It has 2 triangular faces (one at the top and one at the bottom). We usually name those as
the bases. Further it has 3 rectangular faces each of which is perpendicular to the triangular end.
These surfaces are known as lateral faces. The distance between the two triangular ends is known as
the height of the prism (it is also said as the length if the prism lies horizontally).
 LATERAL SURFACE AREA OF A PRISM: =H * PERIMETER OF THE BASE
 TOTAL SURFACE AREA OF A PRISM = H* PERIMETER OF THE BASE + 2*AREA OF EACH END
 VOLUME OF A PRISM = BASE AREA * HEIGHT
 These rules apply to prisms of bases in the shape of polygons of any no. of sides
 A cylinder is a special form of a prism with circular base.
 Pyramid : Pyramids are the tombs of Pharaohs (Kings and queens) of Egypt. The base of a pyramid is
a triangle or a polygon and it ends in a point at the top . Pyramid with triangular base has 4
vertices6 edges and 4 faces each of which is a triangle. Pyramid with quadrilateral base has 5
vertices, 8 edges and 5 faces of which slant faces are triangular and the base is a quadrilateral. The
surface area of a pyramid = slant surface area + base area ………Volume of a pyramid = 1/3 × base
area × ht.
 a funnel without its stem have the a shape which is known as a cone. It has one vertex, one circular
edge and 2 faces of which one is curved and the other one is flat and circular in shape.
 The set of geometrical instruments include a scale, a pair of dividers, a pair of compasses and a pair
of setsquares (one 45°-45° setsquare and the other 60°-30° setsquare).
 Use of ruler and compasses: There was a time, when mathematicians thought that many basic
mathematical works can be done using ruler and compasses. However, the following geometric
figures can be drawn using ruler and compass: (i) A line segment of given length. (ii) Perpendicular
bisector of a given linesegment. (iii) A line parallel / perpendicular to a given line, (a) at a given point
on it. (b) from a given point outside it. (iv) An angle equal in measure to a given angle. (v) Bisector of
a given angle. (vi) Angles of measure 60°, its multiples and submultiples. (vii) Divide a given line
segment into equal parts. (viii) Draw triangles, quadrilaterals and circles of given measure.
 Minimum data required for constructing a triangle: Out of 3 sides and 3 angles contained in a
triangle, the triangle can be constructed when any of the following conditions are given.-- (a) lengths
of three sides (S-S-S), (b) lengths of any two sides and measure of their included angle (S-A-S), (c)
lengths of any two sides and measure of any one angle (S-S-A), (d) measures of any two angles and
the length of one side (A-S-A) or (A-A-S). in all the above conditions of drawing a triangle you
require at least three measures
 every physical object that we see around us has two characteristics. Those are the shape and the
size
 The characteristic of an object that helps us knowing the bigness or the smallness of it is the measure
of it.
 measurement means to express the attribute in terms of a quantity comparable to a unit. In other
words, measurement is quantification of the size or some definite aspects of the size of an object like
length, area and volume
 . Length, area, volume, time are some important measures that are included in elementary school
curriculum
 measures that commonly used and the child in the elementary school can experience – distance
measure, volume measure, weight measure, area measure and time measure .
 The bigness or the smallness of the pull of the earth on 3-D bodies represents their weight-measure.
The characteristic of the body that gives the feeling of heaviness speaks of the weight-measure.
 measurement is a process of comparison between two similar entities.
 Comparison of two similar entities can be done using any one or more than one of the five methods
usually employed for the purpose. These are: a. By observation. b. By superimposition, c. By indirect
methods, d. Using non-standard units, and e. Using standard units.
 The ratio between the length of a body and the unit length is a number which expresses the length of
the body.
 The standard units, although do not have any strong logical basis, have evolved through common
acceptance and scientific refinements over the ages. Thus these units have been nearly perfected for
accurate measurements. Sub-units (e.g., centimeter and millimeter are sub-units of meter) and
compound units (e.g., kilometer is a compound unit of meter) are well defined in most of the
standard units which are usually not available with non-standard units
 here are mainly two categories of non-standard unit. One category of units varies according to
person like the hand or cubit.
 Estimation plays an important role in measurement. It helps in detecting and eliminating the errors
committed by the child. By making estimation as a habit before measuring any attribute helps the
child in choosing proper units, making mental comparisons of the attributes with the chosen unit of
measurement and thus makes the process and outcome of the measurement more meaningful and
accurate for the children.
