INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY: CRUST:

GEOLOGY:  The outermost and thinnest layer of the

 At its core, geology is a multidisciplinary planet, ranging in thickness 5 km to 70
science that combines chemistry, physics, km.
and mathematics to investigate an  The crust is also home to a diverse range
enormous variety of processes that occur of geological resources, including
on and in the Earth. minerals, fossil fuels, and groundwater.
 The study of the Earth, the materials of  The crust is mostly composed of silica,
which it is made, the structure of those alumina, lime, magnesia, and iron oxide
materials and processes acting upon them (rust).
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: TWO TYPES OF CRUST:
 An applied branch of earth science. It  Oceanic crust is composed of magma
involves the application of knowledge of that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt
geosciences to ensure safety, efficacy, lava flows or cools deeper down to create
and economy of engineering projects the intrusive igneous rock gabbro.
GEOLOGY AND CIVIL ENGINEERING:  Continental crust is made up of many
 Geology for Civil Engineering work different types of igneous, metamorphic,
primarily involves activities related to and sedimentary rocks.
rock and soil occurring in the top crustal MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY:
layer of the earth.  The Mohorovicic Discontinuity, also
 In a sense, the scope of a geologist and known as the Moho, is a significant
that of a civil engineer while working on boundary within the Earth's structure,
a project are the same. Both work separating the crust from the mantle.
towards construction of safe structures MANTLE:
for the benefit of human beings.  The biggest/largest layer of the earth, it is
THREE BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY THAT located below the crust.
CONCERNS THE CIVIL ENGINEERING  It is mostly made of silicate rocks rich in
PROFESSION: magnesium and iron. This layer is not a
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY: perfectly solid. At some locations, the
 Physical Geology is a course in which rock is completely melted, which is
students will learn about earthquakes, called magma. When this magma reaches
volcanoes, Earth's history, the processes near the crust, it erupts as Lava from the
that shape Earth's surface, and about volcanoes.
Earth's resources  The mantle is further divided into two
MINERALOGY: regions, the upper and lower mantle,
 As a branch of geology, it deals with ‘the which are separated by a boundary
study of minerals. A mineral may be known as the transition zone.
defined as a naturally occurring,
homogeneous solid, inorganically
formed, having a definite chemical UPPER MANTLE:
composition and ordered atomic  The upper mantle extends from the crust
arrangement. to a depth of about 410 kilometers (255
miles). The upper mantle is mostly solid,
but its more malleable regions contribute
PETROLOGY: to tectonic activity.
 As a branch of Geology, it deals with  Two parts of the upper mantle are often
"the study of rocks". A rock is defined as recognized as distinct regions in Earth’s
the aggregation of minerals found in the interior: the lithosphere and the
earth’s crust. asthenosphere.
EARTH'S STRUCTURE AND
COMPOSITION
 The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of magnetic field protects our Earth from
Earth, extending to a depth of about 100 the Sun’s deadly wind.
kilometers (62 miles). The lithosphere LEHMAN DISCONTINUITY:
includes both the crust and the brittle  The Lehmann Discontinuity, also known
upper portion of the mantle. The as the Lehmann Depth, is a boundary
lithosphere is both the coolest and the within the Earth's structure that separates
most rigid of Earth’s layers. the liquid outer core from the solid inner
 The asthenosphere is the denser, weaker core.
layer beneath the lithospheric mantle. It  The boundary is thought to be a result of
lies between about 100 kilometers (62 the change in physical properties
miles) and 410 kilometers (255 miles) between the liquid and solid portions of
beneath Earth’s surface. The temperature the core
and pressure of the asthenosphere are so INNER CORE:
high that rocks soften and partly melt,  This is the hottest layer of the Earth,
becoming semi-molten. reaching a temperature of 7000 C; much
LOWER MANTLE: hotter than the surface of the Sun. It is
 The lower mantle extends from about also composed of iron and nickel metal.
660 kilometers (410 miles) to about  The inner core's rotation is believed to
2,700 kilometers (1,678 miles) beneath have a significant impact on the Earth's
Earth’s surface. The lower mantle is overall rotation.
hotter and denser than the upper mantle
and transition zone. CONTINENTAL DRIFT:
REPPETTIE DISCONTINUITY:  Continental drift, is a theory in geology
 Divides the mantle into lower and upper that describes the drifting of Earth’s
 Passing through this discontinuity, continents on the ocean bed. According
seismic waves increase their speed. to this theory, Earth’s continents have
GUTENBER DISCONTINUITY: moved on the ocean bed over a long time
 The Gutenberg Discontinuity is a major period, appearing to be drifted across the
boundary within the Earth's structure, ocean.
separating the mantle from the core.  The theory of continental drift was first
 The discontinuity is characterized by a proposed by the German scientist Alfred
rapid increase in seismic wave velocity, Wegener in the early 20th century.
which occurs as the waves pass through  The movement of the continents is
the dense, iron-rich material of the core. driven by the movement of tectonic
CORE: plates, which are constantly shifting and
 The core is made almost entirely of metal changing position.
specifically, iron and nickel, unlike the
mineral-rich crust and mantle. The core PLATE TECTONICS:
of our planet is made up of an outer layer  is the theory in geology that describes the
of liquid metal, and an inner core of solid features and movement of the Earth’s
metal that is about 70 percent the size of surface in the present and in the past.
the Moon This is a scientific theory that explains
OUTERCORE: the large-scale motion of seven large
 This layer of the Earth is in a liquid state plates for about 3 billion years. This is a
at a temperature of 5000 C. This layer is scientific model that is built on the
mostly made of iron and nickel. Both of theory of continental drift.
these two metal are in a liquid state due MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES :
to intense heat. In order from largest to smallest they are:
 The outer core is always in constant  Pacific Plate
circulatory motion, which creates a  North American Plate
magnetic field around the Earth. This  Eurasian Plate
 African Plate  Minerals are formed naturally by
 Antarctic Plate geological processes.
 Indo-Australian Plate  Minerals can be formed in two ways:
 South American Plate. o Crystallization of Magma
PLATE BOUNDARIES o Crystallization of Materials
 These are the edges where two plates dissolved in water.
meet. Most geologic activities, including ROCK FORMING MINERALS:
volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain QUARTZ FAMILY:
building, take place at plate boundaries.  Sandstone, composed mainly of quartz,
 There are three main types of plate is an important building stone.
boundaries: divergent, convergent, and  Used in the manufacture of glass and
transform ceramics and for foundry molds in metal
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES: casting.
 It occurs when plates move apart from  Quartz or Silica is composed of the two
each other. most abundant elements in the crust of
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES: the Earth:
 Happens when two plates collide. o Silicon (Si)
TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES: o Oxygen (O)
 When two plates side past one another. FELDSPAR:
 Feldspar is the name given to a group of
minerals distinguished by the presence of
alumina and silica

