International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020

The Effectiveness of Experiential Learning in a Large Classroom:

An Example of the Auction Market

Alina M Zapalska, Dallas Brozik

U.S. Coast Guard Academy, Marshall University

Abstract
The research work in this paper presents an authors argued that experiential learning not only
experiential learning activity for a large classroom supports the development of social skills, work ethic,
where students take roles of travel agents to learn but it also provides practical expertise and a deeper
how a travel agency functions in an auction market. understanding of subject matter. Experiential
Students are provided with an uncertain environment learning develops deeper understanding, the capacity
in which they make strategic decisions aimed at for critical thinking, reflective judgment, application
maximizing their agency’s returns. Players are of knowledge in complex or unclear situations, and
expected to make strategic decisions while supports the advancement of abilities that allow
experiencing how market structures and decision- students to effectively engage in problem-solving,
making affect commerce within a simulated tourism critical thinking, and lifelong learning [4].
and hospitality industry. Students are expected to Cooper [5] developed an integrated learning guide
interact with team players to compete against other for students’ learning and provided examples of
students and to receive an appreciation of the effective practice that supports experiential learning.
pressures present in a competitive market. This Educational programs are responsible for educating a
auction market has been designed for a large new generation of citizens who are competent in
classroom where students learn through experience self-directed learning that can be accomplished
and discovery in competitive business environment. through the power of experiential learning.
Academic programs, and especially those with large
1. Introduction number of students, must prepare their graduates to
be contributing members and leaders of their local
College education has been criticized for relying and global communities. This educational challenge
heavily on passive modes of learning such as lectures requires that academic faculty develop teaching
that leave college students unchallenged and with techniques that allow students to experience and
limited advancement of critical thinking and apply their acquired knowledge through specifically
problem-solving skills. This criticism has generated designed learning spaces and applications to real-
even greater concern for teaching courses that have a world problems. Embedding experiential education
large number of students. To respond to those into programs increases student recruitment,
challenges, academic teaching has focused increased retention and completion rates of undergraduate
interest in using teaching techniques that actively programs as understanding and interpretation of
involve students in experiential learning in and theory; beliefs, values, and practice becomes
outside the classroom using multiple approaches and efficient and resourceful.
phases of learning [1]. Requiring students to be This paper contributes to the existing literature on
active learners through experiential activities and pedagogical approaches that develop critical
practice promotes the effectiveness of learning. An thinking, deep learning, and problem-solving skills.
example of learning from experience can be It argues that Kolb’s model of experiential learning
demonstrated with the use of experiential learning is the foundation around which pedagogical
with simulations and games where active learning is techniques should be developed. The use of games
based on reflective practice that places students in and simulations provides all necessary steps or
situations where they must perform tasks in order to phases that advance the development of required
gain new experiences and skills. The goal is to let skills in an entrepreneurial and business
students experience and discover something new and environment. When students are placed in an
encourage reflection about their experience which uncertain environment such as a game or simulation,
prepares students for global citizenship. This they will be expected to make strategic decisions and
reflection helps students develop new skills and new interact with team players to compete against other
ways of higher order of thinking [2]. students. The games and simulations can be designed
According to Kolb and Kolb [3], meta-cognitive for a large classroom where students learn through
aspects of experiential learning are efficient experience and discovery in a competitive business
techniques when simulations and games are used to environment become actively involved and are able
promote experiential learning and development. The to develop critical thinking, problem-solving and