 101/187
 Body parts used as non-standard units of length………. Finger: the width across your first finger.
Hand: h- the width across your hand with your fingers together………….. Cubit:::c length of your arm
from the end of your middle finger to your elbow: ……….. Pace -- length of a step or stride. l.eide
Fathom: f distance from fingertips of left hand to right hand with arms outstretched. Inch:in-
distance from the tip of your thumb to the first knuckle.
 how to introduce the standard units of length to children? Standard units like meter and centimeter
should be introduced only when the children need for a standard scale for measurement. At the first
stage, provide sufficient scope for children to practice with the non-standard units to develop the
skills of measuring length of different objects i.e. selecting a unit of measurement, comparing the
length of the body with that of the unit length and expressing the result of comparison using the
number and the unit like 3 cubits, 2 sticks, 5 paces etc. In the second stage, when the children are
skillful in measuring objects with nonstandard units and realize that with these units it is not always
possible to determine the exact measure of an object and feel troubled to decide which one is the
correct measure, at that time non-standard units like the stick with a fixed length can be used. And
when they are familiar with the use of stick to measure the length of different entities with very near
accuracy, as we have discussed in the earlier example, then the standard scale i.e. meter scale can be
introduced. If we introduce the standard unit in this manner, it would be quite meaningful for the
children.
 to enable the children to learn using the scale correctly: ● Familiarizing children with the marking of
sub-units on the scale ● Appropriately placing the scale with the object of measurement. ●
Estimating the length before exactly determining it. As discussed earlier, always encourage children
to estimate the length of the object being measured before going to determine the exact length of
the object using the standard scale. ● Correctly calculating the length. The children should be led
through several instances of measuring different objects with a ruler or a scale to determine the
exact length of the object they are measuring ● Developing the measuring skills. Measuring with a
standard scale requires some basic skills like alignment of the scale with the object, taking correct
readings and calculating the differences of readings ● Choosing appropriate ruler or scale.
 Area is a characteristic of a plane figure. It is the spread of the figure on a plane or the portion of
the plane covered by the figure ; the plane may be a paper, the surface of a table or a glass plate or
of some such objects.
 At the initial stage of learning area of a plane figures, you should use familiar materials like match
boxes of any particular brand, plastic squares of equal size, squares of equal size cut out of coloured
papers, the books or note books of same size.
 Areas of other geometrical shapes like triangle, quadrilaterals, and polygons are calculated making
use of the area-rule for a rectangle.
 Area of Irregular Figures: For measuring area of irregular figures, you can use centimeter graphs or
centimeter thread graphs. Both of these work on same principle.
 Land measure: Usually the standard unit of measuring area of land in the traditional system of
measurement is ‘Acre’. In metric system, ‘Hectare’ is the unit of measuring area of land along with
‘Are’. hectare is equal 1hectare = 10,000m2 and 1 are = 100m2 . From these you can calculate to find
that 1 hectare = 100 are and 100 hectares = 1 km2 . Incidentally, 1 hectare = 2.471 acres
 Using this property, the volumes of solid objects are measured using cylindrical glass jars with
calibration of volume expressed in cubic centimeter (cc). In this method, the calibrated glass jar is
filled with water or some other liquid to some extent and the initial level of the liquid is noted. Then
the object which volume is to be determined is totally submerged in the liquid and the level of the
liquid in the jar is noted. The difference between the two levels gives the volume of the object.
 Measuring Weight -- ● Preparing a model of common balance with a beam and two pans hanging
from the two extremes of the beam: ●Weighing with non-standard units
 Weighing with non-standard units: Children should be encouraged to use the improvised balance
they have made in weighing different materials like sand, leaves, seeds, etc. with non-standard units.
Through such activities, they would develop the skills of using the balance properly in two main
ways. First, they would master the mechanics of the balance like properly lifting the balance, putting
the weight and the things to be weighed in proper pans, and keeping the beam horizontal by
adjusting the materials being weighed. Second, using balance they can divide and subdivide the
materials into two, four or eight equal parts.
 When they become well versed with using the improvised scales and non-standard weights, they will
feel the need of a proper balance and the standard weights. As they grow up, they should be
exposed to different types of weighing devices like spring balance, electronic weighing machines,
machines to weigh very small and very large weights.
 Gram and kilogram are commonly used units to measure weights of familiar objects.