MINERALS:  Feldspar, any of a group of

 Main building blocks of rocks. It is aluminosilicate minerals that contains:
naturally occurring and is an inorganic o Calcium (Ca)
substances. It has a distinct fixed o Sodium (Na)
chemical makeup. o Potassium (K)
 It can be identified using a number of  Feldspars make up more than half of
properties(physical and chemical) such Earth’s crust
as: AUGITE:
o Hardness  The most common pyroxene mineral (a
o Density silicate of calcium, magnesium, iron,
o Cleavage itanium, and aluminum).
o Color  It also is a common constituent of lunar
o Crystallography basalts and meteorites rich in basaltic
o Electrical conductivity material.
o Magnetism HORNBLENDE:
o Radioactivity  Is a calcium-rich amphibole mineral that
o Fluorescence is monoclinic in crystal structure.
 Properties of minerals:  Amphibolite Metamorphic rocks with
o Color abundant hornblende.
o Crystals form  Paragsite occurs in high-grade
o Hardness metamorphic rocks that tend to have
o Luster more aluminum.
o Density BIOTITE “BLACK MICA”:
o Cleavage fracture  A silicate mineral in the common mica
group.
MINERAL FORMATION:
 It is abundant in metamorphic rocks
(both regional and contact), in
 pegmatites, and also in granites and other CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
intrusive igneous rocks.  Forms from the precipitation of minerals
MUSCOVITE: directly from solution, often in aqueous
 The most common member of the mica environments like lakes, seas, and
group. Found in igneous, metamorphic, oceans.
and sedimentary rocks. METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
CALCITE:  Arises from the transformation of an
 Calcite (CaCO3) is the principal existing rock in a process called
constituent of limestone and marble. metamorphism, which occurs due to
 found throughout the world in changes in temperature, pressure, and
sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous chemically active fluids over long
rocks. periods of time.
 Calcite (Limestone + Marble) = Cement FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
and Concrete  Metamorphic rock that has been
GARNET: subjected to pressure, causing the
 Garnet, any member of a group of minerals to elongate in response to
common silicate minerals that have directed pressure, a process called
similar crystal structures and chemical foliation. Has banded or striped
compositions. appearance.
NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
 Category of metamorphic rocks that do
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS: not exhibit the distinct layering or
IGNEOUS ROCKS: alignment of mineral grains seen in
 Derives from “ignis, ” the Latin word for foliated rocks.
fire. PROPERTIES OF ROCKS:
 Igneous rocks form when hot and molten  Texture: It can be rough, smooth, bumpy,
rocks from within the Earth crystallize or abrasive
and solidify.  Strength: Ability to withstand
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS: mechanical stress without breaking or
 Forms when magma is trapped deep deforming.
inside the earth causing it to cool down  Durability: Resistance to weathering,
very slowly and solidify. erosion, and other forms of deterioration
EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS: over time.
 Forms when lava cools down and  Structure: Makeup of minerals and
solidifies in an instant or in a faster pace mineral aggregates.
than intrusive igneous rocks.  Stratified: Composed of several layers
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: separated by bedding planes
 Forms on the earth’s surface as it is a  Unstratified: Have crystalline
product of weathering of preexisting granularity and uniform structure
rocks. it is the accumulation or throughout their bodies.
deposition of minerals or organic  Foliated: Consists of layered structures
particles developed when subjected to enough
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: exposure to heat and pressure.
 Are composed of fragmented pieces  Weathering: Geological process that
(clasts) of pre-existing rocks. affects rocks over time, leading to
ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: changes in their physical and chemical
 Forms from the accumulation and properties
preservation of organic materials,  Seasoning : Process that allows newly
primarily the remains of once-living quarried or excavated rocks to adapt to
organisms.
 their environment and stabilize their  PENINSULA: a piece o f land that is
properties almost entirely surrounded by water but