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life-long learning skills [6]. The paper demonstrates into experiential learning that included concrete
effectiveness of experiential learning with the use of experience, reflective observation, abstract
the Auction Game, particularly focusing on a large- conceptualization, and active experimentation,
size classroom. arguing that students must become skilled at all four
learning modes.
2. Literature Review
The Experiential learning is a pedagogical
method applied in higher education to enhance
students’ learning. It has been defined as a teaching
strategy that provides concrete experiences to
students to complement traditional teaching modes
such as lectures to boost students’ learning and
understanding of content, ideas, and concepts.
Numerous terms have been used to name the process
of learning from experience. Dewey [7] was the first
who discussed learning by doing. Wolfe and Byrne
[8] were the first authors who used the term
experienced-based learning and emphasized
reflection on direct and concrete experience. The Figure 1. Kolb Learning Cycle
AACSB Task Force developed the term applied Source: [20]
experiential learning, combining the learning from
the real-world situation with the necessary condition Figure 1 and Table 1 exemplify the four phases of
of the application of concepts, ideas, and theories to Kolb’s learning cycle to illustrate how learners
the interactive setting. experience learning from moving from one phase to
Much of the research on experiential learning the next.
theory has focused on the concept of learning style
using the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (KLSI) to Table 1. Kolb: Four Stages of Experiential Learning
assess individual learning styles. Experiential
learning involves participation and critical reflection Concrete Experience: This is the first step of the
on that participation. Experiential learning is where experiential learning process. Concrete Experience
the learner participates in an activity, reflects on the sees the learner involved in a new experience or
activity, and then applies the lessons learned in new situation. This also includes a reinterpretation of an
situations. The concept of deep learning describes existing experience.
the developmental process of learning that fully Reflective Observation: The second step of Kolb’s
integrates the four modes of the experiential learning theory, reflective observation, involves systematic
cycle - experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting. reflection on the new experience. This is an
Experiential learning has developed a holistic analytical step in which the learner consciously
philosophy of education based on the view that an thinks about what they have just experienced. A
individual’s life experiences, education, and work particularly important aspect of this step is the
play a central role in their learning process of realization of inconsistencies between experience
acquiring new knowledge [11]. Experiential learning and understanding.
has been measured as a set of tools and techniques Abstract Conceptualization: The learner delves
that provides students with a range of experiences deeper into their thinking about the subject. In this
and as a progression where learners convey their step, the learner constructs a new idea, or modifies
own knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and practices to their an existing concept to explain their observations.
comprehension and interpretation of new concepts Active Experimentation: The final step of the
and information. Experiential learning theory is process involves using these new theories to solve
based on the essential belief that learning occurs problems and make decisions. By applying their
when individual players are provided with newly conceived understanding of the world around
experiential learning opportunities facilitate the them, they are demonstrating their newfound
identification, discovery, and exploitation through knowledge. The process enters a new cycle when
active and concrete experience of new concepts that the learner uses this experimentation to create a new
lead to reflection upon their experiences. Concrete Experience.
Experiential learning theory was originally
developed and promoted by Kolb [10]. His book Source: [10]
Experiential Learning is the best-known presentation
of the approach to reflective and experiential Kolb’s framework specifically defines and allocates
learning. The author involved four modes of learning equal weight on all four parts of the learning cycle.

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020

This approach enables the efficient application of these available methods, and the usefulness of these
experiential learning in a course. Each learning methods to business education [14]. They also have
mode is critical for students’ learning, and students strongly supported changing a lecture and adopting
can begin experiential learning at any stage of this laboratory market experiments such as simulations
experiential learning cycle. and games and observed that group learning using
Supporters of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle simulations and games begins with concrete
recommend application of various methods of experiences and argued that by relying on reflective
learning that range from concrete, abstract, active, observations from these experiences, students engage
passive, primary, and secondary modes of learning in abstract conceptualization that allows them to
(see Table 2) especially active learning through generalize and learn principles that integrate their
service learning, internships, field trips, and observations into working theories.
involvement in faculty research. Cohen [12] contend Simulations and games allow learners to actively
that learning will be effective if students are involved experiment, test, and apply what they have learned in
in a deep learning process where students learn from more complex situations. Simulations and games
experience. The author supported the experiential stimulated problem solving as well as reflective and
learning cycle because it advances social skills, work critical thinking because players were required to
ethic, practical expertise, and critical thinking. make strategic decisions. According to Baker [15],
Application of knowledge through games and the experiential-based activities eliminate
simulations using complex and uncertain situations memorization and repetition as well as provide
will allow students to develop critical thinking and opportunities for students to interact with each other.
the ability to engage in lifelong learning. Field trips Students learn to question and try new approaches to
enable students to recall concepts learned and to explain their own ideas while learning.
reinforce learning through concrete experiences, The structure of a simulation or game is quite
reflective observation, and active experimentation. important. Games that seek to exercise a
fundamental concept, like the free rider problem in
Table 2. Modes of Learning and Their economics, may be very simple in structure [16]. In
Characteristics this case, multiple repetitions of a simple game might
Modes of be required to illustrate the principle. Other games
Characteristics
Learning that model complex operations, like the operation of
The learning experience involves tangible a commercial bank, may have many aspects that
Concrete matters that may have real consequences must be mastered which required weeks to complete
for the learner and/or others. [17]. While both short- and long-term games have
The learning experience does not involve their applications, many instructors prefer games or
Abstract real and tangible matters and has no experiments that take a single class period to
consequences beyond the learning.
illustrate a specific concept and to develop specific
The learner actively participates in the
Active
learning situation.
behavioral characteristics.
The learner adopts the role of observer The single-period simulations and games have the
Passive advantage of being flexible in their applications as
and/or listener when learning.
The learning situation is characterized by instructors can change plans according to the needs
Primary immediacy and/or first-hand experience of the class and move the game to a different time
with respect to the matter being learned. without causing major disruptions in the class
The learning situation is characterized by schedule. When a single-period game is properly
Secondary mediacy and second-hand experience with designed, it becomes a valued tool for the instructor
respect to the matter being learned. as it provides flexibility along with educational
Source: [21] content. Zapalska and Brozik [4] have developed
market simulations and games that can be adapted to
Some researchers recommended involving a wide variety of situations ranging from simple
students in deep learning through active and barter to highly developed supply and demand driven
cooperative learning and experimentation [13]. They economies.
also endorsed games and simulations for experiential The Joint Council on Economic Education has
learning. A variety of simulations and games advocated modifying a lecture to enhance students’
ranging from simple to complex can be found for learning by using active laboratory market
most classes in today’s business and economics experiments. Simulations and games must be
college curricula. This type of instruction provides consciously constructed to have anticipated effects.
students with an effective means of learning through In the Action Game students are provided with a
experiences taken from actual situations into a learning instrument that is based on an experience
controlled learning environment. where abstract conceptualization, active
Research papers have been published that attempt experimentation, concrete experience, and reflective
to introduce experimental methods, an assessment of