 There are two major systems of standard measuring units used in different countries. These are the
Metric System and the British or Imperial System. In every system there are two types of measuring
units – the base units and the derived units.
 s. The units for length, mass, and time, ( along with those for temperature, electric current, luminous
intensity and amount of substance) are called the base units because the units for other measures
like area, volume, capacity, and velocity etc. can be expressed in terms of these base units
 Using these base units of measurement, the Metric system is also called c-g-s (centimetergram-
second) system or sometimes as m-k-s (meter-kilogram-second) system. Similarly, the British system
is known as f-p-s (foot-pound-second) system.
 Metric system is internationally accepted system and is known as ‘International System of Units or SI
Units’ (SI stands for the French version of the International System of Units i.e. Système international
d’unités). The SI includes two classes of units which are defined and agreed internationally. The first
of these classes are the seven SI base units for length, mass, time, temperature, electric current,
luminous intensity and amount of substance. The second of these are the SI derived units. These
derived units are defined in terms of the seven base units. All other quantities (e.g. work, force,
power) are expressed in terms of SI derived units
 The Metric System was developed in France during the sixteenth and seventeenth century and
Gabriel Mouton, the vicar of St. Paul’s Church in Lyons, France, is the “founding father” of the metric
system. He proposed a decimal system of measurement in 1670.
 In 1790, during the hectic period of the French Revolution, the National Assembly of France
requested the French Academy of Sciences to “deduce an invariable standard for all the measures
and all the weights.” The Commission appointed by the Academy created a system that was, at once,
simple and scientific. ● The unit of length was to be a portion of the Earth’s circumference. ●
Measures for capacity (volume) and mass were to be derived from the unit of length, thus relating
the basic units of the system to each other and to nature. ● The larger and smaller multiples of each
unit were to be created by multiplying or dividing the basic units by 10 and its powers.
 The Commission assigned the name “metre” (in the U.S. spelled “meter”) to the unit of length. This
name was derived from the Greek word, metron, meaning “a measure.” The physical standard
representing the meter was to be constructed so that it would equal one ten-millionth of the
distance from the North Pole to the equator along the meridian running near Dunkirk on English
Channel in France and Barcelona in Spain.
 A surveying team under the direction of two men, Pierre-Francois-Andre Mechain and Jean- Baptiste-
Joseph Delambre, spent 6 years in measuring the “arc” that the earth made in a line between
Dunkirk in France on the English Channel and Barcelona in Spain.
 The initial metric unit of mass, the “gram,” was defined as the mass of one cubic centimeter ( a cube
that is 0.01 meter on each side) of water at its temperature of maximum density (about 40 C). For
capacity, the “litre” (spelled “liter” in the U.S.) was defined as the volume of a cubic decimeter — a
cube 0.1 meter on each side
 After the units were determined, the metric system underwent many periods of favor and disfavor in
France. Napoleon once banned its use. However, the metric system was officially adopted by the
French government on 7 April 1795. A scientific conference was held from 1798 to 1799 (with
representatives from the Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, Spain, and Italy) to validate the metric
system’s foundation and to design prototype standards. Permanent standards for the meter and the
kilogram were made from platinum. These standards became official in France by an act of 10
December 1799.
 Although the metric system was not accepted with enthusiasm at first, adoption by other nations
occurred steadily after France made its use compulsory in 1840. Most of the countries around the
world adopted this system around 1950 and 1960’s. There are a few countries including U.S.A. which
have not adopted the metric system as yet
 The metric system in weights and measures was adopted by the Indian Parliament in December
1956 with the Standards of Weights and Measures Act, which took effect from October 1, 1958.
 Litre is the unit of capacity measure (i.e., volume-measure). The volume-unit is known as 1 litre
(equal to 1000 cm3 )
 Besides these units of mass, ‘quintal’ and ‘metric ton’ are used to weigh very heavy materials. One
quintal is equal to 100 kilograms and 1 Ton = 1000 kg or 10 quintals.
 Time-measure is related to the revolution of the earth about its axes and rotation of the earth
around the sun. The duration between two consecutive sunrises is commonly known as a day. But
the scientists count a day as the duration between two consecutive mid-nights. Thus, a day starts at a
mid-night and ends at the next midnight. This duration is known as a solar-day.
 A solar day is the time which the earth takes to rotate once about its axis.