 Workability.. It measures how easily a is connected to the mainland on one side.
material can be manipulated, shaped, and  MOUNTAIN: a landform that rises high
worked into a desired form or structure above its surroundings. Taller than a hill,
during construction processes. it usually has steep slopes and a rounded
 Porosity and Absorption: The ability of a o r sharp peak.
material to hold and transport fluids  DELTA: a is a wetland area that forms as
(typically liquids or gases) within its river waters empty into a larger body o f
pore spaces. water. Often, deltas look triangular in
shape
GEOMORPHOLOGY  OCEANIC BASIN: is the land surface
derived from a Greek word " geo " which is under an ocean that includes the various
earth and "morphio" which is form. topography below the water. This
Therefore geomorphology is a discourse on includes the continental shelf, abyssal
earths form. plain, mid- ocean ridge and other
formations that may exist on the seafloor.
the science of landforms, with an emphasis  CONTINENTAL SHELF: A shelf is not
on their origin, evolution, form, and very deep when compared to ocean
distribution across the physical landscape. depths beyond. A continental shelf is
LANDFORMS: usually less than 500 feet below the
 are features on the Earth's surface that ocean’s surface
make up the terrain, such as mountains,  CONTINENTAL SLOPE: a slope
hills, valleys, plains, and plateaus. between the outer edge of the continental
 They also include coastal features, such shelf and the deep ocean floor. The
as peninsulas or bays, and underwater continental slope marks the seaward edge
features, such a s ocean basins and mid- of the continental shelf.
ocean ridges.  OCEAN TRENCH: is an indentation in
CLASSIFICATION OF LANDFORMS: the ocean floor and is the deepest area o f
 Continental Landforms: easily seen the ocean.
topographic feature on the largest land  MID-OCEAN RIDGES: occur along
areas of the Earth. divergent plate boundaries, where a new
 Oceanic Landforms: geographical ocean floor is created as the Earth's
features created by the movement and tectonic plates spread apart.
erosion of water. They can be formed
onshore or offshore and are either SEISMOLOGY, WATERSHED, AND
permanent or temporary. FLOOD
TYPES OF LANDFORMS: SEISMOLOGY:
 PLAIN LANDFORMS: land that is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves
relatively flat and does not change much that move through and around the Earth.
in elevation within a common area. EARTHQUAKE:
 VALLEY :a lowland area o r depression a weak to violent shaking of the ground
found between mountains and hills often produced by the sudden movement of rock
with streams and rivers running through materials below the earth' s surface.
it. Causes of the Earthquake:
 PLATEAU: is a flat, elevated landform Earthquakes occur due to the sudden
that rises sharply above the surrounding movement of tectonic plates in the Earth' s
area on at least one side. crust. These sudden movements can happen
 HILLS: are landforms that rise above the in three ways:
surrounding terrain but are generally  Divergent
understood to be smaller than mountains  Convergent
 Transform  Tsunamis a series of very long waves.
FOCUS:  Fires the second most common hazard.
the point inside the earth where the Earthquake fires start when electrical and
earthquake started, sometimes called the gas lines are dislodged due to the earth’s
hypocenter. shaking
EPICENTER: SEISMIC WAVES:
the point on the surface of the earth directly A seismic wave also called compressional or
above the focus. longitudinal waves, are caused by the sudden
TWO WAYS TO MEASURE AN movement of materials within the Earth, such
EARTHQUAKE as slip along a fault during an earthquake.
 MAGNITUDE: is proportional to the USE OF SEISMIC WAVE:
energy released by an earthquake at the  Seismologists use seismic waves to learn
focus. It is calculated from earthquakes about earthquakes and also to learn about
recorded by an instrument called the Earth' s interior.
seismograph. It is represented by Arabic BODY WAVES - type of seismic wave that
Numbers (e.g. 4.8, 9.0). moves through the solid body of the Earth
 INTENSITY: is the strength of an  P waves can travel through liquid, solid,
earthquake as perceived and felt by and gas while S waves can only travel in
people in a certain locality. It is a solids.
numerical rating based on the relative CAUSES OF SEISMIC WAVE:
effects to people, objects, environment, Seismic waves are caused by the sudden
and structures in the surrounding. movement of materials within the Earth, such