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020

observation are involved to create favorable learning game” is a combination of the two techniques that
environment. uses the role-playing of a simulation for learning
The four Kolb’s learning modes provide steps to specific concepts and has a winner. The active and
structure the game so that learning from experience competitive nature of a simulation game can
and reflection takes place. In this simulation, encourage students by providing a motivation for
students are learning from concrete experience, learning. Creating a “winner” inside the context of a
actions, thinking, and reflection. Students are simulation provides a motivating factor for the
expected to develop strategies and actions. The post- players to understand the environment and be
experience stages that include reflection, debriefing, successful.
and discussion are used to reinforce their reflective
observation and to confirm their abstract 4. Abstract Conceptualization and
conceptualization. In addition, the simulation was Preliminary Steps
structured for a large group of students.
Teaching large-size classes presents real
4.1. The Goal of the Game
challenges in design, management, and assessment.
The academic faculty search for answers how to
The Auction Game is a simulation that provides
design teaching instruments that are effective and
students with the experience of planning and
provide development of life-long learning skills in
implementing strategies in a competitive auction
large-size classes [18]. Lund and Wright [19] argue
environment. The game is set so that abstract
that large-size classes have been understudied in the
conceptualizations are created so that the players
literature. The authors provided some guidelines to
recognize concepts learned in a classroom. The
assist faculty with structuring experiential and active
players are informed that they work as travel agents
learning classroom exercises.
within a twelve-agency tourism and hospitality
They recommended that faculty of large-size
industry.
classes should engage in pre-class planning
Each agency has contracts with certain hotel
(significant preparation time must be allowed),
groups and needs resources of groups contracted
proper use of course syllabus (the syllabus should
with other agencies. The activity includes an auction
help students understand the association between
as travel agents bid for hotel rooms and offer their
learning outcomes, in-class activities, and assessment
hotel rooms to be auctioned. Players make
requirements), plan on a page (preparation requires
managerial decisions to experience market structures
planning for content, process, and logistics), and
and strategic decision-making that affect commerce
keep it simple (the learning outcomes must be simple
within a simulated tourism and hospitality industry.
limited to the two or three critical items).
Students get hands-on experience that assists them in
The authors also stated that in large-size
gaining an understanding of markets in all aspects of
classrooms in-class facilitation is important as verbal
business. Students interact with team players to
explanations might not work, and written instructions
compete against other players and to receive an
are necessary. Movement in a classroom is critical.
appreciation of the pressures facing travel agencies.
In a traditional lecture hall, it can be very difficult to
obtain dynamic movements of large groups.
Debriefing is critical and might require the use of 4.2 Identify Available Resources
several instructors or graduate teaching assistants to
help. The use of specially designed assignments and The market segmentation is presented in the
feedback allows students to move through the Kolb’s Master Auction Matrix (see Table 3) where rooms in
learning cycle some hotels will either be in shortage, equilibrium,
or surplus. For example, there will be room shortages
in Fairfield Inn, Holiday Inn Express and Holiday
3. A Structural Taxonomy of Simulations Inn. Room surplus will be present in La Quinta,
and Games Days Inn, Best Inn & Suites, and Four Seasons
Hotel. Hotels such as Inter–Continental, Radisson
A “game” is structured to have a winner who can Hotels, Travelodge, and Crowne Plaza are all in
be the individual or a team that first successfully equilibrium. In this game’s set-up, players must go
finishes the requirements of the game. The game through abstract conceptualization where they must
provides a competitive setting for learning specific recall basic economic concepts they learned in class.
subject matter. In contrast, a “simulation” copies a Students will be required to discover that shortages,
portion of reality in a controlled setting and may even demand, and surpluses situations are present.
replicate the social, economic, or political processes The game begins by distributing an instruction
and interactions. Students assume active roles in the sheet that provides each travel agency with the
system and try to understand how the system information needed to define the goals that they
operates. A simulation does not have a winner since would like to achieve and to plan their overall
its focus is on situational learning. A “simulation