 To bring in coherence between the time-measure and degree measure (as these are both related to
rotation), unit divisions are made on the basis of sub-multiples of 360. Thus, the duration of a solar
 day is divided into 24 equal divisions and each division is known as an hour. 1 hour = 60 minutes and
1 minute has been taken to have 60 seconds
 Solar year : The duration in which the earth completes one rotation about the sun is known as a
Relation between a solar year and a solar-day. 1 solar year = 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 47 seconds
Roughly, 1 solar year = 365¼ days
 A calendar year is taken to have 365 days Thus every year we lose about 6 hrs i.e., ¼ of a day. Hence
in 4 years we lose 1 day. To make it up, in every 4 years, one year is taken to have 366 days and this
year is known as a leap year
 Exceptions : The year numbers that have zeroes at the ten’s place and unit’s place and are merely
divisible by 4 only are not leap years. But from among them which are multiples of 400 are leap
years. Thus, 2000 was a leap year, whereas 1900, 1800, 2100, 2200, 2300 etc. are not leap years.
 ● Ordinarily we use 12 hour- clocks. In such a clock, the numbering of hours on the dial of the clock
are limited within 1 to 24. The hour hand rotates once over the clock-face in 12 hours and the minute
hand rotates once in 1 hour. ● Mid-night and noon are indicated by 12. We say: 12 Mid-night, and 12
Noon. The time strictly between 12-midnight and 12-noon is indicated as am, such as in the morning
we say 5 am or 6.30am or 8 am and the time strictly between 12-noon and 12-midnight is indicated
by p.m. like 4 pm in the afternoon, 7pm in the evening. ● 24 hour clocks are used in railways and
airways. Midnight is indicated as 24hr and the subsequent hours are counted as 1 hr., 2 hr., 3hr., and
so on till the following midnight. There is no use of am and pm. In this system, the clock-face shows
the numbers from 1 to 24 and the hour hand rotates once over the clock face in 24 hours.
 The data are arranged in groups on the basis of certain aspect is called distribution. The number
indicating different aspects of information such as marks, age, height, income etc. are called the
scores of the distribution. The raw data is to be organized after it is collected.
 If the raw data consists of few scores, then we arrange them in ascending (increasing) or descending
(decreasing) order. Then it is called arrayed data.
 The mark (bar) used to represent the no. of occurrence of the score is called tally mark. The no. of
occurrence of a particular score or a group of scores is known as frequency (f) of the score or group
of scores. The above is an example of an ungrouped frequency distribution
 Range of scores in the distribution or simply Range = Highest score – Lowest score
 The range helps us to decide the no. and length of the class intervals (C.I). If we take the length of the
C.I. to be 10, then the no. of C.Is. would then be 10.
 If the data is a grouped frequency distribution where the frequencies of the groups (classes) with
continuity are given, then there is no justification of having a gap between two successive bars. So
the bars are drawn consecutively. Such type of graph is known as Histogram.
 Steps to draw a pie-chart : Step-I: Calculate the central angle of each sector. Step-II: Draw a circle
with suitable radius. Step-III: Draw radii showing the central angles either in clockwise or in anti
clockwise manner Step-IV: Shade (or colour) the sectors differently
 The scores or observations tend to cluster around a specific value which is nearer to the middle of
the distribution. This characteristic of the distribution of data is called its central tendency. A
measure of central tendency refers to a central value which is representative of the entire set of data
to which it belongs.
 The spread or variability nature of data is otherwise called variation or dispersion. A measure of
variability or dispersion of data relates to quantifying how closely individual observations are
scattered around the central value
 Central tendency is a statistical measure which identifies a representative value (score) of an entire
distribution. The literal meaning of the term central tendency is the score where all the scores tend
to centralize. The goal of central tendency is to find the single score that is most typical or most
representative of the entire group. I
 three principal measures of central tendency. These are (i) Arithmetic Mean, (ii) Median, and (iii)
Mode
 In a normal distribution without having any unusual extreme scores, mean is the most reliable
measure of central tendency. Mean is influenced by the size of every score in the group. If any one
score is increased (or decreased) by c units, the mean is increased (or decreased) by c/ n units. If a
constant, say c is added to each score in a group which means X , the resulting scores will have a
mean equal to X + c. (You can verify this property of mean taking small distribution). Verify what will
happen to mean when each score is multiplied by a constant c.