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE as slip along a fault during an earthquake.
 Tectonic Earthquake – are produced by Volcanic eruptions, explosions, landslides,
sudden movement along faults and plate avalanches, and even rushing rivers can also
boundaries. cause seismic waves.
 Volcanic Earthquake – Earthquakes TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVE
induced by rising lava or magma beneath  Body Waves: can travel through the
active volcanoes. Earth' s inner layers
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE:  Surface Waves: can only move along the
 Ground Shaking: triggers other hazards surface of the planet like ripples on
such as liquefaction and landslides. water.
 Structural Failure: damage results from WATERSHED:
the seismic waves passing beneath  an area of land and water bounded by a
buildings, roads, and other structures. drainage divide within which the surface
 Surface Rupture: the primary earthquake runoff collects and flows out of the
hazard. It can be caused by vertical or watershed through a single outlet into a
horizontal movement on either side of a larger river or lake.
ruptured fault.  WATERSHED MANAGEMENT: is a term
 Ground Displacement: can produce used to describe the process of
severe damage to structures, roads, implementing land use practices and
railways, and pipelines. water management practices to protect
 Landslides result in falling rocks and and improve the quality of the water and
debris that collide with people, animals, other natural resources within a
buildings and vehicles. watershed by managing the use of those
 Liquefaction a process that turns loose land and water resources in a
soil into liquid that can undermine the comprehensive manner.
foundations and supports of buildings,  Watersheds are classified depending on
bridges, pipelines, and roads, causing the size, drainage, shape, and land use
them to sink into the ground, collapse or pattern.
dissolve.
 o Macro watershed (> 50,000 o Centripetal pattern: Is similar to
Hect) the radial drainage system, with
o Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 the only exception that radial
Hect) drainage flows out while
o Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 centripetal drainage flows in.
Hect) o Deranged Patterns: There is no
o Micro watershed (100 to 1000 coherent pattern to the rivers and
Hect) lakes. It happens in areas where
o Mini watershed (1-100 Hect) there has been much geological
FLOODS: disruption
 are the most frequent type of natural o Barbed Patterns: It is the result
disaster and occur when an overflow of of the capture of main driver
water submerges land that is usually dry. which completely reverses its
 Flood control - refers to all methods used direction of flow, while the
to reduce or prevent the detrimental tributaries continue to point in
effects of flood waters. the direction of the former flow.
 Common Techniques in Flood Control: o Angular Patterns: Form where
o installation of rock berms, rock bedrock joints and faults
rip-raps, and sandbags intersect at more acute angles
o maintaining normal slopes with than rectangular drainage
vegetation or application of soil patterns.
cement on steeper slopes o Annular Patterns: When the
o construction or expansion of upland has an outer soft stratum,
drainage channels. the radial streams develop
subsequent tributaries which try
 Drainage Pattern - the pattern formed by
to follow a circular drainage
the streams, rivers, and lakes in a
around the submit.
particular drainage basin. The pattern
created by stream erosion over time
reveals characteristics of the kind of
rocks and geologic structures in a
landscape region drained by streams.
o Dendritic pattern: This pattern
develops where the river channel
follows the slope of the terrain.
o Rectangular pattern: A
rectangular drainage pattern
develops on a strongly jointed
rocky terrain
o Trellis pattern: A river joined by
its tributaries, at approximately
right angles, develops a trellis
pattern.
o Radial pattern: It develops when
streams flow in different
directions from a central peak or
domelike structure
o Parallel pattern: Develops in
regions of parallel, elongate
landforms-outcropping resistant
rock bands.
 May be known as Strength Properties as they
give information about the performance of
rock materials when subjected to a particular
loading system.
 Compressive Strength (Uniaxial
Compression Test; Triaxial Compression
Test)
 Tensile Strength
 Shear Strength
 Density – a measure of how compact or
heavy it is. mass of rock per unit volume.