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020

strategy. Players are asked to examine (abstract for 150 rooms in Fairfield Inn, 400 rooms in Holiday
experimentation) the market characteristics what Inn Hotels, 150 rooms in Inter-Continental Hotel,
they need and what they will offer in an auction. 3,000 rooms in Travelodge Hotel, 400 rooms in La
They are instructed to offer rooms to be auctioned, Quinta Hotel, and 1,500 rooms in Four Seasons
and they will be bidding against other players to Hotel.
purchase the rooms they need. Each agency is A short period is allowed to answer general
presented with a supply/demand sheet. Appendix 1 questions and to review the instructions before
illustrates supply/demand sheets of twelve agencies. auction begins. Once each team has time to look
over the list of items to be auctioned and needed, the
Table 3. Master Auction Matrix auction session begins. Each team needs to
determine the value of each item, and to make the
Item Quantity Quantity Market auction trades necessary to acquire the needed goods.
Supplied Demanded Status Each player is given a budget that must be used to
Ramada 200 600 Shortage complete trading. For example, players can have a
Fairfield 600 1,000 Shortage budget of $250,000. If a player purchases $250,000
Inn worth of hotel rooms, he/she runs out of money and
Holiday
must stop bidding. The minimum bid can be set at
Inn 200 2,000 Shortage
Express $50 or $100 per set of rooms supplied from a
Holiday particular hotel to prevent excessive profiteering.
Inn 1,200 1,600 Shortage However, the prices established by the bidding can
Hotels change the players' established plans, and the players
Inter- will have to adjust rapidly. Though the simulation
Conti- 1,000 1,000 Even may at first seem complex, the experience process
nental can flow quite smoothly and with little aggravation if
Radisson 800 800 Even number of students is very large.
Hotels The instructor acts as the auctioneer. Each team
Trave- 20,000 20,000 Even in turn offers a “lot” of rooms for sale from a single
lodge
hotel chain, like “50 rooms from Days Inn”. Note
Crowne 1,600 1,600 Even
Plaza
that the size of the lot does not need to represent the
La 18,000 4,000 Surplus entire inventory. Small lots can be offered at first to
Quinta identify which are more valuable than others to
Days Inn 1,600 1,000 Surplus determine the market conditions. If the lots offered
Best Inn 800 400 Surplus are too small, there will not be enough time to
& Suites complete the auction, but there should still be time
Four enough for the students to experience the auction
Season 12,000 10,000 Surplus process. Teams in need of the offered rooms bid on
Hotel them until the top price is established. When the
auctioneer says “Sold” both the selling and buying
For large classes, those sheets can be multiplied teams adjust their cash balance and room inventory.
to meet size class demands. It is only necessary to The auctioneer must move quickly to the next offer
create names for the new agencies if the full set is in order to allow sufficient time for each agency to
replicated since there will be no change to the make several offers.
supply/demand structure of the market. If a different The bidding can proceed quickly, and this adds
number of agencies are created, it will be necessary another dimension to the problem for the individual
to review the Master Auction Matrix to determine teams. The designated bidder must receive
whether there has been a change to market structure instructions from the rest of the team concerning
and change the quantities to maintain the balance how much money can be spent. There will also be
between the different market conditions. If the focus the need for the team to pay attention to the market
is on the auction rather than market structure, no to determine which and how many rooms to offer for
changes would need to be made in the quantities sale. If the auctioneer can keep a quick pace, teams
supplied and demanded. will have to solve the problem of internal
Players have rooms to trade (representing communications. If a team is not ready with an offer
quantity supplied) and rooms needed (representing when called upon, the auctioneer skips over them
quantity demanded). For example, AAA Travel will and moves to the next team. Losing a turn can have
bring the following items to be auctioned: 40 rooms severe repercussions since the team would lose a
in Ramada Hotel, 60 rooms in Holiday-Inn Express, source of income.
120 rooms in Radisson Hotels, 240 rooms in Crowne
Plaza, 240 rooms in Days Inn Hotel, and 120 rooms
in Best Inn & Suites Hotel. The AAA agent will bid