 The median is the score that occupies the exact middle position of the distribution when the
observations are arranged in ascending or descending order. Median is a locational or positional
observation and hence not affected by any extreme score. If you increase or decrease the scores that
lie at the extremes, the median does not change. Median is preferred when the distribution has
number of extremely small and/or large scores which would affect mean. Median is used when a
quick estimate of central tendency is required.
 A distribution can have multiple modes i.e. more than one mode
 Formula for calculating an approximate value of mode in a perfectly symmetrical distribution is :
Mode = 3 × median – 2 × mean Mode is used when we wish to know what the most typical case is.
Mode is most unstable measure of central tendency. Mode is a score of the distribution and not a
frequency
 There are two types of measures of variability or dispersion – distance measures and measures of
average deviation. Distance Measures: Distance measures describe the variation in data in terms of
the distance between selected measurements. Here, we discuss two such measures Range and Inter-
Quartile Range. Range: Range is the simplest measure of variability both from the point of view of
calculation and understanding. It is the difference between the largest and the smallest observations
in the data. For example, the range of scores 2, 5, 6, 4, 12, 10, 9 and 8 is 12-2 = 10. Similarly, -2, 0, 3,
7 and 9 has the range = 9-(-2) =11. This type of range is called ‘Exclusive Range’. But when we
determine the range through the difference between the upper real limit (URL) of the highest score
and the lower real limit (LRL) of the lowest score, we call it ‘Inclusive Range’.
 In the above example, the URL of the highest score 12 is 12.5 and the LRL of the lowest score 2 is 1.5
(Every observation in social science is not absolute and fixed. Rather it is assumed to be stretched
over an interval of 0.5 before and after the score. Therefore the score 12 is any value in the interval
of 11.5 - 12.5, the extreme points of the interval determines the upper and lower real values of 12).
Hence, the inclusive range of the distribution is 12.5 – 1.5=11 while its exclusive range is 10.
 Although range, either exclusive or inclusive, is easier to calculate and the simplest measure of
variability, it does not reflect the spread or scatter of scores. For example, if 100 scores are spread
evenly between 1 to 10, the inclusive range is 10. But if one score is 1 and another is 10 and in
 between these two scores the score 5 is repeated 98 times, then the total number of scores
remaining 100 the inclusive range would still be 10. This goes to show that range may be the quickest
estimate of variability but not an accurate measure of it.
 Interquartile Range: Interquartile range or specifically semi-interquartile range is another distance
measure of the variability of distribution. Earlier, we had defined median as the score that divides a
distribution exactly in half. In a similar way, a distribution can be divided into four equal parts using
quartiles. By definition, the first quartile (Q1) is the score that separates the lower 25% of the
distribution from the rest. The second quartile (Q2) is the score that has exactly two quarters, or
50%, of the distribution below it. Notice that the second quartile and the median are the same.
Finally, the third quartile (Q3) is the score that divides the bottom three-fourths of the distribution
from the top quarter. The interquartile range is defined as the distance between the first and the
third quartile. Interquartile Range = Q3-Q1 When the interquartile range is used to describe
variability, it commonly is transformed into the semi- interquartile range. It is simply one-half of the
interquartile range: Semi-interquartile Range = (Q3Q1)/2
 Since, semi-interquartile range focuses on the middle 50% of a distribution; it is less likely to be
influenced by extreme scores. But, since it does not take into account the actual distance between
individual scores, it does not give a complete picture of how scattered or clustered the scores are.
Therefore, like the range, the semi-interquartile range is considered to be a somewhat a crude
measure of variability
 Measures of Average Deviation: Deviation of a score is its distance from the mean. When the
average of such deviation scores are taken into consideration, the measure of variability becomes
more accurate and reliable. We discuss here two such measures based on the average deviation
scores – Average Deviation and Standard Deviation.
 When the scores are nearer to the mean i.e. when the distribution is compact, the measure of
average deviations would be small and vice versa. This helps us to understand the nature of
distribution.
 Average Deviation: Deviation score (x) = Score – Mean = X- X’  If in a distribution the mean is 50,
the deviation of the score 55 is given by X X  = 55 – 50 = 5, And the deviation of the score 45 = 45-
50= - 5. Notice that there are two parts to a deviation score: the sign (+ or -) and the number. The
sign tells whether the score is above the mean (+) or below it (-). The number gives the actual
distance of the score from the mean. Average or mean deviation is the mean of deviations of all
scores from the mean of the scores in the distribution. In calculating the mean deviation, no account
is taken of signs, and all deviations +ve or –ve are treated as positive.