 Unit Weight – also known as specific

weight, describes and relate size
(volume), amount (mass), concentration
(density), and force (weight), as well as
specific gravity. – weight per unit
volume.

 Specific Gravity – ratio of the

density/unit weight of solids to the
density/unit weight of water

 Voids or cavities are open spaces in the

ground that are commonly encounter as
unforeseen ground conditions in
engineering geology.
 Void Ratio – ratio between the volumes
of voids to the volume of solids
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
May be known as Index Properties, which  Porosity – tells how densely it is packed.
describes the rock material and helps in It is the ratio between the volume of
classifying them. voids to the total volume of soil mass.
 Density
 Specific Gravity
 Unit Weight  Relationship between void ratio and
 Porosity porosity:
 Void Ratio
 Moisture Content
 Degree of Saturation  Water Content/Moisture Content – how
 Permeability much water is in a substance. It is the
 Structure and Texture ratio of the weight of water to the weight
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: of solid particles.
 Degree of Saturation – denotes the actual
relationship between the weight of
moisture existing in a space and the
weight that would exist if the space were
saturated. It can be calculated by
dividing the total volume of water by the
volume of voids.

 Relationship between Specific Gravity,

Moisture Content, Degree of Saturation
and Void Ratio

 Unit Weight of Soil Mass (Bulk Unit

Weight)
( Se +Gs )
(unit weight of water )
1+e
 Dry Unit Weight
Gs
(unit weight of water )
1+ e
 Saturated Unit Weight
(e +Gs)
unit weight of water
1+e
 Submerged/Buoyant Unit Weight
(1+Gs)
unit weight of water
1+ e