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4.3. Determine if there will be Individual players could be identified as winners or losers by
Players or Teams determining whether or not they were able to meet
their individual needs. Players collecting all the
The number of players dictates the complexity of needed items, and maybe some extras, win over
the game. The optimal number of players is twelve players who cannot meet their basic needs. A second
students. Fewer players result in a simplified measure of individual success considers the cash
structure that prohibits some of the more interesting position of each player. Players who end up with
interactions during the game. More than twelve more cash have performed better than their
players create a situation where the market becomes competitors. The “winner” would be the team with
more dynamic, but it is possible for the players to the most cash. A third measure of the success or
grasp what is going on in the auction market. Large failure could be defined as a combination of the
classes can be broken up into teams, with each team ability of all players to meet their individual needs
developing its own strategy and dividing and amass cash; this measure offers the broadest
responsibilities among group members. There should measure of success.
only be one designated bidder on each team.
Someone should take responsibility for accounting 5.2. The Experiential Learning Environment
and management of the group.
The bidding can be carried out during one class
5. Concrete Experience, Reflective period. The length of the auction should be about
45-50 minutes, or until everyone has met their needs.
Observation, and Active Experimentation
Table 4. Auction Bid Sheet
5.1. General Rules of the Game
Round #1: Round #4:
Basic skills and jargon are reviewed before the AAA Travel AAA Travel
auction market is opened. If students are unfamiliar Sunset Travel Agency Sunset Travel Agency
Travel-with-Us Travel-with-Us
with the activities involved, time should be devoted Los Angeles Travel Agency Los Angeles Travel Agency
to brief explanation. The goal is to allow players to Continental Tours Continental Tours
undergo a concrete experience through discovery. If Western Travel Agency Western Travel Agency
the participants seem confused about all the Midwest Travel Midwest Travel
Pilgrim Tours Pilgrim Tours
complexities of the activity, they can be given some Orlando Paradise Orlando Paradise
reassurances with time for an active experimentation Las Vegas Tours Las Vegas Tours
followed by reflective observation. A large amount Rivera Travel Rivera Travel
of time should not be spent to make all the directions Pacific Tours Pacific Tours
Round #2: Round #5:
and behaviors clear. The best way to learn and AAA Travel AAA Travel
understand an educational exercise such as an Sunset Travel Agency Sunset Travel Agency
auction game is to play it and work out problems as Travel-with-Us Travel-with-Us
they arise during concrete experience. Los Angeles Travel Agency Los Angeles Travel Agency
Continental Tours Continental Tours
Players with some previous experience will find Western Travel Agency Western Travel Agency
the simulation enhances their reflection on Midwest Travel Midwest Travel
accounting and marketing skills as well as their Pilgrim Tours Pilgrim Tours
strategic management abilities as the players make Orlando Paradise Orlando Paradise
Las Vegas Tours Las Vegas Tours
decisions while actively participating in the auction. Rivera Travel Rivera Travel
Reflective observation allows students to broaden Pacific Tours Pacific Tours
their understanding of various market situations and Round #3: Round #6:
how market structures can affect students’ behavior. AAA Travel AAA Travel
For participants with little or no playing experience, Sunset Travel Agency Sunset Travel Agency
Travel-with-Us Travel-with-Us
the simulation provides practical management, Los Angeles Travel Agency Los Angeles Travel Agency
marketing, and strategic decision-making skills in a Continental Tours Continental Tours
realistic format. Western Travel Agency Western Travel Agency
Teams are given times for reflective observation Midwest Travel Midwest Travel
Pilgrim Tours Pilgrim Tours
at the end of the auction session. Once they go Orlando Paradise Orlando Paradise
through abstract conceptualization, concrete Las Vegas Tours Las Vegas Tours
experience, reflective observation, and active Rivera Travel Rivera Travel
experimentation, they must report their cash balance Pacific Tours Pacific Tours
and what rooms they have in inventory, including
rooms successfully traded and rooms not traded. The bid sheet (see Table 4) illustrates six cycles
They will be able to state that the success or failure where the auctioneer calls agencies to auction their
of each team is determined in two ways. First, rooms in the same order. For example, AAA Travel