 Standard Deviation: The widely used measure of variability is the standard deviation. From the
calculation point of view the standard deviation is called ‘Root-meansquared-deviation’. From this
we can state the steps of computation of standard deviation (SD): 1. Calculate the mean of the
distribution for which you have to find the SD. 2. Determine the deviations of the scores from the
mean. 3. Square each deviation. The deviation may be positive of negative, but the square of the
deviation is always positive. 4. Find out the mean of the squared deviations. This mean of the
squared deviation is called ‘variance’ which has wider use in higher statistics. 5. Determine the
positive square root of the variance and the result is the standard deviation.
 Use of Measures of Variability -- Range is used when we want a quick estimate of the spread of
scores which are very small in number and there are no extreme scores. When there are some
extreme scores in a distribution and median is the measure of central tendency, semi-interquartile
range is preferred. When the scores are too scattered which would influence SD unduly, average
 deviation is used to give us a reasonable estimate of the spread of scores. Among all the measures of
variability, SD is most stable and accurate.
 Algebra is a branch of Mathematics where the principles of Arithmetic are generalized by using letter
symbols representing numbers
 The word “Algebra” is derived from an Arabic word ‘al-jabar’ means reunion, used in a mathematical
treatise entitled “Al-Kitab al-mukhta ? ar fi hisab al-gabar wa’l-muqabala” (Arabic for “The
compendious Book on calculation by completion and Balancing”) written by the Persian
Mathematical Muhammed ibn Musa al Khwarizmi of Baghdad in 820 A.D. The famous Greek
mathematician Diophantus living in Alexandria in 3rd century A.D. is regarded as the “Father of
Algebra” for his seminal work entitled “Arithmetica”.
 with the help of symbols as representation for numbers, a number relation can be generalized.
Letters a, b, c ….. x, y, z are used as symbols to represent numbers which are unknown quantities. As
a result, various word problems can be expressed as symbolic statements. Since letters represent
nos. they follow all the rules and properties of the four arithmetic operations
 So, a combination of constants and variables connected by some or all of the four fundamental
operations +, -, × and ÷ is called an algebraic expression.
 A symbol which does not have any fixed value for it, but may be assigned any numerical value
according to the requirement is known as a variable
 A constant factor is called a numeric factor. A variable factor is called is a literal (algebraic) factor in a
algebraic expression.
 We say the terms having the same algebraic factors as similar or like terms. When the terms do not
have the same algebraic factors are called unlike terms.
 We will perform different operations in algebra in two phases : (i) Operations on letters (ii)
Operations on expression
 : Expressions obey closure, commutative, associative, properties in addition. It also has additive
identify and additive inverse
 The number 2 in a2 ( a square ) is known as index or exponent or power of a and ‘a’ is the base.
 An equation can be compared with a balance in equilibrium. The two sides of the balance being
compared with the two sides i.e. LHS and RHS of an equation. The equality sign indicates that the
scale pans are balanced.
 When a polynomial is formed using a certain symbol (taken for an unknown) and is equated to a
certain number, the statement formed is an equation
 Linear equations are also known as first degree equations
 The value of the unknown which makes the equation a true statement is called the solution or root
of the equation. To solve an equation is to find the value of the unknown which satisfies the equation
 four rules of equality for solving an equation. Those rules help in solving linear equations in precise
manner. The rules state as follows : The same quantity can be added to both sides of an equation
and it does not change the equality. The same quantity can be subtracted from both sides of an
equation and it does not change the equality. Both sides of an equation may be multiplied by the
same number and it does not change equality. Both sides of an equation may be divided by a non-
zero number and it does not change the quality
 While solving a linear equation, we can transpose a number from LHS to RHS or vice versa instead of
adding or subtracting it from both sides of the equation. In doing so, the operation that connects the
number on one side of the equation changes as it is removed to the other side. That is on
transposing a term from one side to the other the operation of : (i) Addition changes to subtraction
(ii) Subtraction changes to addition (iii) Multiplication changes to division (iv) Division changes to
multiplication
 The algorithm (method) involved in solving real life problems is to : (i) Understand the situation
expressed in the word problem. (ii) Choose a symbol and substitute it for the unknown to be
determined. (iii) Write an equation from the given relation in the problem. (iv) Solve the equation
and find the value of the unknown. (v) Verify the correctness of the solution