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Office is the first agency, while Pacific Tours is the auctioning strategies change several times over the
last agency to bring rooms to auction during each during the auction period.
round of an auction. The rotation of the agencies It is irrelevant for the success of the game to
could be rotated or randomized to create additional indicate the hotel’s location, type, and numbers of
complexity. nights to be sold. This information would make the
The auctioneer has the option to record the name game more complex without adding any educational
of the buyer and the amount paid for each lot of content value. However, the complexity of the
rooms and the number of rooms auctioned. This simulation provides a basis for the players to make
information can be used to audit the players to make challenging and efficient strategic decision-making.
sure that no one overspent the allotted budget or
“created” additional rooms to be sold. 5.5. An Overall Evaluation Method
The bidding should be repeated as necessary, at
least six times, to assure enough rooms from each A debriefing session is held to review lessons
hotel are available in the market. It is the learned from the game. Debriefing might indicate
responsibility of the instructor to conduct the auction (1) the basic characteristics of an auction market, (2)
at a brisk pace. While it is expected that the first bids multiple aspects of complexity of markets, (3) how
will be slow due to players becoming accustomed to the dynamic nature of the auction market causes
the pattern of the auction, it is necessary to complete players to affect, and possibly change, their initial
a bid on an average of every 20-30 seconds. This strategic plans, (4) how the auction game helps
might sound fast, but once the auction begins it is students learn to acquire information through
possible to achieve this rate without difficulty. The listening and observation, and allows them to
speed at which the auction runs is one of the more practice information organization and evaluation
important factors in the game. skills, and (5) how the auction market functions and
the role of the auction market in the tourism and
5.3. The Roles for the Players hospitality industry.
Each group can be asked to review its initial plan
All travel agencies start the auction game with and identify any changes that may have been made to
different product mix but the same potential for that plan. Students should be expected to provide
success. Each travel agency must make strategic answers to the following questions: Did you get
decisions every bidding period concerning their everything you needed?; How did you get everything
selling, buying, budgeting, and accounting. This you needed?; What was the main obstacle in
decision-making cycle will continue over several obtaining all you needed?; What strategy or
periods of the auction until the auctioneer (the strategies did you take?; Did you observe any
instructor) stops the game and evaluates each tourist differences in results obtained when you changed
agency’s operations. It is explained to the students your strategies?; Based on the experience you gained
that the goal of the game is for each travel agency to did you develop a different strategy?; How did you
maximize its individual wealth. gather information you obtained?; What information
The winner of the game is the team that receives was needed to accomplish your task successfully?;
all the needed rooms and the highest cash balance. Did you observe any market clearing processes?; Did
Since the goal is wealth maximization, each travel you observe any market dynamics taking place while
agency is to try to get as many “rooms” as possible. completing your tasks?
All rooms brought into the market should be traded To provide answers to those questions, students
away for profit and to purchase other rooms that are can work within their groups. Some other topics
demanded. The students are not informed of the could be raised. Which topics are raised should be
underlying market conditions or the structure of a based on the instructor’s observation of the
surplus or shortage rooms in particular hotel. Any simulation? If some students have never experienced
such information could influence the participants’ an auction, some time can be used to examine the
actions and adversely affect the simulation’s nature of an auction market environment. The
educational value. follow-up discussion should demonstrate how well
students understand the structures and forces of the
5.4. Transactions and Rules auction. The debriefing session might focus on
students’ strategies and the results of their strategies
Students do not know the optimum strategy at the and a discussion about how the players gathered and
begging of the auction, since the players’ interactions processed information during the auction. The
in the auction will establish their playing strategies. players can also be expected to recognize the need
This dynamic aspect requires players to modify their for accurate accounting, the value and the role of
strategies to meet evolving auction conditions. market information, and information control
Students’ strategies and plans are not to be submitted techniques.
to the instructor prior to the auction, since the

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It is recommended that auction be repeated twice continuing to bid up the price in the expectation that
until players develop the ability to adapt rapidly to the other bidder will reciprocate by not bidding up
changing market structures. Once the players have the price on some other item to be sold later.
become accustomed to the interaction, team decision Students may also find that bidders have more
making, and the auction experience, it is easy to difficulty in carrying out their schemes if bidding is
introduce changes to the market structure that conducted by collusion. In many cases, they may be
illustrate different aspects of market’s behavior and able to cheat on their supposed conspirators by
information processing. After the game is completed secretly undercutting their bids. By observing this
and the lessons are learned the instructor can write a behavior, students see the role and value of ethics in
teaching timeline. Table 5 provides a Teaching markets.
Timeline for the Auction Game. The auctioneer must work to create an
atmosphere of excitement and competition among
Table 5. Timeline of the Action Game the bidders. Sometimes bidders seem to become too
excited in their bidding and bid more than they had
1. Divide class into teams. There should be twelve initially planned. Sometimes bidders think that they
teams with 2-3 members each. can scare off the competition by increasing the bid
2. Have teams sit together in specified locations.
suddenly by a large amount. A bidder may make a
3. Distribute a trading sheet to each team. Table 2
presents all twelve individual trading sheets.
bid dramatically larger than previous bids hoping
4. Ask each team to determine and assign the that other bidders do not have time to reconsider
various roles of the team members and the their valuations before the rooms are sold. Students
strategy the team will use in the auction. learn that these things happen in real auctions
5. Instruct teams to prepare the accounting system because information is available to everyone. While
and the forms to keep track of their sales and participating in an auction, students learn that people
purchases and the amounts paid for those are not entirely confident of their own judgment of
auctioning transactions. the object’s value that is for sale. Seeing that
6. Identify the bidder for each team.
someone else is eager to buy may make a bidder
7. Begin the auction. Use the Bid Sheet (Table 3)
to establish the sequence for auctioning
raise his own estimate of the value’s object.
goods and to record the price and quantity The most important part of any game is reviewing
supplied of each item. The auction should the lessons learned from the game. This is where the
last about 45-50 minutes, with at least 5-6 participants’ experiences are transformed into
repetitions of the Bid Sheet. education. Merely “playing a game” in a classroom
8. Determine each team’s room inventories and the is not sufficient, and there must be a review that
cash balances. reinforces the game’s goals. This is also the most
9. Conduct a debriefing session to discuss items difficult aspect of any game, since it is quite possible
like market behavior, market strategy, price
that things occurred during the game were not
discovery, and budget control. Discuss the
usability of the accounting forms each team
anticipated. The instructor must be aware of
had prepared. Discussion can be provided everything that is happening during the game, even
prior to the auction if students have no the unplanned events, and be able to translate all the
accounting background. The debriefing activity into an appropriate set of lessons learned.
session can also be used to focus on those The debriefing session is characterized by student
aspects of the auction market that the participation. This review is the actual goal of any
instructor wishes to highlight. game, getting students involved in and responsible
for their own education. In the past, when the
The instructor should provide handouts to each instructor asked properly chosen questions, students
student prior to the experiment. The handout should raised their hands and wanted to tell of their
include the basic description of the game, the rules, experiences and observations. Students were able to
and the roles of the. Too much information will limit identify the major characteristics of the auction
the effectiveness of learning where discovery, market and the problems that existed within the
exploration, and reflection are required for learning market. Students often presented observations
and the development of life-long learning skill such concerning the market or the processes within the
as critical thinking. non-auction market that were not anticipated by the
instructor. Such situations are why the instructor
6. Reflective Experimentation - Lessons needs to have a wide enough background and a deep
Learned and the Debriefing Session enough understanding of the simulation’s structure to
identify how these observations fit into the
Several lessons can be learned after replaying the simulation.
simulation. For example, students may learn that Students frame concepts with familiar examples
there are interesting possibilities for collusion. A during the debriefing session. Basic concepts that
bidder may decide to help a rival bidder by not they are supposed to practice and learn become more

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020

meaningful when the students are able to link them acceptance of new concepts, and generates increased
with their own experiences. Practice and experience student interest, enthusiasm, and motivation.
help students reinforce material learned. As students Students’ comments show that simulations and
undertake active, effective, and systematic games work because the exercises can be structured
information gathering, theories no longer become and allow students to become an important element
abstract concepts that are merely memorized. of the learning process.
The review of the trading session and the lessons The Auction Game shows how games and
learned should touch on accounting and information simulations game be used and modified to
processing. Market behavior, strategies, and ethics accommodate both small and large classes. The
may also be appropriate discussion topics. The effectiveness of students’ learning is not
success of the individual teams should open the compromised because in a large class. Faculty
discussion about how the team gathered and members who use games and simulations in a large
processed information. At this point the discussion classroom can deliberately structure the experience
can turn to the roles of each member within the team. so that each player is fully engaged in the learning
The use of a central bookkeeper who maintains process.
the records while other team members are involved Active and experiential learning is based on the
in bidding and whether individual team member deliberate set-up of the exercises to accommodate
should specialize in given commodities or be large-size classrooms. Putting students in groups in
allowed to auction the entire portfolio of assets are a large classroom is a quick solution to the problem,
worthwhile topics for this discussion. All but specific tasks must be developed by the
participants should be drawn into discussion. It is instructor to make sure that all students are active.
necessary that all players recognize their roles in the The Auction Game is structured so that there are
market. This opportunity to relate the world of the many different roles that student can play, and so
simulation to the real world is the payoff of the entire every student can be active. This idea of broad-
exercise. The shared experience of the exercise based activity is crucial to using any game or
forms a touchstone that can be used in other class simulation in a large class setting.
sessions to illustrate other lessons and give them a
personal context for the student. 8. References

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experiential learning: Five approaches that work. Lanham,
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games have a strong impact on students because Experiential Learning: Enhancing the Process, Simulation
role-playing facilitates active learning, permits the

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020

Games and Experiential Learning in Action. Richards H.

Buskirk (ed), pp. 325-336.

[10] Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as

the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood
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[11] Fry, H., Ketteridge, S., and S. Marshall. (Eds). (2009).

A handbook for teaching and learning in higher education:
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[12] Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K., (2008). A

Guide to Teaching Practice, 5th ed., Routledge, Abingdon.

[13] Johnson, D. and Johnson, R., (2008). Social

Interdependence Theory and Cooperative Learning: The
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[14] Becker, E. and M. Watts. (1995). Teaching Tools:

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[15] Baker, A., Jensen, P. and D.A. Kolb. (2002).

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[16] Wells, D. (1991). Laboratory Experiments for

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[17] Moon J. (2004). A Handbook of Reflective and

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[18] Broadbent, J., Panadero, E., and D. Boud. (2018).

Implementing Summative Assessment with a Formative
Flavour: A Case Study in a Large Class, Assessment &
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[19] Lund D. K., and S. Wright. (2017). Embedding

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[20] McLeod, S.A. (2010). Kolb Learning Styles:

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[21] Bergsteiner, H., and Avery, G.C., (2014). The twin-

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020

Appendix 1. All Individual Trading Sheets

AAA Travel Sunset Travel Agency

Rooms Available Rooms Needed Rooms Available Rooms Needed
Ramada 40 Fairfield Inn 150 Ramada 30 Fairfield Inn 150
Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn
60 400 120 200
Express Hotels Hotels Express
Radisson Inter- Inter- Radisson
120 150 250 160
Hotels Continental Continental Hotels
Crowne Plaza 240 Travelodge 3,000 Crowne Plaza 240 Travelodge 3,000
Days Inn 240 La Quinta 400 Days Inn 240 La Quinta 400
Best Inn & Four Seasons 1,500 Four Seasons Best Inn &
120 3,000 60
Suites Hotel Hotel Suites

Travel-with-Us Los Angeles Travel Agency

Rooms Available Rooms Needed Rooms Available Rooms Needed
Ramada 40 Fairfield Inn 150 Fairfield Inn 30 Ramada 90
Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn
60 400 120 200
Express Hotels Hotels Express
Inter- Inter- Radisson
Radisson Hotels 120 150 250 120
Continental Continental Hotels
Travelodge 240 Crowne Plaza 3,000 Crowne Plaza 240 Travelodge 2,000
La Quinta 240 Days Inn 400 La Quinta 240 Days Inn 300
Four Seasons Best Inn & 1,500 Best Inn & Four Seasons
120 3,000 1,500
Hotel Suites Suites Hotel

Continental Tours Western Travel Agency

Rooms Available Rooms Needed Rooms Available Rooms Needed
Fairfield Inn 90 Ramada 90 Fairfield Inn 90 Ramada 120
Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn
180 300 180 300
Hotels Express Hotels Express
Radisson Inter- Inter- Radisson
160 250 100 120
Hotels Continental Continental Hotels
Travelodge 5,000 Crowne Plaza 480 Crowne Plaza 160 Travelodge 2,000
Days Inn 160 La Quinta 300 Days Inn 160 La Quinta 600
Best Inn & Four Seasons Four Seasons Best Inn &
120 2,000 1,200 60
Suites Hotel Hotel Suites

Midwest Travel Pilgrim Tours

Rooms Available Rooms Needed Rooms Available Rooms Needed
Ramada 40 Fairfield Inn 150 Ramada 30 Fairfield Inn 150
Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn
60 400 120 200
Express Hotels Hotels Express
Radisson Inter- Inter- Radisson
120 150 250 160
Hotels Continental Continental Hotels
Crowne Plaza 240 Travelodge 3,000 Crowne Plaza 240 Travelodge 3,000
Days Inn 240 La Quinta 400 Days Inn 240 La Quinta 400

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Copyright © 2020, Infonomics Society
International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 11, Issue 2, 2020

Best Inn & Four Seasons 1,500 Four Seasons Best Inn &
120 3,000 60
Suites Hotel Hotel Suites

Orlando Paradise Las Vegas Tours

Rooms Available Rooms Needed Rooms Available Rooms Needed
Ramada 30 Fairfield Inn 200 Fairfield Inn 120 Ramada 90
Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn
40 400 120 200
Express Hotels Hotels Express
Radisson Inter- Inter- Radisson
120 100 15 120
Hotels Continental Continental Hotels
Travelodge 5,000 Crowne Plaza 320 Crowne Plaza 160 Travelodge 2.000
La Quinta 4,500 Days Inn 200 La Quinta 4,500 Days Inn 300
Four Seasons Best Inn & Best Inn & Four Seasons
1,800 80 160 1,500
Hotel Suites Suites Hotel

Riviera Travel Pacific Tours

Rooms Available Rooms Needed Rooms Available Rooms Needed
Fairfield
Fairfield Inn 90 Ramada 90 90 Ramada 120
Inn
Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn Holiday Inn
180 300 180 300
Hotels Express Hotels Express
Radisson Inter- Inter- Radisson
160 250 100 120
Hotels Continental Continental Hotels
Crowne
Travelodge 5,000 Crowne Plaza 480 160 Travelodge 2,000
Plaza
Days Inn 160 La Quinta 600 Days Inn 160 La Quinta 600
Four
Best Inn & Four Seasons Best Inn &
120 2,000 Seasons 1,200 60
Suites Hotel Suites
Hotel

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Copyright © 2020, Infonomics Society